TH Galperin Styl s

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. Introduction1. General Notes on Style and Stylistics . . 7 ............ 92. Expressive Means (EM) and Stylistic Devices (SD) .......... 2!. General Notes on "unctional Styles o# $an%ua%e ...... &. . . . !2

'. arieties o# $an%ua%e t ................... !. * +rie# ,utline o# t-e Developent o# t-e En%lis- $iterary (Standard)$an%ua%e t / t 0 t ......................... '1. Meanin% #ro a Stylistic oint o# ie3 .............. 7art II. Stylistic 4lassi#ication o# t-e En%lis- oca5ulary1. General 4onsiderations 6 t .................... 72. Neutral8 4oon $iterary and 4oon 4ollouial oca5ulary ... 72!. Special $iterary oca5ulary t .................. 7a) :ers .. t .t .....; < .=r ............... 7

5) oetic and >i%-ly $iterary ?ords .............. 79c) *rc-aic8 ,5solescent and ,5solete ?ords ............ @!d) +ar5ariss and "orei%niss .................. @7e) $iterary 4oina%es (Includin% Nonce=?ords) ........... 92'. Special 4ollouial oca5ulary .................. 1'a) Slan% t 8 t ........................ 1'

5) Aar%oniss 8 / 8 ........................ 19c) ro#essionaliss 8 t 8 t .................... 11!d) Dialectal ?ords it t =. .0 ................... 11e) ul%ar ?ords or ul%ariss ............ .


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Interections and Exclaatory ?ords ............... 1':-e Epit-et 888/....................... 17,xyoron 6H. H H ....................... 12'. Interaction o# $o%ical and Noinal Meanin%s ........... 1'*ntonoasia ........................... 1'

4. Intensi#ication o# a 4ertain "eature o# a :-in% or -enoenon ...... 1& Siile ............................... 178 J 0erip-rasis .I.....&..............&...=..... 19KLL& Eup-eis ............................. 17!>yper5ole .............................. 17D. eculiar se o# Set Expressions .................... 177:-e 4lic-e .............................. 177rover5s and Sayin%s .. ; ....................... 1@1Epi%ras .............................. 1@'Ouotations ............................. 1@

*llusions .............................. [email protected] o# Set -rases .................... 1@9H art . Syntactical Expressive Means and Stylistic DevicesGeneral 4onsiderations .......................... &191P ro5les 4oncernin% t-e 4oposition o# Spans o# tterance $ar%er t-an t-eSentence .............................. 19!Supra=-rasal nits ......................... 19':-e ara%rap- ........................... 19@4. 4opositional atterns o# Syntactical *rran%eent .......... 22

Stylistic Inversion .......................... 2!J Detac-ed 4onstruction ....................... 2arallel 4onstruction ........................ 2@Q4-iasus (Beversed arallel 4onstruction) .............. 29Bepetition ............................. 211Enueration . . . ......................... 21Suspense. . ....... . ..................... 21@4liax (Gradation) ... < ...................... 219*ntit-esis .............................. 222D. articular ?ays o# 4o5inin% arts o# t-e tterance ($inRa%e) . . . . C 22

8 *syndeton ............................. 22olysyndeton . 6 .=8=......................... 22:-e Gap=Sentence =$inR . .0. .................... 227E. articular se o# 4ollouial 4onstructions .............. 2!EllipsisL. .............................. 2!1+reaR=in=t-e=Narrative(*posiopesis) .................. 2!!Ouestion=in=t-e=Narrative . . . ................... 2!Bepresented Speec- ......................... 2!


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a) ttered Bepresented Speec- ................... 2!@5) nuttered or Inner Bepresented Speec- ............. 2'1". Stylistic se o# Structural Meanin% ................. 2''B-etorical Ouestions / / . . ................... 2''$itotes ...............................

art I. "unctional Styles o# t-e En%lis- $an%ua%eIntroductory BearRs ......................... 2'9*. :-e 5elles=lettres Style ....................... 21. $an%ua%e o# oetry ........................ 22a) 4opositional atterns o# B-yt-ical *rran%eent ........ 22Meter and $ine .8 8J ..................... 22:-e Stana ...... T. .................... 2@"ree erse and *ccented erse &. ................ 21

5) $exical and Syntactical "eatures o# erse ............ 2'2. Eotive rose .......................... 27

!. $an%ua%e o# t-e Draa .................... 2@1 u5licists Style ........................... 2@71 ,ratory and Speec-es 0 ...................... 2@@2. :-e Essay ............................ 29!!. Aournalistic *rticles ........................ 29U Ne3spaper Style (3ritten 5y . $. Nayer) .............. 291. +rie# Ne3s Ites ........................ 29@2. *dvertiseents and *nnounceents ................ !1!.& :-e >eadline ........................... !2

' :-e Editorial ........................... !D Scienti#ic rose Style ......................... !7E. :-e Style o# ,##icial Docuents ................... !12"inal BearRs ............/................. !19


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PART I INTRODUCTION

I. GENERAL NOTES ON STYLE AND Stylistics

Stylistics, sometimes called lingvo-stylistics8 is a 5ranc- o# %eneral lin%uistics. It -asno3 5een ore or less de#initely outlined. It deals ainly 3it- t3o interdependenttasRs; a) t-e investi%ation o# t-e inventory o# special lan%ua%e edia 3-ic- 5y t-eirontolo%ical #eatures secure t-e desira5le e##ect o# t-e utterance and 5) certain types o#texts (discourse) 3-ic- due to t-e c-oice and arran%eent o# lan%ua%e eans aredistin%uis-ed 5y t-e pra%atic aspect o# t-e counication. :-e t3o o5ectives o#stylistics are clearly discerni5le as t3o separate #ields o# investi%ation. :-e inventoryo# special lan%ua%e edia can 5e analyed and t-eir ontolo%ical #eatures revealed i#

presented in a syste in 3-ic- t-e co=relation 5et3een t-e edia 5ecoes evident.:-e types o# texts can 5e analyed i# t-eir lin%uistic coponents are presented in t-eirinteraction8 t-us revealin% t-e un5reaRa5le unity and transparency o# constructions o#

a %iven type. The types of texts that are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect ofthe communication are called functional styles of language (FS); the specialmedia of language which secure the desirable effect of the utterance are called

stylistic devices (S) and expressive means (!")# $ # #

:-e #irst #ield o# investi%ation8 i.e. SDs and EMs8 necessarily touc-es upon suc-%eneral lan%ua%e pro5les as t-e aest-etic #unction o# lan%ua%e8 synonyous 3ays o#renderin% one and t-e sae idea8 eotional colourin% in lan%ua%e8 t-e interrelation

5et3een lan%ua%e and t-ou%-t8 t-e individual anner o# an aut-or in aRin% use o#lan%ua%e and a nu5er o# ot-er issues.:-e second #ield8 i.e. #unctional styles8 cannot avoid discussion o# suc- ost %enerallin%uistic issues as oral and 3ritten varieties o# lan%ua%e8 t-e notion o# t-e literary(standard) lan%ua%e8 t-e constituents o# texts lar%er t-an t-e sentence8 t-e %enerativeaspect o# literary texts8 and soe ot-ers.In dealin% 3it- t-e o5ectives o# stylistics8 certain pronounceents o# adacentdisciplines suc- as t-eory o# in#oration8 literature8 psyc-olo%y8 lo%ic and to soeextent statistics ust 5e touc-ed upon. :-is is indispensa5leC #or no3adays no scienceis entirely isolated #ro ot-er doains o# -uan Rno3led%eC and lin%uistics8

particularly its 5ranc- stylistics8 cannot avoid re#erences to t-e a5ove entioned dis=ciplines 5ecause it is con#ronted 3it- certain overlappin% issues.

:-e 5ranc-in% o## o# stylistics in lan%ua%e science 3as indirectly t-e result o# a lon%=esta5lis-ed tendency o# %raarians to con#ine t-eir investi%ations to sentences8clauses and 3ord=co5inations 3-ic- are L3ell=#oredL8 to use a du5ious ter8ne%lectin% anyt-in% t-at did not #all under t-e reco%nied and received standards. :-istendency 5ecae particularly stron% in 3-at is called descriptive lin%uistics. :-e%enerative %raars8 3-ic- appeared as a reaction a%ainst descriptive lin%uistics8-ave con#ired t-at t-e tasR o# any %raar is to liit t-e scope o# investi%ation o#lan%ua%e data to sentences 3-ic- are considered 3ell=#ored. Everyt-in% t-at #ails to


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eet t-is reuireent s-ould 5e excluded #ro lin%uistics.+ut lan%ua%e studies cannot avoid su5ectin% to o5servation any lan%ua%e data3-atever8 so 3-ere %raar re#uses to tread stylistics steps in. Stylistics -as acuiredits o3n status 3it- its o3n inventory o# tools (SDs and EMs)8 3it- its o3n o5ect o#investi%ation and 3it- its o3n et-ods o# researc-.

:-e stylistics o# a -i%-ly developed lan%ua%e liRe En%lis- or Bussian -as 5rou%-t intot-e science o# lan%ua%e a separate 5ody o# edia8 t-us 3idenin% t-e ran%e o#o5servation o# p-enoena in lan%ua%e. :-e si%ni#icance o# t-is 5ranc- o# lin%uisticscan -ardly 5e over=estiated. * nu5er o# events in t-e developent o# stylisticsust 5e entioned -ere as landarRs. :-e #irst is t-e discussion o# t-e pro5le o#style and stylistics in LVWXVYZ [\Z]V\^_^`[L in 19'8 in 3-ic- any iportant%eneral and particular pro5les 3ere 5roadly analyed and soe o5scure aspectselucidated. Secondly8 a con#erence on Style in $an%ua%e 3as -eld at Indiananiversity in t-e sprin% o# 19@8 #ollo3ed 5y t-e pu5lication o# t-e proceedin%s o#t-is con#erence (19) under t-e editors-ip o# :-oas Se5eoR. $iRe t-e discussion in

LVWXVYZ [\Z]V\^_^`[L t-is con#erence revealed t-e existence o# uite diver%entpoints o# vie3 -eld 5y di##erent students o#=lan%ua%e and literature. :-irdly8 a con=#erence on style and stylistics 3as -eld in t-e Mosco3 State eda%o%ical Institute o#"orei%n $an%ua%esL in Marc- 199. *t t-is con#erence lines 3ere dra3n alon% 3-ic-studies in lin%vo=stylistics i%-t 5e aintained. *n interestin% syposiu 3as also-eld in Italy8 t-e proceedin%s o# 3-ic- 3ere pu5lis-ed under t-e editors-ip o#

pro#essor S. 4-at an in 1971.* %reat nu5er o# ono%rap-s8 text5ooRs8 articles8 and dissertation papers are no3 att-e disposal o# a sc-olar in stylistics. :-e strea o# in#oration %ro3s lar%er every

ont-. :3o *erican ournals appear re%ularly8 3-ic- ay Reep t-e studentin#ored as to trends in t-e t-eory o# stylistics. :-ey are Style issued at t-e *rRansasniversity (.S.*.) and $an%ua%e and Style pu5lis-ed in Sout-ern Illinois niversity(.S.*.) (See also t-e 5i5lio%rap-y on p. !2').It is in vie3 o# t-e ever=%ro3in% si%ni#icance o# t-e exploration o# lan%ua%e

potentialities t-at so uc- attention is paid in lin%vo=stylistics to t-e analysis o#expressive eans (EMs) and stylistic devices (SDs)8 to t-eir nature and #unctions8 tot-eir classi#ication and to possi5le interpretations o# additional eanin%s t-ey aycarry in a essa%e as 3ell as t-eir aest-etic value.In order to ascertain t-e 5orders o# stylistics it is necessary to %o at soe len%t- into

t-e uestion o# 3-at is style.:-e 3ord s t I e is derived #ro t-e $atin 3ord &stylus& 3-ic- eant a s-ort sticRs-arp at one end and #lat at t-e ot-er used 5y t-e Boans #or 3ritin% on 3ax ta5lets.

