Textiles- History, Properties and Performance and Application 2014

8/10/2019 Textiles- History, Properties and Performance and Application 2014

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CHEMISTRYR ESEARCH ANDAPPLICATIONS

TEXTILES

HISTORY, PROPERTIES ANDPERFORMANCE ANDAPPLICATIONS

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CHEMISTRYR ESEARCH ANDAPPLICATIONS

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C HEMISTRY R ESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS

T EXTILES

H ISTORY , P ROPERTIES ANDP ERFORMANCE AND APPLICATIONS

M D. IBRAHIM H. M ONDAL E DITOR

New York


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Copyright 2014 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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CONTENTS

Preface vii

Contributor Contact Details ix Andrej Javorek, Cesar Pulgarin, Eva Bou-Belda,Gordana S. U umli , Ignacio Montava, Jaime Gisbertand Sami Rtimi

Chapter 1 An Exploration of Vintage Fashion Retailing 1 Julie McColl, Catherine Canning, Louise McBride, Karina Nobbs and Linda Shearer

Chapter 2 Developing Sustainable Design on Denim Ready-Made Apparels by Stone and Enzymatic Washing 19

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal and Md. Mashiur Rahman Khan Chapter 3 Digital Textile Printing Using Color Management 53

Dejana Javorek, Primo Weingerl and Marica Stareini

Chapter 4 Inkjet Printed Photo-Responsive Textiles for Conventionaland High-Tech Applications 81 Shah M. Reduwan Billah

Chapter 5 Synthesis and Grafting of Cellulose Derivatives fromCellulosic Wastes of the Textile Industry 123

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal and A. B. M. Fakrul Alam Chapter 6 History, Synthesis and Properties of Azo Pyridone Dyes 157

Duan . Mijin, Gordana S. U umli and Nataa V. Valenti

Chapter 7 Smart Textiles and the Effective Uses of Photochromic,Thermochromic, Ionochromic and ElectrochromicMolecular Switches 187 Shah M. Reduwan Billah

Chapter 8 Smart Textiles 239

Ali Akbar MeratiChapter 9 Overview of Textiles Excavated in Greece 259

Christina Margariti, Stavroula Moraitou and Maria Retsa


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Contentsvi

Chapter 10 Innovative Ag-Textiles Prepared by Colloidal, ConventionalSputtering and HIPIMS Including Fast Bacterial Inactivation:Critical Issues 277 Sami Rtimi, Cesar Pulgarin, Rosendo Sanjines and John Kiwi

Chapter 11 Fungal Deterioration of Aged Textiles 315 Katja Kavkler, Nina Gunde-Cimerman, Polona Zalarand Andrej Demar

Chapter 12 Durability of Functionalized Textiles by Microcapsules 343 Lucia Capablanca, Pablo Monllor, Pablo Dazand Maria ngeles Bonet

Chapter 13 New Approaches and Applications on CellulosicFabric Crosslinking 355 Eva Bou-Belda, Maria ngeles Bonet, Pablo Monllor, Pablo Daz, Ignacio Montava and Jaime Gisbert

Chapter 14 Wrinkle Resistant and Comfort Finishing of Cotton Textiles 367 Vahid Ameri Dehabadi and Hans-Jrgen Buschmann

Chapter 15 Evaluation of Physical and Thermal Comfort Properties ofCopper/Alginate Treated Wool Fabrics by Using Ultrasonic Energy 383 Muhammet Uzun

Chapter 16 Hemp Fibers: Old Fibers - New Applications 399 Mirjana Kostic, Marija Vukcevic, Biljana Pejicand Ana Kalijadis

Chapter 17 Textiles Using Electronic Applications 447 Marica Stareini , Andrej Javorek and Dejana Javorek

Chapter 18 Textiles for Cardiac Care 465 Narayanan Gokarneshan, Palaniappan P. Gopalakrishnan,Venkatachalam Rajendran and Dharmarajan Anita Rachel

Chapter 19 Effect of Clothing Materials on Thermoregulatory Responsesof the Human Body 483 P. Kandha Vadivu

Chapter 20 Designing of JuteBased Thermal Insulating Materialsand Their Properties 499 Sanjoy Debnath

Chapter 21 Effects of Ring Flange Type, Traveler Weight and Coating onCotton Yarn Properties 519 Muhammet Uzun and Ismail Usta

Chapter 22 Optical Fiber Examination by Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy 531 Andrea Ehrmann

Index 547


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PREFACE

This book reveals the expanding opportunity of textiles in a wide range of industrial

applications. No longer limited to apparels and home furnishings, textiles are being used inmany sciences and technologies, such as clothing and fashionable materials, smart textiles,technical textiles, medical textiles, agro-textiles, geo-textiles, electronics, photonics,intelligent sensors, etc.