No3 t-e 3ord &style1 is used in so any senses t-at it -as 5ecoe a 5reedin%%round #or a5i%uity. :-e 3ord is applied to t-e teac-in% o# -o3 to 3rite acoposition (see 5elo3)C it is also used to reveal t-e correspondence 5et3een t-ou%-tand expressionC it #reuently denotes an individual anner o# aRin% use o# lan=%ua%eC it soeties re#ers to ore %eneral8 a5stract notions t-us inevita5ly 5ecoin%


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va%ue and o5scure8 as8 #or exaple8 LStyle is t-e an -isel#L (+u##on)8 LStyle isdept-L (Der5ys-ire)C/ LStyle is deviationsL (EnRvist)C LStyle is c-oiceL8 and t-e liRe.*ll t-ese ideas directly or indirectly 5ear on issues in stylistics. Soe o# t-e 5ecoevery use#ul 5y revealin% t-e sprin%s 3-ic- aRe our utterances ep-atic8 e##ectiveand %oal=directed. It 3ill t-ere#ore not coe aiss to uote certain interestin%

o5servations re%ardin% style ade 5y di##erent 3riters #ro di##erent an%les. Soe o#t-ese o5servations are dressed up as epi%ras or sententious axis liRe t-e onesuoted a5ove. >ere are soe ore o# t-e.LStyle is a uality o# lan%ua%e 3-ic- counicates precisely eotions or t-ou%-ts8or a syste o# eotions or t-ou%-ts8 peculiar to t-e aut-or.L (A. Middleton Murry)L... a true idiosyncrasy o# style is t-e result o# an aut-or&s success in copellin%lan%ua%e to con#or to -is ode o# experience.L (A. Middleton Murry)LStyle is a contextually .restricted lin%uistic variation.L (EnRvist) LStyle is a selectiono# non=distinctive #eatures o# lan%ua%e.L ($. +loo=#ield)LStyle is siply synonyous 3it- #or or expression and -ence a super#luous ter.L

(+enedetto 4roce)LStyle is essentially a citation process8 a 5ody o# #orulae8 a eory (alost in t-ecy5ernetic sense o# t-e 3ord)8 a cultural and not an expressive in-eritance.L (Boland+art-es) JL = . /bSoe lin%uists consider t-at t-e 3ord &style& and t-e su5ect o# lin%uistic stylistics iscon#ined to t-e study o# t-e e##ects o# t-e essa%e8 i.e. its ipact on t-e reader. :-usMic-ael Bi##aterre 3rites t-at LStylistics 3ill 5e a lin%uistics o# t-e e##ects o# t-eessa%e8 o# t-e output o# t-e act o# counication8 o# its attention=copellin%#unctionL.1 :-is point o# vie3 -as clearly 5een reac-ed under t-e in#luence o# recent

developents in t-e %eneral t-eory o# in#oration. $an%ua%e8 5ein% one o# t-e eanso# counication or8 to 5e exact8 t-e ost iportant eans o# counication8 isre%arded in t-e a5ove uotation #ro a pra%atic point o# vie3. Stylistics in t-at caseis re%arded as a lan%ua%e science 3-ic- deals 3it- t-e results o# t-e act o#counication:o a very considera5le de%ree t-is is true. Stylistics ust taRe into consideration t-eLoutput o# t-e act o# counicationL. +ut stylistics ust also investi%ate t-eontolo%ical8 i.e. natural8 in-erent8 and #unctional peculiarities o# t-e eans o#counication 3-ic- ay ensure t-e e##ect sou%-t.*rc-i5ald *. >ill states t-at L* current de#inition o# style and stylistics is t-at

structures8 seuences8 and patterns 3-ic- extend8 or ay extend8 5eyond t-e5oundaries o# individual sentences de#ine style8 and t-at t-e study o# t-e isstylistics.L1:-e trut- o# t-is approac- to style and stylistics lies in t-e #act t-at t-e aut-orconcentrates on suc-= p-enoena in lan%ua%e as present a syste8 in ot-er 3ords8 on#acts 3-ic- are not con#ined to individual use.:-e ost #reuent de#inition o# style is one expressed 5y Seyour 4-atan; LStyle isa product o# individual c-oices and patterns o# c-oices (ep-asis added) aon%


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lin%uistic possi5ilities.L2:-is de#inition indirectly deals 3it- t-e idiosyncrasies peculiar to a %iven 3riter.Soe-o3 it #ails to e5race suc- p-enoena in text structure 3-ere t-e &individual&is reduced to t-e iniu or even done a3ay 3it- entirely (%ivin% pre#erence to non=individualistic #ors in usin% lan%ua%e eans). >o3ever8 t-is de#inition is accepta5le

3-en applied to t-e 3ays en=o#=letters use lan%ua%e 3-en t-ey seeR to aRe itcon#or to t-eir iediate ais and purport. * soe3-at 5roader vie3 o# style isexpressed 5y ?erner ?inter 3-o aintains t-at L* style ay 5e said to 5ec-aracteried 5y a pattern o# recurrent selections #ro t-e inventory o# optional#eatures o# a lan%ua%e. arious types o# selection can 5e #ound; coplete exclusion o#an optional eleent8 o5li%atory inclusion o# a #eature optional else3-ere8 varyin%de%rees o# inclusion o# a speci#ic variant 3it-out coplete eliination o# copetin%#eatures.L!:-e idea o# taRin% various types o# selection as criteria #or distin%uis-in% styles seesto 5e a sound one. It places t-e 3-ole pro5le on a solid #oundation o# o5ective=

criteria8 naely8 t-e interdependence o# optional and o5li%atory #eatures.:-ere is no point in uotin% ot-er de#initions o# style. :-ey are too any and too-etero%eneous to #all under one ore or less satis#actory uni#ied notion. ndou5tedlyall t-ese diversities in t-e understandin% o# t-e 3ord &style& ste #ro its a5i%uity.+ut still all t-ese various de#initions leave ipression t-at 5y and lar%e t-ey all -avesoet-in% in coon. *ll o# t-e' point to soe inte%ral si%ni#icance8 naely8 thatstyle is a set of characteristics by which we distinguish one author from another

or members of one subclass from members of other subclasses, all of which are

members-of the same general class.' ?-at are t-ese sets o# c-aracteristics typical o#

a 3riter or o# a su5class o# t-e literary lan%ua%e 3ill 5e seen in t-e analysis o# t-elan%ua%e eans o# a craven 3riter and o# t-e su5classes o# t-e %eneral literarystandard.*not-er point t-e a5ove uotations -ave in commonis t-at all o# t-e concentrateon t-e #or o# t-e expression alost to t-e detrient o# t-e content. In ot-er 3ords8style is regarded as something that belongs exclusively to the plane of expression

and not to the plane $of content# l :-is opinion predoinantly deals 3it- t-ecorrespondence 5et3een t-e intention o# t-e 3riter 3-oever -e ay 5ea an o#letters8 t-e 3riter o# a diploatic docuent8 an article in a ne3spaper8 or a scienti#ictreatiseand t-e e##ect ac-ieved. :-e evaluation is also 5ased on 3-et-er t-e c-oice

o# lan%ua%e eans con#ors 3it- t-e ost %eneral pattern o# t-e %iven type o# texta novel8 a poe8 a letter8 a docuent8 an article8 an essay and so on.It #ollo3s t-en t-at t-e ter &style&8 5ein% a5i%uous8 needs a restrictin% adective todenote 3-at particular aspect o# style 3e intend to deal 3it-. It is su%%ested -ere t-att-e ter individual style s-ould 5e applied to t-at sp-ere o# lin%uistic and literaryscience 3-ic- deals 3it- t-e peculiarities o# a 3riter&s individual anner o# usin% lan=%ua%e eans to ac-ieve t-e e##ect -e desires. Deli5erate c-oice ust 5e distin%uis-ed#ro a -a5itual idiosyncrasy in t-e use o# lan%ua%e units&every individual -as -is o3n


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anner and -a5its o# usin% t-e. :-e speec- o# an individual 3-ic- is c-aracteried5y peculiarities typical o# t-at particular individual is called an I d i V I e Y t. :-eidiolect s-ould 5e distin%uis-ed #ro 3-at 3e call8 individual style8 inasuc- as t-e3ord &style& presupposes a deli5erate c-oice.?-en +u##on coined -is #aous sayin% 3-ic-8 due to its epi%raatical #or8

5ecae a 5y=3ord all over t-e 3orld8 -e -ad in ind t-e idiolect8 i.e. t-ose ualitieso# speec- 3-ic- are in-erent and 3-ic- reveal a an&s 5reedin%8 education8 socialstandin%8 etc. *ll t-ese #actors are8 -o3ever8 undou5tedly inter3oven 3it- individualstyle. * an&s 5reedin% and education 3ill al3ays a##ect -is turn o# ind andt-ere#ore 3ill naturally 5e revealed in -is speec- and 3ritin%. %ut a writer with agenuine individual style will as much as possible avoid those language

peculiarities which point to his breeding and education in order to leave room for

that deliberate choice of language means which will secure the effect sought#

&t follows then that the individual style of a writer is mar'ed by its uniueness# &t

can be recognied by the specific and peculiar combination of language media

and stylistic devices which in their interaction present a certain system# Thissystem derives its origin from the creative spirit, and elusive though it may seem,

it can nevertheless be ascertained# *aturally, the individual style of a writer will

never be entirely independent of the literary norms and canons of the given

period# +hen we read novels by Swift or Fielding we can easily detect features

common to both writers# These features are conditioned by the general

1 In lin%uistics t-ere are t3o ters no3 %enerally reco%nied and 3idely used lan of expression and plan of content literary canons o# t-e period and cannott-ere#ore 5e ne%lected. +ut t-e adaptations o# t-ese canons 3ill al3ays 5e peculiar

and t-ere#ore distin%uis-a5le. *lexander +loR said t-at t-e style o# a 3riter is soclosely connected 3it- t-e content o# -is soul8 t-at t-e experienced eye can see t-esoul t-rou%- -is style8 and 5y studyin% t-e #or penetrate to t-e dept- o# t-e content.1:-e idea o# t-is su5tle rearR can 5e interpreted in t-e #ollo3in% 3ay; the style ofa writer can be ascertained only by analysis of the form, i#e# language media# To

analye the form in order to discover the idiosyncrasies of a writer$s style is not

an easy, but a rewarding tas'# pproaches to components of individuality such as

.) composition of larger-than-the sentence units (see p# ./0), 1) rhythm and

melody of utterances, 0) system of imagery, 2) preferences for definite stylistic

devices and their co-relation with neutral language media, 3) interdependence of

the language media employed by the author and the media characteristic of thepersonages, are indispensable#

:-e lan%ua%e o# a 3riter is soeties re%arded as alien to lin%vo=stylistics. >ere is3-at . M. FirunsRy 3rites; L:-e lan%ua%e o# a 3riter can -ardly 5e considered ano5ect o# lin%vo=stylistics. I# analyed outside t-e pro5le o# style (t-e style o# t-e3orR8 t-e 3riter8 t-e literary trend or t-e literary era)8 t-e lan%ua%e #alls into a ass o#3ords8 collocations and %raatical #acts8 3-ic- taRen in isolation 3ill serve as 5utunrelia5le evidence as to t-e li#e o# t-e %iven lan%ua%e in t-e %iven period o# its


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developent.L 2>o3ever8 o5servations o# t-e 3ays lan%ua%e eans are eployed 5y di##erent 3riters8

provided no clai is ade to de#inin% t-e individual style as a 3-ole8 ay %reatlycontri5ute to t-e investi%ation o# t-e ontolo%ical nature o# t-ese eans 5y t-ro3in%li%-t on t-eir potentialities and 3ays o# #unctionin%. The individuality of a writer$s

style is shown in a peculiar treatment of language means# -In t-is connection it is 3ort- re#errin% to "lau5ert&s notion on style. >e considersstyle8 a it 3ere8 non=personal8 its erits 5ein% dependent on t-e po3er o# t-ou%-tand on t-e acuteness o# t-e 3riter&s perceptions.! :-e sae idea8 only sli%-tlyodi#ied8 is expressed 5y A. Middleton Murry 3-o said t-at L* true style ust 5euniue8 i# 3e understand 5y t-e p-rase &a true style& a copletely adeuate expressionin lan%ua%e o# a 3riter&s ode o# #eelin%.L

In discussin% t-e pro5le o# individual style let us aRe it clear #ro t-e outsett-at t-e pro5le itsel# is coon %round #or literature and lin%uistics. >o3ever8 in asuc- as lan%ua%e is t-e only edia to accoodate poetic essa%es8 it is necessary

to %o at soe len%t- into t-e doain o# individual style8 it 5ein% t-e testin% %round #orlan%ua%e eans.The individual style of an author is freuently identified with the general,

generic term $style$# %ut as has already been pointed out, style is a much broader

notion# The individual style of an author is only one of the applications of the

general term $style$# The analysis of an author$s language seems to be the most

important procedure in estimating his individual style# This is obvious not only

because language is the only means available to convey the author$s ideas to the

reader in precisely the way he intends, but also because writers unwittingly

contribute greatly to establishing the norms of the literary language of a givenperiod# &n order to compel the language to serve his purpose, the writer draws on

its potential resources in a way different from what we see in ordinary speech#

:-is peculiarity in t-e anner o# usin% lan%ua%e eans in poetry and eotive prose-as %iven rise to t-e notion o# S t I e as Deviance.1 Most illustrative o# t-is tendencyis Geor%e Saints5ury&s stateent ade as #ar 5acR as 1@9; LIt is in t-e 5reac- orne%lect o# t-e rules t-at %overn t-e structure o# clauses8 sentences8 and para%rap-s t-att-e real secret o# style consists...L2:-e sae idea is expressed 5y G. andryes8 one o# t-e proinent lin%uists o# today83-o states t-at L:-e 5elles=lettres style is al3ays a reaction a%ainst t-e coon

lan%ua%eC to soe extent it is a ar%on8 a literary ar%on8 3-ic- ay -ave varieties.L!:-e idea -as a lon% -istory. In t-e 192s t-ere arose a trend 3-ic- 3as naed#oralis in literature and 3-ic- -as crucial relevance to present=day endeavors toanalye t-e role o# #or in e5odyin% atter. Several literary critics representative o#t-is sc-ool as 3ell as a nu5er o# 3riters aintained t-e idea t-at lan%ua%esoeties iposes intolera5le constraints on #reedo o# t-ou%-t. >ence all Rinds o#innovations J 3ere introduced into t-e lan%ua%e 3-ic- soeties not only disa%ree3it- t-e esta5lis-ed nors o# t-e lan%ua%e8 5ut actually depart #ro t-e in principle.


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:-e result in any cases is t-at t-e lan%ua%e steps over t-e t-res-old o# t-e reader&sa5ility to perceive t-e essa%e.The essential property, indeed, merit of a truly genuine individual style is its

conformity to the established norms of the language system in their idiosyncratic

variations# This uniueness- of the individual style of an author is not easy to

observe# &t is due not only to the peculiar choice of words, sentence-structuresand stylistic devices, but also to the incomparable manner these elements are

combined#

&t is hardly possible to underestimate the significance of a minute analysis of the

language of a writer when approaching the general notion of his style# The

language will inevitably reveal some of the author$s idiosyncrasies in the use of

language means# "oreover, the author$s choice of language means reflects to a

very considerable extent the idea of the wor' as a whole# *owhere can the

linguist observe the hidden potentialities of language means more clearly than

through a scrupulous analysis of the ways writers use these means#

%ut for the linguist the importance of studying an author$s individual style is notconfined to penetration into the inner properties of language means and stylistic

devices. The writers of a given period in the development of the literary languagecontribute greatly to establishing the system of norms of their period# &t is worth

a passing note that the investigations of language norms at a given period are to

a great extent maintained on wor's of men-of-letters#

,ne o# t-e essential properties o# a truly individual style is its per manence# It -as%reat po3ers o# endurance. It is easily reco%nied and never loses its aest-etic value.:-e #or into 3-ic- t-e ideas are 3rou%-t assues a %reater si%ni#icance and

t-ere#ore arrests our attention. :-e lan%ua%e o# a truly individual style 5ecoesdeautoatied. It ay 5e said t-at t-e #or8 i.e. t-e lan%ua%e eans t-eselves8%enerate eanin%. :-is 3ill 5e s-o3n later 3-en 3e coe to analye t-e nature and#unctions o# stylistic devices.:-e idea o# individual style 5rin%s up t-e pro5le o# t-e correspondence 5et3eent-ou%-t and expression. Many %reat inds -ave ade valua5le o5servations on t-einterrelation 5et3een t-ese concepts. :-ere is a lon% list o# 5ooRs in 3-ic- t-e

pro5le is discussed #ro lo%ical8 psyc-olo%ical8 p-ilosop-ical8 aest-etic8 pra%aticand purely lin%uistic points o# vie3. >ere 3e s-all only point out t-e ost essentialsides o# t-e pro5le8 vi. a) t-ou%-t and lan%ua%e are insepara5leC 5) lan%ua%e is a

eans o# aterialiin% t-ou%-t. It #ollo3s t-en t-at t-e stylistics cannot ne%lect t-isinterrelation 3-en analyin% t-e individual style o# an aut-or. +ut it is one t-in% totaRe into account a certain p-enoenon as a part o# a %eneral notion and anot-er t-in%to su5stitute one notion #or anot-er. :o de#ine style as t-e result o# t-inRin% out intolan%ua%e 3ould 5e on t-e sae level as to state t-at all 3e say is style. :-e a5surdityo# t-is stateent needs no coent.:-e pro5le o# t-e correspondence 5et3een atter and #or (3-ic- are synonyous#or t-ou%-t and expression) #inds its ost e##ective 3ordin% in t-e #ollo3in%; L:o


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#inis- and coplete your t-ou%-tK.. >o3 lon% it taRes8 -o3 rare it is8 3-at aniense deli%-tK.. *s soon as a t-ou%-t -as reac-ed its #ull per#ection8 t-e 3ordsprin%s into 5ein%8 o##ers itsel#8 and clot-es t-e t-ou%-t.L1

Naturally suc- a poetical representation o# t-e creative process s-ould not 5e taRenliterally. :-ere is a certain aount o# eotional c-ar%e in it and t-is8 as is %enerally

t-e case8 o5scures to soe extent t-e precision 3-ic- a de#inition ust -ave.>o3ever8 it is 3ell Rno3n t-at t-e searc- #or adeuate expression o#ten taRes anenorous aount o# tie and ental e##ort. :-is idea is 5rilliantly expressed 5y .MayaRovsRy; Vf\`[ g_ h jVkZ_ X_j`[. mX_ jVkZ` mVj gXjZ.\Vj`q j`^VmV =YV_ X_j` gZY[` gV^^ YVY^V XjZ.:-e %enuine c-aracter o# t-e individual style o# an aut-or is not necessarily ani#est#ro t-e tricRy or ela5orate expressions -e uses.Soe #ors o# t-e lan%ua%e 3-ic- pass uno5served even 5y an experienced readerdue to t-eir seein% insi%ni#icance in t-e %eneral sys=te o# lan%ua%e ay 5e turnedinto arRed/ eleents 5y t-e creative

Soeties t-ese &insi%ni#icant& eleents o# t-e lan%ua%e scattered in t-e text are t-e5earers o# t-e aut-or&s idiosyncratic 5ias. :-is is particularly true o# t-e 3ays>ein%3ay8 "aulRner and ot-er odern 3riters -ave ade use o# lan%ua%e eans8re#lectin%8 as it 3ere8 t-e %eneral tendency o# trends in odern En%lis- and *ericanliterature. *ccordin% to t-e o5servations o# any a literary critic8 t-e style o# odernliterary 3orRs is uc- ore eotionally excited8 &dis-eveled&8 inco-erent t-an t-at o#DicRens8 :-acReray8 Gals3ort-y.:-e lan%ua%e o# soe ultra=odern 3riters to soe extent re#lects t-e rapidlyincreasin% tepo o# t-e present industrial and tec-nical revolution. Sensitive to t-e

pulsation o# social li#e in t-e country8 t-ey experient 3it- lan%ua%e eans so as toirror t-e vi5ration o# extra=lin%uistic reality.Lin every individual style 3e can #ind 5ot- t-e %eneral and t-e particular. :-e %reatert-e aut-or is8 t-e ore %enuine -is style 3ill 5e. I# 3e succeed in isolatin% andexainin% t-e c-oices 3-ic- t-e 3riter pre#ers8 3e can de#ine 3-at are t-e particularst-at aRe up -is style and aRe it reco%nia5le.*t t-e sae tie t-e lin%uist 3ill 5e a5le to discern t-ose potentialities o# lan%ua%eeans 3-ic- -it-erto 3ere latent or8 at t-e ost8 used only occasionally.:-e individuality o# a 3riter is s-o3n not only in t-e c-oice o# lexical8 syntactical andstylistic eans 5ut also in t-eir treatent.1 It is really rearRa5le -o3 a talented

3riter can aRe us #eel t-e 3ay -e 3ants us to #eel. :-is co=experience is 5uilt up sosu5tly t-at t-e reader reains una3are o# t-e process. It is still stron%er 3-en t-eaest-etic #unction 5e%ins to ani#est itsel# clearly and uneuivocally t-rou%- a%radual increase in intensity8 in t-e #ore%round o# certain #eatures8 repetitions o#certain syntactical patterns and in t-e 5roRen r-yt- o# t-e aut-or&s ode o# narratin%events8 #acts and situations.+hat we here call individual style, therefore, is a uniue combina tion of

language units, expressive means and stylistic devices peculiar to a given writer,


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which ma'es that writer$s wor's or even utterances easily recogniable# 4ence,

individual style may be li'ened to a proper name# &t# has nominal character# The

analogy is, of course, conventional, but it helps to understand the uniueness of

the writer$s idiosyncrasy# &ndividual style is based on a thorough 'nowledge of

the contemporary language and also of earlier periods in its development#

Individual style allo3s certain usti#ia5le deviations #ro t-e ri%orous nors. :-is8=needless to say8 presupposes a per#ect Rno3led%e o# t-e invariants o# t-e nors.Individual style reuires to 5e studied in a course o# stylistics in so #ar as it aRes useo# t-e potentialities o# lan%ua%e eans8 3-atever t-e c-aracter o# t-ese potentialitiesay=5e. +ut it %oes 3it-out sayin% t-at eac- aut-or&s style s-ould 5e analyedseparately8 3-ic- is naturally ipossi5le in a 5ooR on %eneral stylistics.Selection, or deliberate choice of language, and the ways the chosen

35t56ire treated are the main distinctive features of individual style#

:-e treatent o# t-e selected eleents 5rin%s up t-e pro5le o# t-e norm#:-e notiono# t-e nor ainly re#ers to t-e literary lan%ua%e and al3ays presupposes a

reco%nied or received s t a n d a r d. *t t-e sae tie it liRe3ise presupposesvacillations o# t-e received standard.In order to %et a 3orRa5le de#inition o# t-e nor #or t-e purposes set in t-is 5ooR and8

particularly8 in connection 3it- t-e issue o# individual style8 it 3ill 5e necessary to %oa little 5it deeper into t-e concept.?e s-all 5e%in 3it- t-e #ollo3in% stateent ade 5y *cadeician $. . Sc-er5a;Lery o#ten 3-en speaRin% o# nors people #or%et a5out stylistic nors (ep-asisadded) 3-ic- are no less8 i# not ore8 iportant t-an all ot-ers.L1:-is pronounceent clearly indicates t-at t-ere is no universally accepted nor o# t-e

standard literary lan%ua%e8 t-at t-ere are di##erent nors and t-at t-ere exist specialRinds o# nor 3-ic- are called stylistic nors. Indeed8 it -as lon% 5een acRno3led%edt-at t-e nors o# t-e spoRen and t-e 3ritten varieties o# lan%ua%e di##er in ore t-anone respect (see p. !). $iRe3ise it is per#ectly apparent t-at t-e nors o# eotive

prose and t-ose o# o##icial lan%ua%e are -etero%eneous. Even 3it-in 3-at is called t-e5elles=lettres style o# lan%ua%e (see p. !!!') 3e can o5serve di##erent nors5et3een8 #or instance8 poetry and draa.In t-is connection I. ac-eR o# t-e ra%ue Sc-ool o# $in%uistics states t-at Lit isnecessary to reect t-e possi5ility o# t-e existence o# an a5stract8 universal nor3-ic- su5ordinates 3ritten and oral nors in any o# t-e natural lan%ua%es.L2

:-e sae vie3 is expressed 5y M. *. . >alliday 3-o states;L:-ere is no sin%le universally relevant nor8 no one set o# expectancies to 3-ic- allinstances ay 5e re#erred.L!:-is point o# vie3 is not8 -o3ever8 to 5e taRen literally. :-e #act t-at t-ere aredi##erent nors #or various types and styles o# lan%ua%e does not exclude t-e

possi5ility and even t-e necessity o# arrivin% at soe a5stract notion o# nor as aninvariant8 3-ic- s-ould e5race all variants 3it- t-eir ost typical properties. Eac-style o# lan%ua%e 3ill -ave its o3n invariant and variants (see p. !!!')8 yet all


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styles 3ill -ave t-eir o3n invariant8 t-at o# t-e 3ritten variety o# lan%ua%e. +ot- oral0collouial) and 3ritten (literary) varieties can also 5e inte%rated into an invariant o#t-e standard (received) lan%ua%e.:-e nor is re%arded 5y soe=lin%uists as La re%ulator 3-ic- controls a set o#variants8 t-e 5orders o# variations and also adissi5le and inadissi5le variants.L (E.