This book is intended for all those who are interested and engaged in the latestdevelopments in the field of textiles, especially chemists, engineers, technologists, applicationtechnicians and colorists of the textile industry, technical colleges and universities.

Textiles are essential and one of the most important classes of materials used by all people since ancient time. Despite textiles having been around and in use for so long,advances and improvements continue to be made. This book contains 22 invited contributionswritten by leading experts in the field of textiles. Each contribution presents an updatedscience and technological advances that have happened during this period and are fullydiscussed. The first chapter discusses the present and future prospects of vintage fashionclothing, i.e., an old fashion clothing and its retailing. Chapter 2 searches for the dynamic bestmethod for producing specific washing effects and designs on denim ready-made apparels.The chapters 3 and 4 present a discussion on color management application in the field ofdigital printing onto textile substrates, and inject printed photo-responsive textiles used infashion and design, self indicating security alert systems, anti-counterfeit and brand protection. In chapter 5 and 6, an attempt has been made to cover the most up-to-date

information regarding synthesis, and application of cellulose derivatives and azo dyes ontextiles. Smart textiles incorporated with different functionalities have many uses in a varietyof fields, some of them are widely used in the fields of biomedical or healthcare applications.The smart textiles and its multi-disciplinary applications have been well discussed in chapters7 and 8. In chapters 9, 10 and 11, preservation of textile objects in different environments likehome, stores, museums etc. have been discussed. These chapters also discussed how to protect textiles from bacterial and fungal deterioration. An elaborative discussion has beenmade in Chapters 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 on the new applications of textile materials throughmodification by physico-chemical methods. The modification has been done to obtaindurable, comfort, sustainable and environment friendly finished products using variousorganic and inorganic chemicals for much better performance. Use of micro-capsulationtechniques to modify textiles offers extra-properties, e.g., durable fragrances, skin softeners totextiles. Electronic applications of textiles have been discussed in chapter 17. Textiles, from


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Md. Ibrahim H. Mondalviii

fibers to fabric, with integrated special electronics are more and more used as specialmaterials in newly developed smart clothing. The chapter 18 specifically focuses on thetechnological advances with regard to development of textiles for cardiology purpose, i.e.,cardiac care. The thermoregulatory process of human body, the thermal comfort properties offabrics and the effect of clothing material on the thermoregulatory process of human body indifferent weather conditions has been discussed in Chapter 19. In chapter 20, effort has beenmade on diversification of jute specifically, development of jute-based materials for thermalinsulating applications. The main aim of chapter 21 is to utilize the ring flanges and travellersof ring spinning, which is the most effective staple yarn production process, for the yarnquality in terms of hairiness, twist, breaking strength and irregularity. The last chapter 22gives an introduction into the techniques of confocal laser spinning microscopy, and depictsoptical differences between several textile fibers, enabling a non-destructive examination ofnatural and chemical fibers.

I am very much grateful to all the specialized contributing authors of this book. Myspecial appreciation is also extended to Ms. Carra Feagaiga of Nova Science Publishers, Inc.,for her good collaboration, support and numerous discussions throughout the project for this book.

I wish thank to my colleagues Professor C. M. Mustafa, Professor F. I. Farouqui, andProfessor M. A. Sayeed for their constant support and encouragement. I also thank mygraduate students, Dr. Md. Mashiur Rahman Khan, Md. Raihan Sharif, Md. Saifur Rahmanand Md. Tariqul Islam for their help during editing this book. Lastly I am thankful toKhadijatul Qubra and Ishrat Rafia for their constant encouragement, understanding andsupport.

Any constructive suggestions and comments are therefore welcome for future revisionsand corrections.