*. MaRayev)>ere are soe ot-er de#initions.L:-e nor is an asse5la%e (a set) o# sta5le (i.e. re%ularly used) eans o5ectivelyexistin% in t-e lan%ua%e and systeatically used.LL* certain conventionally sin%led out asse5la%e o# realiations o# lan%ua%e eansreco%nied 5y t-e lan%ua%e counity as a odel.&L (GuR-an SeenyuR)L:-e nor is a lin%uistic a5straction8 an idea t-ou%-t up 5y lin%uists and existin% onlyin t-eir inds.L (*. E. Dar5ys-ire)L:-ere is8 o# course8 no suc- t-in% as t-e nor to 5e #ound in actual usa%e. It is aconcept 3-ic- ust 5e expressed 5y eans o# a #orula8 and it is a concept a5out t-at

3-ic- is le#t o# uses o# lan%ua%e 3-en all stylistic ualities -ave 5een taRen a3ay#ro t-e.L (*. E. Dar5ys-ire):-e last o# t-e de#initions ela5orates t-e idea o# t-e nor as soet-in% stripped o# itsstylistic ualities. :-is is not accidental. Many lin%uists -old t-e vie3 t-at anyt-in%3-ic- can 5e la5eled stylistic is already a deviation #ro t-e esta5lis-ed nor (see anu5er o# t-e de#initions o# &style& %iven on pa%e 11). :-ey #or%et t-at re%ulardeviations #ro t-e nor %radually esta5lis- t-eselves as variants o# t-e norC t-eore so 5ecause8 as -as 5een stated8 &deviations& o# a %enuinely stylistic c-aracter arenot deviations1 5ut typi#ied and #ore%rounded natural p-enoena o# lan%ua%e usa%e8

t-ou%- soeties carried to t-e extree.So8 #inally8 3e can arrive at t-e conclusion t-at t-e nor presupposes t-e oneness o#t-e ulti#arious. :-ere is a conscious attitude to 3-at is 3ell=#ored a%ainst 3-at isill=#ored. ?ell=#orness ay 5e represented in a %reat nu5er o# concrete sentencesallo3in% a considera5le ran%e o# accepta5ility.The norm, t-ere#ore8 s-ould 5e re%arded as t-e invariant o# t-e p-oneic8orp-olo%ical8 lexical and syntactical patterns circulatin% in lan%ua%e=in=action at a%iven period o# tie. ariants o# t-ese patterns ay soeties diver%e #ro t-einvariant 5ut t-ey never exceed t-e liits set 5y t-e invariant lest it s-ould 5ecoeunreco%nia5le or isleadin%. :-e developent o# any literary lan%ua%e s-o3s t-at

t-e variants 3ill al3ays center around t-e axis o# t-e invariant #ors. :-e variants8 ast-e ter itsel# su%%ests8 3ill/ never detac- t-eselves #ro t-e invariant to suc- ade%ree as to clai entire independence. wet8 nevert-eless8 t-ere is a tendency toestiate t-e value o# individual style 5y t-e de%ree it violates t-e nors o# t-elan%ua%e.*s 3e -ave already cited8 G. Saints5ury considers t-at t-e real secret o# style revealsitsel# in t-e 5reac- or ne%lect o# t-e rules t-at %overn t-e structure o# clauses8sentences8 and para%rap-s (see p. 1). :-is conception is aptly illustrated t-eoretically


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in t-e :-eory o# Deviance entioned a5ove (p. 1) and practically= in t-e 3orRs o#certain odern poets liRe E. E. 4uin%s and ot-ers 3-o try to 5reaR a3ay entirely#ro t-e esta5lis-ed and reco%nied invariants and variants o# t-e %iven nor. :-eyintroduce various patterns3-ic- are alost undecoda5le and conseuently reuire special devices #or %raspin%

t-e essa%es.l =Ouite a di##erent point o# vie3 is expressed 5y E. Sapir8 3-o states;L...t-e %reatest or s-all 3e say t-e ost satis#yin% literary artists8 t-eS-aRespeare and >ein8 are t-ose 3-o -ave Rno3n su5consciously -o3 to #it or trit-e deeper intuition to t-e provincial accents o# t-eir daily speec-. In t-e t-ere is noe##ect o# strain. :-eir personal intuition appears as a copleted synt-esis o# t-ea5solute art o# intuition and t-e innate8 specialied art=o# t-e lin%uistic ediu.L2:-is idea is coon to any stylists 3-o -old t-at real and %enuine individuality o#style 3ill reveal itsel# not in t-e 5reac- o# t-e rules8 in ot-er 3ords8 not in deviatin%#ro t-e accepted nors8 5ut in t-e peculiar treatent o# t-e. >o3ever8 it ust 5e

repeated t-at soe deviations8 i# t-ey are otivated8 ay occur -ere and t-ere in t-etext. Moreover8 let us repeat once ore t-at t-rou%- constant repetitions suc- de=viations ay 5ecoe le%itiate variants o# t-e nor and esta5lis- t-eselves ase5ers o# t-e lan%ua%e syste. :-e pro5le o# variants o# t-e nor8 or deviations #ro t-e nor o# t-e literarylan%ua%e8 -as received 3idespread attention aon% lin%uists and is central to soe o#t-e aor current controversies. It is t-e inadeuacy o# t-e concept &nor& t-at causest-e controversy. *t every period in t-e developent o# a literary lan%ua%e t-ere ust

5e a tan%i5le nor 3-ic- #irst o# all arRs t-e di##erence 5et3een literary and non=

literary lan%ua%e. :-en t-ere ust 5e a clear=cut distinction 5et3een t-e invariant o#t-e nor (as an a5straction) and its variants (in concrete texts). *s 3ill 5e seen lateralost every #unctional style o# lan%ua%e is arRed 5y a speci#ic use o# lan%ua%eeans8 t-us esta5lis-in% its o3n nors 3-ic-8 -o3ever8 are su5ordinated to t-e nor=invariant and 3-ic- do not violate t-e %eneral notion o# t-e literary nor.,ne o# t-e ost c-aracteristic and essential properties o# t-e nor is its flexibility. *too ri%orous ad-erence to t-e nor 5rands t-e 3riter&s lan%ua%e as pedantic8 no atter3-et-er it is a uestion o# speec- or 3ritin%. +ut on t-e ot-er -and8 ne%lect o# t-enor 3ill al3ays 5e re%arded 3it- suspicion as 5ein% an attept to violate t-eesta5lis-ed si%nals o# t-e lan%ua%e code 3-ic- sa#e%uard and accelerate t-e process

o# counication. *t t-e sae tie8 a #ree -andlin% o# t-e nors ay 5e re%arded asa perissi5le application o# t-e #lexi5ility o# t-e nor.It ust 5e acRno3led%ed t-at to dra3 a line o# dearcation 5et3een #acts t-atillustrate t-e #lexi5ility o# t-e nor and t-ose 3-ic- s-o3 its violation is not so easy.:-e extrees are apparent8 5ut 5order cases are 5lurred. :-us L#ootsteps on t-e sando# 3arL (E. E. 4uin%s) or L5elo3 a tieL (see ot-er exaples on p. 121!) areclearly violations o# t-e accepted nors o# 3ord=5uildin% or 3ord=co5inations.+ut Lsilent t-underL8 Lt-e ors and i#sL and t-e liRe ay #ro one point o# vie3 5e


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re%arded as a practical application o# t-e principle o# #lexi5ility o# t-e nor and #roanot-eras a violation o# t-e seantic and orp-olo%ical nors o# t-e En%lis-lan%ua%e. ariants interactin% 3it- t-e ri%orous rules o# usa%e ay reveal t-e

potentialities o# t-e lan%ua%e #or enric-ent to a de%ree 3-ic- no arti#icial coina%e3ill ever 5e a5le to reac-. :-is can 5e explained 5y t-e #act t-at seantic c-an%es and

particularly syntactical ones are rat-er slo3 in process and t-ey reect any suddeniposition o# innovations on t-e code already in action. :-ere is8 a constant processo# %radual c-an%e taRin% place in t-e #ors o# lan%ua%e and t-eir eanin% at any%iven period in t-e developent o# t-e lan%ua%e. It is t-ere#ore ost iportant toaster t-e received standard o# t-e %iven period in t-e lan%ua%e in order tocopre-end t-e correspondence o# t-is or t-at #or to t-e reco%nied nor o# t-e

period.Soe people t-inR t-at one -as to possess 3-at is called a L#eelin% #or t-e lan%ua%eLin order to 5e a5le to understand t-e nor o# t-e lan%ua%e and its possi5le variants.+ut t-is #eelin% is deeply rooted in t-e unconscious Rno3led%e o# t-e la3s accordin%

to 3-ic- a lan%ua%e #unctions8 and even in its -istory8 3-ic- explains uc-concernin% t-e direction it -as pro%ressed. ?-en t-e #eelin% o# t-e nor8 3-ic-%ro3s 3it- t-e Rno3led%e o# t-e la3s o# t-e lan%ua%e8 is instilled in t-e ind8 one

5e%ins to appreciate t-e 5eauty o# usti#ia5le #luctuations.aradoxical t-ou%- it ay see8 t-e nor can 5e %rasped8 nay8 esta5lis-ed8 only3-en t-ere are deviations #ro it. It is t-ere#ore 5est perceived in co5ination 3it-soet-in% t-at 5reaRs it. In t-is connection t-e #ollo3in% rearRs ade 5y $L. .Sc-er5a are 3ort- uotin%;L... in order to ac-ieve a #ree coand o# a literary lan%ua%e8 even one&s o3n8 one

ust read 3idely8 %ivin% pre#erence to t-ose 3riters 3-o deviate 5ut sli%-tly #ro t-enor.LLNeedless to say8 all deviations are to soe extent noralied; not every existin%deviation #ro t-e nor is %oodC at any rate8 not in all circustances. :-e #eelin% #or3-at is perissi5le and 3-at is not8 and ainlya #eelin% #or t-e inner sense o# t-esedeviations (and senseless ones8 as -as 5een pointed out8 are naturally 5ad)8 isdeveloped t-rou%- an extensive study o# our %reat Bussian literature in all its variety8

5ut o# course in its 5est exaples.L1 JL LLI say usti#ia5le or LotivatedL 5ecause 5ad 3riters #reuently aRe use o#deviations #ro t-e nor 3-ic- are not otivated or usti#ied 5y t-e su5ect atter

t-at is 3-y t-ey are considered 5ad 3riters.L2?-ile dealin% 3it- various 49nceptions o# t-e ter &style&8 3e ust also ention acoonly accepted connotation o# style as esta5lis-ent o# lan%ua%e. :-isunderstandin% o# style is up-eld in soe o# t-e scienti#ic papers on literary criticis.$an%ua%e and style as e5ellis-ent are re%arded as separate 5odies. *ccordin% tot-is idea lan%ua%e can easily dispense 3it- style8 5ecause style -ere is liRened to t-etriin% on a dress. Moreover8 style as e5ellis-ent o# lan%ua%e 0vie3ed assoet-in% t-at -inders understandin%. It is8 as it 3ere8


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UWVX^Z VWXVYZ XYY]V mX__g`]`. HYY]` [\Z] q]V. 1/& 1!98 18 Y. 1. I5id.alien to lan%ua%e and t-ere#ore needs to 5e excluded #ro t-e o5servations o#lan%ua%e sc-olars. :-at is 3-y alost all conteporary 5ooRs on %raar and%eneral lin%uistics avoid pro5les o# style or8 at ost8 touc- upon t-e in passin%.

:-e notion o# style as e5ellis-ent presupposes t-e use o# 5are lan%ua%e #orsdeprived o# any stylistic devices8 o# any expressive eans deli5erately eployed. Int-is connect ion Middleton Murry 3rites;L:-e notion t-at style is applied ornaent -ad its ori%in8 no dou5t8 in t-e tradition o#t-e sc-ool o# r-etoric in Europe8 and in its place in t-eir teac-in%. :-e conception 3asnot so onstrous as it is today. "or t-e old pro#essors o# r-etoric 3ere exclusivelyen%a%ed in instructin% t-eir pupils -o3 to expound an ar%uent or arran%e a pleadin%.:-eir classi#ication Lo# r-etorical devices 3as undou5tedly #oral and extrava%ant...:-e conception o# style as applied ornaent ... is t-e ost popular o# all delusionsa5out style.L1

:-e notion o# style as e5ellis-ent o# lan%ua%e is copletely erroneous. No atter-o3 style is treated8 it is t-e product o# a 3riter&s deli5erate intention to #rae -isideas in suc- a anner as 3ill add soet-in% iportant8 soet-in% indispensa5le inorder to secure an adeuate realiation o# -is ideas. :o call style e5ellis-ent is t-esae t-in% as to strip it o# its very essence8 t-at is8 to render unnecessary t-oseeleents 3-ic- secure t-e ani#old application o# t-e lan%ua%e units.

No dou5t t-ere are utterances 3-ic- contain all Rinds o# unotivated stylistic eans.Moreover8 t-ere are 3riters 3-ose style a5ounds in suc- utterances. +ut t-ey areeit-er t-ose 3-o8 adirin% t-e #or8 use it at t-e expense o# t-e atter8 or t-ose 3-o8

5y experientin% 3it- t-e potentialities o# lan%ua%e eans8 try to #ind ne3 3ays o#renderin% t-eir ideas. In 5ot- cases t-e reader is #aced 3it- di##iculties in decodin% t-eessa%e and t-is %reatly -inders understandin%.* very popular notion o# style aon% teac-ers o# lan%ua%e is t-at style is t e Y - n i u e o# expression. In t-is sense style is %enerally di#ined as t-e a5ility to 3rite clearly8correctly and in a anner calculated to interest t-e reader. :-ou%- t-e lastreuireent is not aon% t-e indispensa5le8 it is still #ound in any practical anualso# style8 ost o# 3-ic- can 5e luped to%et-er under t-e title L4oposition andStyleL. :-is is a purely utilitarian point o# vie3 o# t-e issue in uestion. I# t-is 3eretrue8 style could 5e tau%-t. Style in t-is sense o# expression studies'-e noralied

#ors o# t-e lan%ua%e. :-e teac-in% process ais at lucidity o# expression. It sets up anu5er o# rules as to -o3 to speaR and 3rite 3ell and %enerally discards all Rinds o#deviations as 5ein% violations o# t-e nor. :-e nor in t-ese 3orRs is treated assoet-in% sel#=sustained and8 to a very %reat extent8 in#lexi5le.:-e utilitarian approac- to t-e pro5le is also #elt in t-e #ollo3in% stateent 5y E. A.Dunsany8 an Iris- draatist and 3riter o# s-ort stories;L?-en you can 3it- di##iculty 3rite anyt-in% clearly8 siply8 andep-atically8 t-en8 provided t-at t-e di##iculty is not apparent to t-e reader8 t-at is


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style. ?-en you can do it easily8 t-at is %enius.L. &G. +elinsRy also distin%uis-ed t3o aspects o# style8 aRin% a -ard and #astdistinction 5et3een t-e tec-nical and t-e creative po3er o# any utterance.&:o. lan%ua%e erits 5elon% correctness8 clearness and #luency8L -e states8 Lualities3-ic- can 5e ac-ieved 5y any talentless 3riter 5y eans o# la5our and routine.L

L+ut style (YVm) is talent itsel#8 t-e very t-ou%-t.L1*lost t-e sae point o# vie3 is -eld 5ot- 5y *. N. Gvodev and ". $. $ucas.Gvodev states t-at LStylistics -as a practical value8 teac-in% students to aster t-elan%ua%e8 3orRin% out a conscious approac- to lan%ua%eL2 and $ucas declares t-att-e ais o# a course in style are; a) to teac- to 3rite and speaR 3ell8 5) to iprove t-estyle o# t-e 3riter8 and c) to s-o3 -i eans o# iprovin% -is a5ility to express -isideas.!It is iportant to note t-at 3-at 3e call t-e practical approac- to t-e pro5le o# styles-ould 5y no eans 5e re%arded as soet-in% erroneous. :-e practical side o# t-e

pro5le can -ardly 5e over=estiated. +ut s-ould it 5e called stylez :-e a5ility to

3rite clearly and ep-atically can and s-ould 5e tau%-t. :-is is t-e doain o#%raar8 3-ic- today rules out t-e la3s and eans o# coposition. :-e notion o#style cannot 5e reduced to t-e erely practical aspect 5ecause in suc- a case at-eoretical 5acR%round #or practical {ais cannot 5e 3orRed out. Moreover8 stylisticsas a 5ranc- o# lin%uistics deands investi%ation into t-e nature o# suc- lan%ua%eeans as add aest-etic value to t-e utterance.Aust as t-e interrelation 5et3een lexicolo%y and lexico%rap-y is accepted to 5e t-at o#t-eory and practice8 so t-eoretical and practical stylistics s-ould 5e re%arded as t3ointerdependent 5ranc-es o# lin%uistic science. Eac- o# t-ese 5ranc-es ay develop its

o3n approac- and et-ods o# investi%ation o# lin%uistic data.:-e ter &style& is 3idely used in literature to si%ni#y literary %enre. :-us8 3e speaR o#classical style or t-e style o# classicis8 realistic style8 t-e style o# roanticis and soon. :-e use o# t-e 3ord &style& -as soeties 5een carried to unreasona5le len%t-s8t-us 5lurrin% t-e terinolo%ical aspect o# t-e 3ord. It is applied to various Rinds o#literary 3orRs; t-e #a5le8 novel8 5allad8 story8 etc. :-e ter is also used to denote t-e3ay t-e plot is dealt 3it-8 t-e arran%eent o# t-e parts o# literary coposition to #ort-e 3-ole8'-e place and t-e role o# t-e aut-or in descri5in% and depictin% events.It is su%%ested in t-is 3orR t-at t-e ter / style& 5e used to re#er to purely lin%uistic#acts8 t-us avoidin% t-e possi5le a5i%uity in its application. *#ter all t-e ori%in o# t-e

3ord &style& is a usti#ication #or t-e su%%estion. >o3ever8 3e are #ully a3are o# t-e#act t-at suc- a pro=

position 3ill 5e re%arded as an encroac-ent on t-e ri%-ts o# literature to -ave itso3n ters in spite o# t-e #act t-at t-ey are t-e sae as ters in lin%uistics.

No3 let us pass to t-e discussion o# an issue t-e iportance o# 3-ic- -as to 5e Reptclearly in ind t-rou%-out t-e study o# stylistics8 t-at is t-e dic-otoy o# lan%ua%eand s p e e Y - or8 to p-rase t-e issue di##erently8 lan%ua%e= as =a=s ste andlan%ua%e=in=action. It deserves at least a cursory discussion -ere not only 5ecause t-e


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issue -as received a %ood deal o# attention in recent pu5lications on lin%uistic atters85ut also 5ecause8 as 3ill 5e seen later8 any stylistic devices stand out a%ainst t-e5acR%round o# t-e distinctive #eatures o# t-ese t3o a5ove=entioned notions. :-esiplicity o# t-e issue is to soe extent deceptive. ,n t-e sur#ace it sees t-atlan%ua%e=in=action taRes t-e si%ns o# lan%ua%e=as=a=syste and arran%es t-e to

convey t-e intended essa%e. +ut t-e #act is t-at t-e si%ns o# t-e latter under%o suc-trans#orations in t-e #orer t-at soeties t-ey assue a ne3 uality iposin%ne3 si%ni#ication on t-e si%ns o# t-e lan%ua%e code. :-ere is copellin% evidence in#avour o# t-e t-eory 3-ic- deands t-at t-e t3o notions s-ould 5e re%arded in t-eirunity8 allo3in%8 -o3ever8 t-at eac- o# t-e 5e su5ected to isolated o5servation.$an%ua%e=as=a=syste ay #i%uratively 5e depicted as an exploiter o# lan%ua%e=in=action. *ll rules and patterns o# lan%ua%e 3-ic- are collected and classi#ied in 3orRson %raar8 p-onetics8 lexicolo%y and stylistics #irst appear in lan%ua%e=in=action83-ence t-ey are %eneralied and #raed as rules and patterns o# lan%ua%e=as=a=syste.

It is iportant -ere to call attention to t-e process o# #oration o# scienti#ic notions.?-enever 3e notice a p-enoenon t-at can 5e sin%led out #ro a ass o# lan%ua%e#acts 3e %ive it a nae8 t-us a5stractin% t-e properties o# t-e p-enoenon. :-e

p-enoena t-en 5ein% collected and classi#ied are -allo3ed into t-e ranRs o# t-e unitso# lan%ua%e=as=a=syste. It ust 5e pointed out t-at ost o5servations o# t-e natureand #unctionin% o# lan%ua%e units -ave 5een ade on aterial presented 5y t-e3ritten variety o# lan%ua%e. It is due to t-e #ixation o# speec- in 3ritin% t-at sc-olarso# lan%ua%e 5e%an to disinte%rate t-e continuous #lo3 o# speec- and su5ect t-e#unctionin% o# its coponents to analysis.

So it is 3it- stylistic devices. +ein% 5orn in speec- t-ey -ave %radually 5ecoereco%nied as certain patterned structures; p-onetic8 orp-olo%ical8 lexical8p-raseolo%ical and syntactical8 and duly taRen a3ay #ro t-eir ot-er8 Speec-8 andade independent e5ers o# t-e #aily8 $an%ua%e.:-e sae concerns t-e issue o# #unctional styles o# lan%ua%e. ,nce t-ey -ave 5eenreco%nied as independent8 ore or less closed su5systes o# t-e standard literarylan%ua%e8 t-ey s-ould 5e re%arded not as styles o# speec- 5ut as styles o# lan%ua%e8inasuc- as t-ey can 5e patterned as to t-e Rinds o# interrelation 5et3een t-ecoponent parts in eac- o# t-e styles. Moreover8 t-ese #unctional styles -ave 5eensu5ected to various classi#ications8 3-ic- #act s-o3s t-at t-e p-enoena no3 5elon%

to t-e doain o# lan%ua%e=as=a=syste.>o3ever8 it ust constantly 5e 5orn in ind t-at t-e units 3-ic- 5elon% to t-isdoain are a5stract in t-eir nature. "unctional styles re erely odels deprived o#aterial su5stance8 sc-ees 3-ic- can 5e aterialied in lan%ua%e #ors. ?-enaterialied in lan%ua%e #ors t-ey &5ecoe practical realiations o# a5stract sc-eesand si%ni#y t-e variants o# t-e correspondin% invariants o# t-e odels.:-is relatively ne3 science8 stylistics8 3ill 5e pro#ita5le to t-ose 3-o -ave a soundlin%uistic 5acR%round. :-e expressive eans o# En%lis- and t-e stylistic devices used


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in t-e literary lan%ua%e can only 5e understood (and ade use o#) 3-en a t-orou%-Rno3led%e o# t-e lan%ua%e=as=a=syste8 i.e. o# t-e p-onetic8 %raatical and lexicaldata o# t-e %iven lan%ua%e8 -as 5een attained.It %oes 3it-out sayin% t-at t-e ore o5servant t-e student is8 t-e easier it 3ill 5e #or-i to appreciate t-e peculiar usa%e o# t-e lan%ua%e edia.

Austi#ication #or 5rin%in% t-is pro5le up is t-at soe lan%ua%e sc-olars #ri%-tenstudents out o# studyin% stylistics on t-e %round t-at t-is su5ect ay e##ectively 5estudied only on t-e 5asis o# a per#ect coand o# t-e lan%ua%e. Suc- sc-olars8 a3areo# t-e varia5les and unRno3ns8 usually try in t-eir teac-in% to sidestep anyt-in% t-atay t-reaten 3ell=esta5lis-ed t-eories concernin% t-e la3s o# lan%ua%e. *lertness to&t-e #acts o# lan%ua%e=in=action s-ould 5e in-erent8 5ut it can 5e developed to a de%reenecessary #or an aest-etic evaluation o# t-e 3orRs o# en=o#=letters. *nd #or t-is

purpose it is #irst o# all necessary to %et a clear idea o# 3-at constitutes t-e notions &expressive eans& and &stylistic devices&.