Department of Applied Chemistry & Chemical Engineering,Rajshahi University, Bangladesh

November 2013

Professor Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal


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CONTRIBUTORCONTACTDETAILS

A. B. M. Fakrul Alam

Polymer and Textiles Research Lab, Department of Applied Chemistry and ChemicalEngineering, University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh

Ali Akbar MeratiAdvanced Textile Materials and Technology Research Institute (ATMT), AmirkabirUniversity of Technology, Tehran, IranE-mail: [email protected]

Ana KalijadisLaboratory of Physics, Vinca Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, MikePetrovica Alasa 12-14, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

Andrea Ehrmann Niederrhein University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Textile and Clothing Technology,Webschulstr. 31, 41065 Moenchengladbach, GermanyE-mail: [email protected]

Andrej DemarFaculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,Slovenia

Andrej JavorekUniversity of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snenika 5,1000Ljubljana, Slovenia


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Md. Ibrahim H. Mondalx

Biljana PejicFaculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11000Belgrade, Serbia

Catherine CanningDepartment of Fashion, Marketing and Retailing, Glasgow Caledonian University,Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4OBA, Scotland

Cesar PulgarinEPFL-SB-ISIC-GPAO, Ecole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015,Lausanne, Switzerland.

Christina Margariti Textile conservator, Directorate of Conservation of Ancient and Modern Monuments /Hellenic Ministry of Culture, 81 Peiraios Avenue, 10553 Athens, GreeceE-mail: [email protected]

Dejana JavorekUniversity of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snenika 5, 1000Ljubljana, SloveniaE-mail: [email protected]

Dharmarajan Anita Rachel NIFT TEA College of knitwear fashion, Tiruppur 641 606, IndiaE-mail: [email protected]

Duan . MijinFaculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11120

Belgrade, SerbiaE-mail: [email protected]

Eva Bou-BeldaDepartamento de Ingeniera Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, PlazaFerrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain

Gordana S. U umli

Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11120Belgrade, Serbia


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Contributor Contact Details xi

Hans-Jrgen BuschmannDeutsches Textilforschungszentrum Nord-West gGmbH, Universitt Duisburg-Essen, NETZ / DTNW gGmbH, Carl-Benz-Strae 199, D-47057, Duisburg, Germany

Ignacio MontavaDepartamento de Ingeniera Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, PlazaFerrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain

Ismail UstaDepartment of Textile Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Marmara University,Goztepe, Istanbul 34722, Turkey

Jaime GisbertDepartamento de Ingeniera Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, PlazaFerrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain

John KiwiEPFL-SB-ISIC-LPI, Ecole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne, Btiment Chimie,Station 6, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland

Julie McCollDepartment of Fashion, Marketing and Retailing, Glasgow Caledonian University,Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4OBA, ScotlandE-mail: [email protected]

Karina NobbsLondon College of Fashion, 272 Holborn, London WCIV 7CY, UK

Katja KavklerRestoration Centre, Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia,Ljubljana, SloveniaE-mail: [email protected]

Linda ShearerDepartment of Fashion, Marketing and Retailing, Glasgow Caledonian University,

Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4OBA, Scotland


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Md. Ibrahim H. Mondalxii

Louise McBrideDepartment of Fashion, Marketing and Retailing, Glasgow Caledonian University,Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4OBA, Scotland

Lucia CapablancaDepartamento de Ingeniera Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, PlazaFerrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain

Maria Bonet Departamento de Ingeniera Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, PlazaFerrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, SpainE-mail: [email protected]

Maria Retsa Textile conservator, Directorate of Conservation of Ancient and Modern Monuments /Hellenic Ministry of Culture, 81 Peiraios Avenue, 10553 Athens, Greece

Marica Stareini University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snenika 5,1000 Ljubljana, SloveniaE-mail: [email protected]

Marija VukcevicFaculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11000Belgrade, SerbiaE-mail: [email protected]

Mashiur Rahman Khan

Polymer and Textile Research Lab., Department of Applied Chemistry and ChemicalEngineering, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi- 6205, Bangladesh andDepartment of Apparel Manufacturing Engineering, Bangladesh University of Textiles,Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208, Bangladesh