2. EXPRESSIVE MEANS (EM) AND STYLISTIC DEVICES (SD)

In lin%uistics t-ere are di##erent ters to den |5y 3-ic- utterances are #ore%round8 i.e.ade ore conspicuous8 ore Le##ective and t-ere#ore ipartin% soe additionalin#oration. :-ey are called expressive eans8 stylistic eans8 stylistic arRers8stylistic devices8 tropes8 L#i%ures o# speec- and ot-er naes. *ll t-ese ters are usedindiscriinately and are set a%ainst t-ose eans 3-ic- 3e s-all conventionally callneutral. Most lin%uists distin%uis- ordinary (also; su5stantial8 re#erential) seanticand stylistic di##erences in eanin%. @)8 ot-ers 5esides t-ese contain speci#. lc.eanin%s 3-ic- ay 5e called sty I i s t i c. Suc- eanin%s %o alon%side priaryeanin%s and8 as it 3ere8 are superiposed on t-e.Stylistic eanin%s are so to say deautoatied. *s is Rno3n8 t-e process o#autoatiation8 i.e. a speedy and su5conscious use o# lan%ua%e data8 is one o# t-eindispensa5le 3ays o# aRin% counication easy and uicRly decoda5le.+ut 3-en a stylistic eanin% is involved8 t-e process o# deautoatiation c-ecRs t-ereader&s perception o# t-e lan%ua%e. >is attentionis arrested 5y a peculiar use o#lan%ua%e edia and -e 5e%ins8 to t-e 5est o# -is a5ility8 to decip-er it. >e 5ecoesa3are o# t-e #or in 3-ic- t-e utterance is cast and as t-e result o# t-is process at3o#old use o# t-e lan%ua%e ediuordinary/ and stylistic5ecoes apparent to

-i. *s 3ill 5e s-o3n later t-is application o# lan%ua%e eans in soe casespresents no di##iculty. It is so arRed t-at even a layan can see it8 as 3-en aetap-or or a siile is used. +ut in soe texts %raatically redundant #ors or-ardly noticea5le #ors8 essential #or t-e expression o# stylistic eanin%s 3-ic- carryt-e particular additional in#oration desired8 ay present a di##iculty.?-at t-is in#oration is and -o3 it is conveyed to t-e ind o#. t-e reader can 5eexplored only 3-en a concrete counication is su5ected to o5servation8 3-ic- 3ill

5e done later in t-e analyses o# various stylistic devices arid in t-e #unctionin% o#


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expressive eans.In t-is connection t-e #ollo3in% passa%e #ro LInvesti%atin% En%lis- StyleL 5y D.4rystal and D. Davy is o# interest; L"eatures 3-ic- are stylistically si%ni#icant displaydi##erent Rinds and de%rees o# distinctiveness in a text; o# t3o #eatures8 one ay occuronly t3ice in a text8 t-e ot-er ay occur t-irty ties8 or a #eature i%-t 5e uniuely

identi#yin% in t-e lan%ua%e8 only ever occurrin% in one variety8 as opposed to a #eature3-ic- is distri5uted t-rou%-out any or all varieties in di##erent #reuencies.L1+hat then is a stylistic device7 +hy is it so important to distinguish it from the

expressive and neutral means of the language7 To answer # these uestions it is

first of all necessary to elucidate the notion $expressiveness$#

:-e cate%ory o# expressiveness -as lon% 5een t-e su5ect o# -eated discussions aon%lin%uists. In etiolo%ical sense expressive ness may be understood as a 'ind ofintensification of an utterance or of a part of it depending on the position in the

utterance of the means that manifest this category and what these means are#

+ut soe-o3 lately t-e notion o# expressiveness -as 5een con#used 3it- anot-er

notion8 vi. eotiveness. Eotiveness8 and corresponidin%ly t-e eotive eleents o#lan%ua%e8 are 3-at reveal t-e eotions o# 3riter or speaRer. +ut t-ese eleents arenot direct ani#estations 0#Lt-e/0ol:nst-ey are ust t-e ec-oes o# real eotions8ec-oes 3-ic- -ave under%one soe intellectual recastin%. :-ey are desi%ned toa3aRen co=experience in t-e ind o# t-e reader.Expressiveness a 5roader notion t-an eotiveness and is 5y no eans to 5e reducedto t-e latter. Eotiveness is an inte%ral part o# expressiveness and8 as a atter o# #act8occupies a predoinant position in t-e cate%ory o# expressiveness. +ut t-ere areedia in lan%ua%e 3-ic- ai siply at lo%ical ep-asis o# certain parts o# t-e

utterance. :-ey do not evoRe any intellectual representation o# #eelin% 5ut erelyserve t-e purpose o# ver5al actualiation o# t-e utterance. :-us8 #or exaple8 3-en 3esay LIt 3as in Auly 197 t-at t-e cosos experient o# a oint *erican=Soviet #li%-ttooR placeL 3e aRe t-e utterance lo%ically e=-atic 5y a syntactical device 3-ic- 3ill 5e descri5ed in due course. :-e sae t-in% isto 5e o5served in t-ese sentences;(1) Mr. Sit- 3as an extreely unpleasant person.(2) Never 3ill -e %o to t-at place a%ain.(!) In rus-ed t-e soldiersK(') It tooR us a very8 very lon% tie to %et t-ere.

In sentence (1) expressiveness is ac-ieved 5y lexical eanst-e 3ord &extreely&. In(2) and (!) 5y syntactical eansdi##erent types o# inversion. In (') t-e ep-asis isaterialied 5y t-e repetition o# t-e 3ord &very7 3-ic- is in itsel# a 3ord used tointensi#y t-e utterance.+ut in t-e sentences;(1) Isn&t s-e cuteK(2) "ool t-at -e 3asK(!)L :-is %odda 3indo3 3on&t openK


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(') ?e 5uddy=5uddied to%et-er.() :-is uicRie tour didn&t satis#y our curiosity8 3e can re%ister positive eotiveness8in as ucas t-ere are eleents t-at evoRe certain representations o# t-e #eelin% o#t-e speaRer. In sentence (1) and (2) t-ere are syntactical eans 3-ic- evoRe t-ise##ect. In (!) and (') t-ere are lexical eans&%odda&8 &5uddy=5uddied& (}3ere on

very #riendly relations)C in ()a orp-olo%ical device (t-e su##ixte).It ust 5e noted t-at to dra3 a -ard and #ast distinction 5et3een lo%ical and eotionalep-asis is not al3ays possi5le. :-e #act is t-at t-e lo%ical and t-e eotional#reuently overlap. * too stron% lo%ical ep-asis ay colour t-e utterance 3it-eotional eleents8 t-us causin% a Rind o# expressiveness 3-ic- is 5ot- lo%ical andeotive. >o3ever8 t-e extrees are clearly set one a%ainst t-e ot-er8 ...880 0

No3 it s-ould 5e possi5le to de#ine t-e notiono0xpressiveeans0:-e400`expressive eans o# a la#i%tra# are t-ose p5net#c0&o#plio:o%ical8 3ord= &+uildin%8 lexical8 p-raseolo%ical and syntactical #ors 3-ic- exist In lan%ua%e=as=a=syste #or t-e purpose o# lo%ical andor eotional intensi#ication o# t-e utterance.

:-ese intensi#yin% #ors8 3rou%-t 5y social usa%e and reco%nied 5y t-eir seantic#unction8 -ave 5een sin%led / out in %raars8 courses in p-onetics and dictionaries(includin% p-raseolo%ical ones) as -avin% special #unctions in aRin% t-e utterancesep-atic. Soe o# t-e are noralied8 and %ood dictionaries la5el t-e asLintensi#iesL. In ost cases t-ey -ave correspondin% neutral synonyous #ors.4opare8 #or exaple8 t-e #ollo3in% pairs;(1). >e s-all do itK } I s-all aRe -i do it.(2) Isn&t s-e cuteK } S-e is very nice8 isn&t s-ezExpressiveness ay also 5e ac-ieved 5y copositional devices in utterances

coprisin% a nu5er o# sentencesin syntactical 3-oles and in para%rap-s. :-is 3ill5e s-o3n in t-e c-apter on syntactical stylistic devices.:-e ost po3er#ul expressive eans o#8 anxAM%ua% are p-onetic. :-e -uan voicecan indicate su5tle nuances o# eanin% t-at no ot-er eans can attain. itc-8 elody8stress8 pausation8 dra3lin% out certain sylla5les8 3-isperin%8 a sin%=son% anner andot-er 3ays o# usin% t-e voice are uc- ore e##ective t-an any ot-er eans inintensi#yin% an utterance eotionally or lo%ically. In t-e lan%ua%e course o# p-oneticst-e patterns o# ep-atic intonation -ave 5een 3orRed out8 5ut any devices -ave so#ar 5een little investi%ated.aradoxical t-ou%-=it ay see8 any o# t-ese eans8 t-e e##ect o# 3-ic- rests on a

peculiar use o# t-e voice8 are 5anned #ro t-e lin%uistic doain. +ut t-ere -asappeared a ne3 scienceLparalin%uisticLo# 3-ic- all t-ese devices are t-einventory. :-e 3riter o# t-is 5ooR -olds t-e opinion t-at all t-e vocal peculiaritiesenuerated .s-ould 5e reco%nied as le%itiate e5ers o# t-e p-onetic structure o#lan%ua%e and t-at t-ere#ore t-e ter / paralin%uistics& s-ould 5e done a3ay 3it-.ro#essor Seyour 4-atan introduces t-e ter &p-onostylistics& and de#ines it as asu5ect t-e purpose o# 3-ic- is Lt-e study o# t-e 3ays in 3-ic- an aut-or elects toconstrain t-e p-onolo%y o# t-e lan%ua%e 5eyond t-e noral reuireents o# t-e


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p-onetic syste.L1 *s can 5e in#erred #ro t-is uotation8 p-onetic expressive eansand particularly p-onetic stylistic devices (seep. 12!) are not deviations #ro Lt-enoral reuireents o# t-e p-onetic systeL 5ut a 3ay o# actualiin% t-e typical int-e %iven text. ocal p-enoena suc- as dra3lin%8 3-isperin%8 etc. s-ould 5ere%arded as parts o# t-e p-oneic syste on t-e sae level as pitc-8 stress and tune.

In t-is part o# t-e 5ooR 3-ere %eneral ideas are presented in an introductory aspectonly8 t-ere is no need to %o deeper into t-e issue o# 3-at constitutes t-e notionexpressive eans o# t-e p-onetic syste. :-e reader is re#erred to part III L-oneticExpressive Means and Stylistic DevicesL (p. 12!).assin% over to soe preliinary rearRs on t-e orp-olo%ical expressive eans o#t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e8 3e ust = point to 3-at is no3 a rat-er ipoveris-ed set o#edia to 3-ic- t-e uality o# expressiveness can 5e attri5uted. >o3ever8 t-ere aresoe 3-ic- alon%side t-eir ordinary %raatical #unction display a Rind o# ep-asisand t-ere5y are prooted to EMs. :-ese are8 #or exaple8 :-e >istorical resentC t-euse o# s-all in t-e second and t-ird personC t-e use o# soe deonstrative pronouns

3it- an ep-atic eanin% as t-ose8 t-e (L:-ose %old candles #ixed in -eaven&sairLS-aRespeare)C &soe cases o# noinaliation8 particularly 3-en conversion o#ver5al stes is alien to t-e eanin% o# t-e ver5s or t-e noinaliation o# p-rases andsentences and a ituni5er o# ot-er orp-olo%ical #ors8 3-ic- acuire expressivenessin t-e context8 t-ou%- t-is capacity is not yet re%istered as one o# t-e latent propertieso# suc- #ors.*on% t-e 3 V r d = 5 ` i I d in % e a n s 3e #ind a %reat any #ors 3-ic- serve toaRe t-e utterance ore expressive 5y intensi#yin% soe o# t-eir seantic andor%raatical properties. :-e diinutive su##ixes80.(=#e)8 =let8 e.%. &dearie&8 &sonny&8

&auntie&8 Hstrea#e#8 add soe eotional colourin% to t-e 3ords. ?e ay also re#er to3-at are called neolo%iss and nonce=3ords #ored 3it- non=productive su##ixes3it- GreeR roots8 as Histressans?p&8 &cleanoraa& (see p. 92). 4ertain a##ixes -ave%ained suc- a po3er o# expressiveness t-at t-ey 5e%in #unctionin% as separate 3ords8a5sor5in% all o# t-e %eneraliin% eanin% t-ey attac- to di##erent roots8 as8 #orexaple8 &iss and olo=*t t-e lexical I e v ~.{t-ere are a %reat any 3ords 3-ic- due to t-eii>i:l:r#010constitute a special layer (see c-art on p 71). :-ere are 3ords 3it- eotive eanin%only (teiections)8 3ords=..dlic-8.-ays... 5ot-..8&re#erential and eotive eanin%(epit-ets)8 3ords 3-ic- still retain a t3o#old eanin%; denotative and connotative

(love8 -ate8 sypat-y)8 3ords|-~loii%in%A003ords8 or to poetic or arc-aic layers. :-e expressive po3er o# t-ese 3ords cannot 5edou5ted8 especially 3-en t-ey are copared 3it- t-e neutral voca5ulary.*ll Rinds o# set p-rases (p-raseolo%ical units) %enerally possess t-e property o#expressiveness. Set p-rases8 catc- 3ords8 prover5s8 sayin%s coprise a considera5lenu5er o# lan%ua%e units 3-ic- serve to aRe speec- ep-atic8 ainly #ro t-eeotional point o# vie3. :-eir use in every=day speec- is rearRa5le #or t-esu5ective eotional colourin% t-ey produce.