Md. Ibrahim H. MondalPolymer and Textiles Research Lab, Department of Applied Chemistry and ChemicalEngineering, University of Rajshahi, BangladeshE-mail: [email protected]


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Contributor Contact Details xiii

Mirjana KosticFaculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11000Belgrade, Serbia

Muhammet UzunInstitute for Materials Research and Innovation, University of Bolton, Deane Road,Bolton, BL3 5AB, UK, andDepartment of Textile Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Marmara University,Goztepe, Istanbul 34722, TurkeyE-mail: [email protected]

Narayanan Gokarneshan NIFT TEA College of knitwear fashion, Tiruppur 641 606, IndiaE-mail: [email protected]

Nataa V. Valenti Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11120Belgrade, Serbia

Nina Gunde-CimermanDepartment of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,Slovenia,andCentre of Excellence for Integrated Approaches in Chemistry and Biology of Proteins(CIPKeBiP), Jamova 39, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia

P. Kandha VadivuDepartment of Fashion Technology, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore 641004,IndiaE-mail: [email protected]

Pablo Daz Departamento de Ingeniera Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, PlazaFerrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain

Pablo MonllorDepartamento de Ingeniera Textil y Papelera, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, PlazaFerrandiz y Carbonell s/n, 03801 Alcoy, Spain


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Md. Ibrahim H. Mondalxiv

Palaniappan P. Gopalakrishnan NIFT TEA College of knitwear fashion, Tiruppur 641 606, India

Polona Zalar Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,Slovenia

Primo WeingerlUniversity of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Snenika 5,1000Ljubljana, Slovenia

Rosendo SanjinesEPFL-SB-IPMC-LNNME Ecole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne, Bat PH, Station 3,CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland

Sami RtimiEPFL-SB-ISIC-GPAO, Ecole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015,Lausanne, Switzerland.E-mail: [email protected]

Sanjoy Debnath National Institute of Research on Jute & Allied Fibre Technology, Indian Council ofAgricultural Research 12, Regent Park, Kolkata 700 040, West Bengal, IndiaE-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

Shah M. Reduwan BillahDepartment of Chemistry, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, UK and

The School of Textiles and Design, Heriot-Watt University, Galashiels TD1 3HF, UKE-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]

Stavroula Moraitou Textile conservator, Directorate of Conservation of Ancient and Modern Monuments /Hellenic Ministry of Culture, 81 Peiraios Avenue, 10553 Athens, Greece

Vahid Ameri DehabadiDeutsches Textilforschungszentrum Nord-West gGmbH, Universitt Duisburg-Essen, NETZ / DTNW gGmbH, Carl-Benz-Strae 199, D-47057, Duisburg, GermanyE-mail: [email protected]


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Contributor Contact Details xv

Venkatachalam Rajendran NIFT TEA College of knitwear fashion, Tiruppur 641 606, IndiaE-mail: [email protected]


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In: Textiles: History, Properties and Performance ISBN: 978-1-63117-262-5Editor: Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal 2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

AN EXPLORATION OFVINTAGE FASHIONR ETAILING

Julie McColl 1,

, Catherine Canning 1 , Louise McBride1 , Karina Nobbs2 and Linda Shearer 1

1Department of Business Management, GlasgowCaledonian University, Glasgow, Scotland2London College of Fashion, London, UK

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this research is to offer a definition of vintage fashion and considerthe characteristics of the vintage fashion consumer and the positioning of the vintagefashion store from the perspective of fifteen vintage fashion retailers. The researchindicates that vintage fashion retailers position themselves on the basis of theiruniqueness, based upon their experience, knowledge and skills.

Keywords: Vintage, fashion, definition, customer characteristics, positioning

INTRODUCTION

Over the past decade there has been an increasing trend for vintage fashion clothing [1].Indeed, McMeekin [2] and Wilson and Thorpe [3] have identified that vintage fashion is amultimillion pound industry. Previously, second-hand clothing was purchased by low incomegroups, economically disadvantaged in terms of mainstream fashion. More recently, however,vintage clothing has become an alternative or an additional choice to high street fashion [4,5]. Tolkien [6] has proposed that vintage stores and markets have become a desirable sourcefor acquiring fashion items. This may be the result of increasing societal acceptance of anaesthetic shift, with vintage fashion being intended as a means of self-expression and

differentiation [4, 7, 8].

Corresponding author: Julie McColl. Department of Business Management, Glasgow Caledonian University,Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4OBA, Scotland. E-mail: [email protected].


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Julie McColl, Catherine Canning, Louise McBride et al.2

The acceptance of second hand clothing as an alternative to high street fashion is partlydue to the resurgence of fashion styles from the 1960s, 1970s and the 1980s [9], and theinfluence of celebrity culture [4, 10].

Consumers are increasingly aware of unethical practices in the fashion industry [10-12],and have become less tolerant towards disposable fashion and more suspicious of the behavior of global brands [8, 13]. The move of vintage from niche sub-culture to mainstreammay be evidenced by the increased vintage offerings by high street, luxury and onlineretailers and by the plethora of guides on selecting and assembling vintage clothing outfits [4,14, 15, 8, 16]. This apparent increase in vintage offerings has broadened the opportunities forthe consumption of vintage clothing.

The term vintage is widely used yet has never been clearly defined [4, 7], in terms of the parameters, characteristics and the positioning of the vintage fashion retail store. Theliterature on the retailer positioning strategies is clearly established [17-26], however, there islittle published research on vintage fashion retailing, and developments in the market andtheir implications for vintage fashion retailers has not been addressed. This exploratory studydefines the concept of vintage fashion and the vintage fashion consumer. It evaluates the positioning strategies of vintage fashion retailers, explores how they differentiate themselvesin the face of increased competition and considers the implications of the more recent vintagetrend for traditional vintage retailers.

LITERATURER EVIEW

Definition of VintageIt is difficult to define the concept of vintage, partly due to the lack of agreement

regarding the specific time periods of vintage, antique and retro but also due todifferences in opinion about the constituents of such clothing items.

According to De Long [7, p. 23] in clothing, vintage usually involves the recognition ofa special type or model, and knowing and appreciating such specifics as year or period when produced or worn. Furthermore, they suggest that vintage clothing is concerned with aspecific time period or setting and is distinguished from antique, historical, consignment, re-used or second-hand. Palmer and Clark [4, p. 175], define the term more broadly proposingthat it is used to cover a huge spectrum of clothes that are not newly designed. Tungate [8, p. 221] offers a more focused definition which highlights the evolution and complexity of theterm, identifying that any one particular item may change through time and usage by thefashion media, so that second hand becomes known as retro then in turn as vintage. Theincrease in availability of vintage and the growth of on-line availability of vintage clothinghas added confusion to the array of vintage definitions [4].

From the customer view point, Tungate [8], proposes that vintage is an intangible conceptwhich is more about attitude than style of dress.

Similarly Palmer [4], characterises vintage fashion as a symbol of individuality andoriginality. A primary aim of this research was to define vintage from the perspective of thevintage fashion retailer.


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An Exploration of Vintage Fashion Retailing 3

Characteristics of the Vintage Consumer

Traditionally the buying of second-hand apparel has been subject to negative meanings asa mark of poverty [27, 28]. Tselon [29] acknowledged that this type of social judgment has been discounted by the vintage consumer in their quest for non-conformity to fashion trends.Silverman [30], recognized increased demand for vintage goods amongst the young consumerand the middle class consumer. Crewe and Forster [31], agree with this explanation, addingthat these groups acquire vintage fashion for excitement and as a means of displayingthemselves in public. Hansen [32], segments the vintage consumers into young professionalswho want good quality apparel at modest prices, or young people keen on retro subculturelooks like Punk, Rave or Mod styles.

In addition, Woodwards [16] study explored younger consumers affection for vintageclothing and recognized that the incentive for consumption was to achieve a level ofdifferentiation from their peers. Additionally, a substantial consumer group has beenacknowledged as taste-makers: stylists, designers and image makers who use it as a means ofinspiration and creativity [33-35]. The ownership, or the wearing of vintage items along withhigh street clothes, has become anindication of how fashionable the wearer is, with anincreasing prominence on how the items are sourced, and not just on how the person looks[16]. The increase in mass market vintage has possibly weakened the authentic charm ofvintage among fashion orientated consumers, i.e., those more concerned with how thingslook and being individual in style, than having a deferential concern with the historic andrepresentative links of these sometimes uncommon items which the vintage connoisseur andretail experts so value [7, 36, 38].