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It ust 5e noted -ere t-at due to t-e %enerally eotional c-aracter o# collouiallan%ua%e8 all Rinds o# set expressions are natural in everyday speec-. :-ey are8 as it3ere8 part and parcel o# t-is #or o# -uan intercourse. +ut 3-en t-ey appear in3ritten texts t-eir expressiveness coes to t-e #ore 5ecause 3ritten texts8 as -asalready 5een pointed out8 are lo%ically directed unless8 o# course8 t-ere is a deli5erate

attept to introduce an expressive eleent in t-e utterance. :-e set expression is atie=-onoured device to enliven speec-8 5ut t-is device8 it ust 5e repeated8 is oresparin%ly used in 3ritten&texts. In everyday speec- one can o#ten -ear suc- p-rases as;L?ell8 it 3ill only add #uel to t-e #ireL and t-e liRe8 3-ic- in #act is synonyous to t-eneutral; LIt 3ill only aRe t-e situation 3orse.L"inally8 at t-e syntactical level t-ere are any constructions 3-ic-8 3-en set a%ainstsynonyous neutral ones8 3ill reveal a certain de%ree o# lo%ical or eotionalep-asis.In order to 5e a5le to distin%uis- 5et3een expressive eans and stylistic devices8 to3-ic- 3e no3 pass8 it is necessary to 5ear in ind t-at expressive eans are concrete

#acts o# lan%ua%e. :-ey are studied in t-e respective lan%ua%e anuals8 t-ou%- it ust5e once a%ain re%ret#ully stated t-at soe %raarians iron out all eleents carryin%expressiveness #ro t-eir 3orRs8 as t-ey consider t-is uality irrelevant to t-e t-eoryo# lan%ua%e.Stylistics studies t-e expressive eans o# lan%ua%e8 5ut #ro a special an%le. &t ta'esinto account the modifications of meanings which various expressive means

undergo when they are used in different functional styles# !xpressive means have

a 'ind of radiating effect# They noticeably colour the whole of the utterance no

matter whether they are logical or emotional#

+hat then is a stylistic device7It is a conscious and intentional intensi#ication o#soe typical structural andor seantic property o# a lan%ua%e unit (neutral orexpressive) propted to a %eneralied status and t-us +ecoin% a %enerative odel8It #ollo3s t-en t-at an SD is an a5stract pattern8 a ould into 3-ic- any content can

5e poured. *s is Rno3n8 t-e typical is not only t-at 3-ic- is in #reuent use8 5ut t-atalso 3-ic- reveals t-e essence o# a p-enoenon 3it- t-e %reatest and ost evident#orce. J =SDs #unction in texts as arRed units. :-ey al3ays..carry soe Rind o# addition##000:-at is 3-y t-e e##iodb o# #ree variation eployed in descriptive lin%uistics1 cannot

5e used in stylistics 5ecause any su5stitution ay cause daa%e to t-e seantic and

aest-etic aspect o# t-e utterance.*. ?. De Groot points out t-e si%ni#icance o# SDs in t-e #ollo3in% passa%e;LEac- o# t-e aest-etically relevant #eatures o# t-e text serves to create a #eature o# t-e%estalt2 o# t-e poe. In t-is sense t-e relevant lin%uistic #eatures ay 5e said to#unction or operate as %estalt #actors.L!:-e idea o# t-e #unction o# SDs is expressed ost #ully 5y . M. tir=unsRy in t-e#ollo3in% passa%e;L:-e usti#ication and t-e sense o# eac- device lies in t-e 3-oleness o# t-e artistic


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ipression 3-ic- t-e 3orR o# art as a sel#=contained t-in% produces on us. Eac-separate aest-etic #act8 eac- poetical device (ep-asis added) #inds its place in t-esyste8 t-e sounds and sense o# t-e 3ords8 t-e syntactical structures8 t-e sc-ee o#t-e plot8 t-e copositional purport all in eual de%ree express t-is 3-oleness and#ind usti#ication.L'

:-e otivated use o# SDs in a %enuine 3orR o# eotive literature is -ot easilydiscerni5le8 t-ou%- t-ey are used in soe Rind o# relation to t-e #acts8 events8 or ideasdealt 3it- in t-e artistic essa%e. Most SDs display an application o# t3o eanin%s;t-e ordinary one8 in.ot-er 3ords8 t-e eanin% (lexical or structural) 3-ic- -as already

5een esta5lis-ed in t-e lan%ua%e=as=a=syste8 and a special eanin% 3-ic- issuperiposed on t-e unit 5y t-e text8 i.e. a eanin% 3-ic- appears in t-e lan%ua%e=in=action.Soeties8 -o3ever8 t-e t3o#old application o# a lexical unit is accoplis-ed not 5yt-e interplay o# t3o eanin%s 5ut 5y t3o 3ords (%enerally synonys) one o# 3-ic- is

perceived a%ainst t-e 5acR%round o# t-e =ot-er. :-is 3ill 5e s-o3n in su5seuent

c-apters.:-e conscious trans#oration o# a lan%ua%e #act into a stylistic device -as 5eeno5served 5y certain lin%uists 3-ose interests in lin%uistic t-eory -ave %one 5eyondt-e 5oundaries o# %raar. :-us *. *. ote5=nya 3rites;1 +y ree variation& is eant t-e su5stitution o# one #or 5y anot-er 3it-out anyc-an%e o# eanin%.2 &Gestalt& is a ter in psyc-olo%y 3-ic- denotes a p-enoenon as a 3-ole8 a Rind o#oneness8 as soet-in% indivisi5le into coponent parts. :-e ter -as 5een 5orro3ed

5y lin%uistics to denote t-e insepara5ility o# t-e 3-ole o# a poetic 3orR.

L*s #ar 5acR as in ancient Greece and Boe and 3it- #e3 exceptions n to t-e presenttie8 t-e de#inition o# a #i%urative use o# a 3ord -as 5een 5ased on t-e contrast5et3een ordinary speec-8 used in its o3n8 natural8 priary eanin%8 and trans#erredspeec-.L1:-e contrast 3-ic- t-e aut-or o# t-e passa%e uoted points to8 can not al3ays 5eclearly o5served. In soe SDs it can 5e %rasped iediately in ot-ers it reuires aReen eye and su##icient trainin% to detect it. It ust 5e ep-asied t-at t-e contrastreveals itsel# ost clearly 3-en our ind perceives t3o#old eanin%s siultaneously.:-e eanin%s run parallel; one o# t-e taRin% precedence over t-e ot-er.:-us in L:-e ni%-t -as s3allo3ed -i upL t-e 3ord &s3allo3& -as ?a) re#erential

and 5) contextual (to aRe disappear8 to aRe vanis-). :-e eanin% (5) taResprecedence=over t-e re#erential (a).:-e sae can 5e o5served in t-e sentence; LIs t-ere not 5lood enou%- upon your

penal code t-at ore ust 5e poured #ort- to ascend to >eaven and testi#y a%ainstyouzL (+yron):-e interro%ative #or8 i.e. t-e structural eanin% o# a uestion8 runs parallel 3it- t-eiposed a##irative t-ou%-t8 i.e. t-e structural eanin% o# a stateent8 and it isdi##icult to decide 3-ic- o# t-e t3o structural eanin%st-e esta5lis-ed or t-e


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superiposedtaRes t-e upper -and.In t-e #ollo3in% c-apters 3-ere detailed analysis o# t-e di##erent SDs 3ill 5e carriedout8 3e s-all try8 3-ere possi5le8 to consider 3-ic- o# t-e t3o eanin%s realiedsiultaneously out3ei%-s t-e ot-er.The birth of Ss is a natural process in the development of language media#

8anguage units which are used with more or less definite aims of communicationin various passages of writing and in various functional styles begin gradually to

develop new features, a wider range, of functions, thus causing polyfunctionality#

4ence they can be presented as invariants with concrete variables#

The interrelation between expressive means and stylistic devices can be worded

in terms of the theory of information# !xpressive means have a greater degree of

predictability than#stylistic devices# The latter may appear in an environment

which may seem alien and therefore be only slightly or not at all predictable#

!xpressive means, on the contrary, follow the natural course of thought,

intensifying it by means commonly used in language# &t follows that Ss carry

a5g5a5amoy6t of information and therefore reuire a certain effort to decodetheir meaning and purport# Ss must be regarded as a special code which has to

be well 'nown to the reader in order to be deciphered easily#

:-e notion o# lan%ua%e as a special code is no3 very uc- practiced in t-e analyseso# t-e #unctions o# lan%ua%e units. E. StanRievic seesa Rind o# code=s3itc-in% 3-en SDs are eployed. >e also acRno3led%es

t-e t3o#old application o# t-e lan%ua%e code 3-en L... t-e neutral8 5asic code serves as t-e 5acR%round a%ainst 3-ic- t-e eleents o# an=

p ot-er syste acuire expressive proinence 3it-in t-e context o# t-e 5asic

syste.L1 SDs are used sparin%ly in eotive prose8 lest t-ey s-ould over5urden t-etext 3it- iplications t-us -inderin% t-e process o# decodin%. :-ey are a5undantlyused in poetry and especially so in soe trends o# poetical tradition8 conseuentlyretardin% ental a5sorption o# t-e content.2

Not every stylistic use o# a lan%ua%e #act 3ill coe under t-e ter SD8 alt-ou%- soeusa%es call #ort- a stylistic eanin%. :-ere are practically unliited possi5ilities o#

presentin% any lan%ua%e #act in 3-at is va%uely called its stylistic use. "or a lan%ua%e#act to 5e prooted to t-e level o# an SD t-ere is one indispensa5le reuireent83-ic- -as already 5een entioned a5ove8 vi. t-at it s-ould so 5e used to call #ort- at3o#old perception o# lexical orand structural eanin%s. Even a nonce use can and

very o#ten does create t-e necessary conditions #or t-e appearance o# an SD. +ut t-eseare only t-e prereuisites #or t-e appearance o# an SD. ,nly 3-en a ne3ly intedlan%ua%e unit 3-ic- aterialies t-e t3o#old application o# eanin%s occursrepeatedly in di##erent environents8 can it sprin% into li#e as an SD and su5seuently

5e re%istered in t-e syste o# SDs o# t-e %iven lan%ua%e.:-ere#ore it is necessary to distin%uis- 5et3een a stylistic use o# a lan%ua%e unit83-ic- acuires 3-at 3e call a stylistic eanin%8 and a stylistic device8 3-ic- is t-erealiation o# an already 3ell=Rno3n a5stract sc-ee desi%ned to ac-ieve a particular


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artistic e##ect. :-us any #acts o# En%lis- %raar are said to 5e used 3it- stylisticeanin%8 #or exaple8 t-e orp-olo%ical expressive eans entioned on p. 2@. +utost o# t-e -ave not yet 5een raised to t-e level o# SDs 5ecause t-ey reainunsysteatied and so #ar perceived as nonce uses. :-ey are8 as it 3ere8 still3anderin% in t-e vicinity o# t-e real o# SDs 3it-out 5ein% aditted into it. :-is can

indirectly 5e proved 5y t-e #act t-at #-ey -ave no special nae in t-e En%lis-lan%ua%e syste o# SDs. *n exception8 per-aps8 is t-e >istorical resent 3-ic- eetst-e reuireents o# an SD.So #a# t-e syste o# stylistic devices -as not 5een #ully reco%nied as le%itiatee5ers o# t-e %eneral syste o# lan%ua%e. :-is is ainly due to t-e a5ove=entioned conception o# %raatical t-eory as dealin% exclusively 3it- a per#ectlyor%anied and extreely ri%id sc-ee o# lan%ua%e rules8 precise and accurate in itsapplication.

3. GENERAL NOTES ON FUNCTIONAL STYLES OF LANGUAGE

?e -ave de#ined t-e o5ect8o# lin%uo=stylistics as t-e study o# t-e nature8 #unctionsand structure0 SDs and EMs8 on t-e one -and8 and t-e study o# t-e #unctional styles8on t-e ot-er. In section 2 o# t-is Introduction (p. 2) 3e -ave outlined t-e %eneral

principles on 3-ic- t-e notions o# EMs and SDs rest.It is no3 tie to outline t-e %eneral principles on 3-ic- #unctional styles rest. functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which

serves a definite aim in communication# functional style is thus to be regarded

as the product of a certain concrete tas' set by the sender of the message#

Functional styles appear mainly in the literary standard of a language#:-e literary standard o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e8 liRe t-at o# any ot-er developedlan%ua%e8 is not so -oo%eneous as it ay see. In #act t-e standard En%lis- literarylan%ua%e in t-e course o# its developent -as #allen into several su5systes eac- o#3-ic- -as acuired its o3n peculiarities 3-ic- are typical o# t-e %iven #unctionalstyle. :-e e5ers o# t-e lan%ua%e counity8 especially t-ose 3-o are su##icientlytrained and responsive to lan%ua%e variations8 reco%nie t-ese styles as independent3-oles. :-e peculiar c-oice o# lan%ua%e eans is priarily predeterined 5y t-e aio# t-e counication 3it- t-e result t-at a ore or less closed syste is 5uilt up. ,ne

set o# lan%ua%e edia stands in opposition to ot-er sets .o# lan%ua%e edia 3it- ot-erais8 and t-ese ot-er sets -ave ot-er c-oices and arran%eents o# lan%ua%e eans.?-at 3e -ere call #unctional styles are also called re%isters or d i s Y V u r s e s.In t-e En%lis- literary standard 3e distin%uis- t-e #ollo3in% aor #unctional styles(-ence "S);1) :-e lan%ua%e o# 5elles=lettres.2) :-e lan%ua%e o# pu5licistic literature.!) :-e lan%ua%e o# ne3spapers.