History and Key Drivers

Vintage as mainstream fashion emerged as a trend in the 1980s [38]. Tolkien [6] hasidentified vintage as stemming from the New York social fashion elite, influenced bysentimental pictures of 1940s couture. In addition, celebrities fueled demand and popularityof the style by wearing luxury vintage gowns to major award ceremonies and fashion shows.Others credit Barbra Streisand as the first vintage-couture advocate [39]. In turn, thisencouraged designers such as Marc Jacobs, in the 1990s to create the nouveau vintage look by reinventing older styles [40].

This trend also occurred in the UK and Europe with designers and celebrities such asStella McCartney and Kate Moss inspiring mainstream adoption of vintage fashion [41, 42].The appreciation of vintage aesthetics which grew in the 1990s helped to decrease the stigmaof wearing second hand clothing, and permitted them to develop in to acceptable sources offashion. This resulted in a differentiation both in-store and in the consumers mind, betweenvintage and clothing purchased from charity stores [1, 4, 6, 43]. The media has endorsedvintage fashion as a means of conveying connoisseurship and uniqueness, more recentlyextended by the juxtaposition of vintage and contemporary in one ensemble [4, 8].

Jackson and Shaw [44] highlight an important driver in the vintage movement is mediaattention on the unethical practices which exist in the fashion industry, resulting in aconsumer backlash against disposable fashion and the beginnings of a slow fashionmovement, who emphasize the importance of quality as opposed to quantity [45].


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An additional driver acknowledged by Tungate [8] is customer defiance of expensive, branded products and trends promoted through marketing communications. In recent years,the economic downturn has witnessed upcycled fashion items becoming a mainstream phenomenon; this is the re-working of old clothes into more modern-day, higher value pieces[46, 47].

The influential retail guru, author and broadcaster Mary Portas, successfully developeda media campaign in 2009 called Living and Giving which improved the image of charityshops and further increased demand in vintage clothing [48]. More recently, in a study ofstreet style Woodward [16], indicated that the trend for vintage has reached maturity andmight now be perceived as commonplace or omnipresent.

In the case of both the retailer and the consumer alike, the uptake of the vintage trend inthe noughties has caused a reduction in the availability of interesting and unusual items,affecting the market in two ways. Firstly key pieces have increased in value and vintagefashion has grown to be an investment prospectrivaling the collection of artwork [49-50].Agins [51] has identified that this is as a result of the widely broadcast view that the coutureindustry is declining, with prices accelerating and skilled workmanship growing scarcer.Secondly it means that traditional vintage consumers are being forced to search extensivelyand even globally to source the desired article [52].

In total there are three key drivers of vintage fashion trends. Firstly, the trickle downfeature from celebrities and designers, secondly, the ethical aspect of the fashion industry andfinally the need for individual uniqueness and authenticity. Palmer [4, p. 197) proposes thatvintage has now shifted from subculture to mass culture because of the disappointing factthat, regardless of price, fashion today is rarely exclusive.

Market Structure and Vintage Retail Formats

Mhango and Niehm [53] suggest that vintage clothing retailers are focused within thesmall business sector, and are characteristically independently owned. These include second-hand stores for example thrift or charity shops, estate sales, garage sales, flea markets andauctions, usually the province of commercially-mediated lateral recycling [31, 54]. Nevertheless, vintage clothing retailers have now developed to comprise multifaceted retailsupport functions such as sourcing, supply chain management and visual merchandising [55].Moreover many charity stores in Great Britain have re-invented themselves as vintage toincrease their apparent brand value and to distinguish themselves from others in the sector[12]. Mainstream high street retailers such as Top Shop and Urban Outfitters havesuccessfully sold vintage clothing ranges for a number of years [15]. Tolkien [6] ascertainsthat the internet as a significant channel in the distribution of vintage clothing, however this phenomenon requires an alternative research approach and can be addressed in future studies.

Retail Positioning

Porter's [56, 57] theory of positioning theory has had an lasting impact on the marketingliterature [58-65], and practice [66, 67], as one of the most significant concepts andfundamental principles of marketing [63, 64], central to strategic marketing success [68].