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') :-e lan%ua%e o# scienti#ic prose.) :-e lan%ua%e o# o##icial docuents.*s -as already 5een entioned8 #unctional styles are t-e product o# t-e developento# t-e 3ritten variety o# lan%ua%e. l Eac- "S ay 5e c-aracteried 5y a nu5er o#distinctive #eatures8 leadin% or su5ordinate8 constant or c-an%in%8 o5li%atory or

optional. Most o# t-e "Ss8 -o3ever8 are perceived as independent 3-oles due to apeculiar co5ination and interrelation o# #eatures coon to all (especially 3-entaRin% into account syntactical arran%eent) 3it- t-e leadin% ones o# eac- "S.Eac- "S is su5divided into a nu5er o# su5styles. :-ese represent varieties o# t-ea5stract invariant. Eac- variety -as 5asic #eatures coon to all t-e varieties o# t-e%iven "S and peculiar #eatures typical o# t-is variety alone. Still a su5style can8 insoe cases8 deviate so #ar #ro t-e invariant t-at in its extree it ay even 5reaRa3ay.?e clearly perceive t-e #ollo3in% su5styles o# t-e #ive "Ss %iven a5ove.The belles-lettres FS has the following substyles9

[W[ -a zH zs not ean8 -o3ever8 t-at t-e spoRen counications lacR individualityal stvle & stinct stwles o# t-eir o3n. "olRlore8 #or exaple8 is undou5tedly a #unction=t-ere#ore plasucl;1.as it -as a de#inite ai in counicatin% its #acts and ideas8 andis our attention0 r/Fec/ 0 _ deli5erately c-osen lan%ua%e eans. >ere 3e s-allcon#ine dard. :-ose t / s0udy o# t-e #unctional styles 5red 3it-in t-e literary 3rittenstan=L o# out- su- eS 0 literature 3-ic- 5e%an li#e purely as speec-8 3ere passed on

5y 3ord lore. & ec/ently perpetuated in 3ritin%8 are le#t to t-e care o# specialists in#olR=a) the language style of poetry; b) the language style of emotive prose; c) the

language style of drama#The publicistic F S comprises the following substyles9 a) the language style of

oratory; b) the language style of essays;

c) the language style of feature articles in newspapers and 6ournals#:

The newspaper FS falls into a) the language style of brief news items and

communiues; b) the language style of newspaper headings and c) the language

style of notices and advertisements#

The scientific prose FS also has three divisions9 a) the language style of

humanitarian sciences; b) the language style of exact < sciences; c) the

language style of popular scientific prose# =

The official document FS can be divided into four varieties9 a) the language styleof diplomatic documents; b) the language > style of business documents; c) the

language style of legal #documents; ?

d) the language style of military documents# ?

:-e classi#ication presented -ere is 5y no eans ar5itrary. It is t-e result o# lon% andinute o5servations o# #actual aterial in 3-ic- not J only peculiarities o# lan%ua%eusa%e 3ere taRen into account 5ut also extralin%uistic data8 in particular t-e purport o#t-e counication. >o3ever8 3e adit t-at t-is classi#ication is not proo# a%ainst


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criticis. ,t-er sc-ees ay possi5ly 5e ela5orated and -i%-li%-ted 5y di##erentapproac-es to t-e pro5le o# #unctional styles. :-e classi#ication o# "Ss A is not asiple atter and any discussion o# it is 5ound to re#lect ore li t-an one an%le .o#vision. :-us8 #or exaple8 soe stylicists consider t-at ne3spaper articles (includin%#eature articles) s-ould 5e classed M under t-e #unctional style o# ne3spaper

lan%ua%e8 not under t-e lan%ua%e o# pu5licistic literature. ,t-ers insist on includin%t-e lan%ua%e o# every= & day=li#e discourse into t-e syste o# #unctional styles. ro#.+uda%ov sin%les out only t3o ain #unctional styles; t-e lan%ua%e o# science and t-ato# eotive literature.1It is inevita5le8 o# course8 t-at any classi#ication s-ould lead to soe Rind o#sipli#ication o# t-e 0acts classi#ied8 5ecause ites areconsid=ered in isolation.Moreover8 su5styles assue8 as it 3ere8 t-e aspect o# closed systes. +ut noclassi#ication8 use#ul t-ou%- it ay 5e #ro t-e t-eoretical point o# vie38 s-ould 5eallo3ed to 5lind us as to t-e conventionality o# classi#ication in %eneral. ?-enanalysin% concrete texts8 3e discover t-at t-e 5oundaries 5et3een t-e soeties

5ecoe less and less discerni5R0:-us8 #or instance8 t-e si%ns o# di##erence aresoeties alost ipercepti5le 5et3een poetry and eotive proseC 5et3eenne3spaper "S and pu5licistic "SC 5et3een a popular scienti#ic article and a scienti#ictreatiseC 5et3een an essay and a scienti#ic article. +ut t-e extrees are apparent #rot-e 3ays lan%ua%e units are used 5ot- structurally and seantically. $an%ua%e servesa variety o# needs and t-ese needs -ave %iven 5irt- to t-e principles on 3-ic- ourclassi#ication is 5ased and 3-ic- in t-eir turn presuppose t-e c-oice and co5inationo# lan%ua%e eans.?e presue t-at t-e reader -as noticed t-e insistent use o# t-e ex=c:ion &lan%ua%e

style& or Hstyle o# lan%ua%e& in t-e a5ove classi#ication. :-is is done in order toep-asie t-e idea t-at in t-is 3orR t-e 3ord &style& is applied purely to lin%uisticdata.:-e classi#ication %iven a5ove to our ind adeuately represents t-e #acts o# t-estandard En%lis- lan%ua%e. "or detailed analyses o# "Ss c-apter I o# t-is 5ooR (p.2'9)8 3-ere in addition to ar%uents #or placin% t-is or t-at "S in a %iven %roup8illustrations 3it- coentary 3ill 5e #ound.

. VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE

The functioning of the literary language in various spheres of human activity and

with different aims of communication has resulted in its differentiation# :-isdi##erentiation is predeterined 5y t3o distinct #actors8 naely8 t-e actual situation in3it-in t-e lan%ua%e is 5ein% used a$t-e ai o# t-e counication.:-e actual situation o# t-e counication -as evolved t3o varieties o# lan%ua%et-e s p V R e n a0d 01|V r #t en. The varying aims of the communication havecaused the literary language to fall into a number of self-sufficient systems


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(functional styles of language)#

@f the two varieties of language, diachronically the spo'en is primary and the

written is secondary# !ach of these varieties has developed its own features

mdA2ua4ties which in many ways may be regarded as opposed to each other#

:-e situation in 3-ic- t-e spoRen variety o# lan%ua%e is used and in 3-ic- it

develops8 can 5e descri5ed concisely as t-e presence o# an interlocutor. :-e 3rittenvariety8 on t-e contrary8 presupposes t-e a5sence o# an interlocutor. :-e spoRenlan%ua%e is aintained in t-e #or o# a dialo%ue8 t-e 3ritten in t-e #or o# aonolo%ue. The spo'en language, has a considerable advantage over the written,in that the human voice, comes into play# This is a powerful means of modulating

the utterance, as are all 'inds of gestures, which, together with the intonation,

give additional information#

The written language has to see' means to compensate for what it lac's#

Therefore the written utterance will inevitably be more diffuse, more

explanatory. In ot-er 3ords8 it -as to produce an enlar%ed representation o# t-e

counication in order to 5e explicit enou%-.:-e #ors o# t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e replace t-ose o# t-e spoRen lan%ua%e 3-endisseination o# ideas is t-e purpose in vie3. It is t-e 3ritten variety o# lan%ua%e3it- its care#ul or%aniation and deli5erate8 c-oice o# 3ords and istru>ior0 andeducational in#luence on a 3Me and scattered pu5lic.An #Be rri%Lprocess0::I0unc#ionin%8 t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e -as acuired its o3nc-aracteristic #eatures eanatin% #ro t-e need to a=Lty t-e utterance8 3-ic-8 is anessential point in t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e.The gap between the spo'en and written varieties of language, wider

narrower at different periods in the development of the literary lan-guage, will always remain apparent due to the difference in circumstances in

which the two are used#>ere is an exaple s-o3in% t-e di##erence. LMarvellous5east8 a=#ox. Great places #or 3ild li#e8 t-ese 3ooded c-inesC so steep you can&t distur5t-epi%eons8 ays8 3oodpecRers8 ra55its8 #oxes8 -ares8 p-easantsevery ortalt-in%.LIts 3ritten counterpart 3ould run as #ollo3s; &?-at a arvellous 5east a #ox isK :-ese3ooded c-ines are splendid places #or 3ild li#e. :-ey are so steep t-at one can&tdistur5 anyt-in%. :-ere#ore one can see every ia%ina5le creature -erepi%eons8

ays8 3oodpecRers8 ra55its8 #oxes8 -ares and p-easants

:-e use o# t-e peculiarities o# t-e spoRen variety in t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e8 or viceversa8 t-e peculiarities o# t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e in lively speec-8 3ill al3ays produce aludicrous e##ect. In t-is connection *. S. us-Rin 3rote;L:-e 3ritten lan%ua%e is constantly 5ein% enlivened 5y expressions 5orn inconversation 5ut ust not %ive up 3-at it -as acuired in t-e course o# centuries. :ouse t-e spoRen lan%ua%e only8 eans not to Rno3 t-e lan%ua%e.L1It ust 5e 5orne in ind t-at in t-e 5elles=lettres style t-ere ay appear eleents o#collouial lan%ua%e (a #or o# t-e spoRen variety)8 5ut it 3ill al3ays 5e stylied to a


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%reater or lesser de%ree 5y t-e 3riter. :-e ter M56els0#itti~$itsdI su%%ests t-e useo# t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e. :-e spo:cen lan%ua%e 5y its very nature is spontaneous8oentary8 #leetin%. It vanis-es a#ter -avin% #ul#illed its purpose8 3-ic- is .to co=unicate a t-ou%-t8 no atter 3-et-er it is trivial or really iportant. :-e ideareains8 t-e lan%ua%e dissolves in it. :-e 3ritten lan%ua%e8 on t-e contrary8 lives

to%et-er 3it- t-e idea it expresses.* trust3ort-y o5servation on t-e di##erence 5et3een t-e spoRen and 3ritten varietieso# lan%ua%e is ade 5y ro#. *rc-i5ald *. >ill in -is L*n *nalysis o# &:-e?ind-over&.LL,rdinary speec- isb ep-eeral8 eant to 5e reacted to and #or%otten. ...c-ains inspeec-8 t-ere#ore8 3orR ostly #or3ard and over a #airly s-ort span. In literature t-eycan also 3orR 5acR3ard and t-ere can 5e ore t-an one c-ain runnin% at a tie8 sot-at a %iven ite can -ave one eanin% in one span8 a di##erent one in a second.L2:-e spoRen lan%ua%e cannot 5e detac-ed #ro t-e user o# it8 t-e speaRer8 3-o isuna5le to vie3 it #ro t-e outside. :-e 3ritten lan%ua%e8 on t-e contrary8 can 5e

detac-ed #ro t-e 3riter8 ena5lin% -i to looR upon -is utterance o5ectively and%ivin% -i t-e opportunity to correct and iprove..3at -as 5een put on paper. :-atis 3-y it is said t-at t-e 3riten lan%ua%e 5ears a %reater volue o# responsi5ility t-anits spoRen cuntei#partC:-e spoRen variety 0i##c0#ro t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e (t-at is8 in its 3rittenrepresentation) %-oneticallv8 orp-olo%ically8 lexically8 .and syntactically. :-us8 o#or)liOlo%I>riS"s:>esLpoen lan%ua%e coon=L L Livuses contractedprs8 eas &-e&d& (-e 3ould)8 &s-e&s& (s-e is) :d&ve& (I 3ould -ave). Itnius:eLree5ered t-at 3e touc- upon t

TH Galperin Styl s

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