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The positioning strategy implemented by any company is grounded in the needs of thecustomer, the behaviour of the competition, and is ultimately how companies can achievecompetitive advantage [69-73].

It is commonly acknowledged that although there are a number of positioning typologiesdeveloped within the marketing planning framework [59, 73-74], there is a lack of empiricalresearch testing these typologies [61, 64]. Yip [75] has proposed that a number of the positioning approaches suggested within the literature, are incomplete and may be confusing.Table 1 offers a summary of positioning typologies. The concepts of these positioningtypologies are considered by the authors as the central means by which the organisation canattain differentiation, increase competitive advantage and therefore position themselveswithin the market [64].

Table 1. Summary of positioning typologies

Author Positioning constructs i.e., conceptsFeatures and Benefits

Aaker and Shansby [59];Berry [78]; Buskirk [76];Brown and Sims [77];Crawford [79]; Hooley, etal. [63]; Wind [73]

Features, price, advertising, distribution, problem solved, usagesituation, users, competitors, value, time efficiency, high contact,sensory, benefits, product class dissociation, attributes, price,quality, use or application, product/service user, product/serviceclass, competition, direct/indirect, surrogates: nonpareil, parentage (brand, company, person), manufacture, target, rank,endorsements, experience, predecessor, innovation-imitation,superior service-limited service, differentiated benefits-undifferentiated features, tailored offering-standard offering.Strategic positioning

Ries and Trout [66] Market leader, follower, reposition the competition, use the name,line extension (use of house name).

Easingwood and Mahajan[80]

Reputation/capabilities of organisation: expertise, reliability,innovativeness, performance, augmentation of product offering: product augmentation, extra service, people advantage, moreattractive package offering, a superior product throughtechnology, accessibility, extra attention given to individualrequirements through customisation, satisfaction of more userneeds within the sector through offering a complete product line.

Arnott [61, 58]

Empathy, solvency, promotions, administrative time, helpfulness,reliability, attentiveness, staff competence, flexible products,access to people, reputation, customisation, incentives, socialawareness, security, technology.

Kalafatis, et al. [72]Easy to do business, personal contact, product performance,range of offerings, presence, safety, leadership, distinct identity,status, country identity, differentiation, attractiveness.

Source: Adapted from Blankson and Kalafatis [64].

Blankson and Kalafatis [64], however, consider existing studies to be descriptive,difficult to put into practice and based on limited empirical testing, principally in terms oftheir representation within consumer marketplaces, their propensity being to represent the


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views of management. They propose that the literature lacks an empirically based consumer/customer derived typology, which can measure the effectiveness of positioning strategiesemployed.

Having carried out extensive empirical research, they have proposed a positioningtypology based on customer opinions, which they advise is suitable for both product andservice markets and recommend that managers develop their positioning based on consumer perceptions of prestige, service, reliability, attractiveness, country of origin and brand name.These, they propose, are the key differentiating features within the marketplace and can besuccessfully deployed in marketing communication.

In the retailing literature, Cook and Walters [19] suggest that a companys market position is its reaction to its understanding of the needs, desires and behaviouralcharacteristics of its target customer profile. Retail positioning is defined by Wortzel [81, p.47] who proposes:

For a retailer, strategic positioning involves providing unique value. Strategic positioning involves selecting and then bringing to bear an integrated set of tools andcommunication techniques that identify and explain the store to the customer.

Walters [18] offers a model of positioning developed as the consequence of wide-rangingempirical research within the retail sector. The fundamentals of the positioning strategy inretailing, he suggests, are a visible response to the needs and wants of the identified targetmarket. The key decision areas for retailers in evolving their marketing strategy are those oftrading format, merchandise strategy, customer service and customer communicationsstrategy. These decision areas define the retailer positioning strategy, and position them interms of what the customer anticipates and customer satisfaction, creating a point ofdistinction which separates retailers from their competitors and represents the retail brand [82,26].

While established as a theoretical model, the strategic elements of Walterss [18] valueadded positioning statement are still recognised in the retail marketing literature as the means by which retailers should position themselves in the market [17-26].

Therefore it forms the basis of a number of empirical studies on retailer brand positioning[20, 26, 81, 83-88, 89, 90], which stress the possible benefits of developing a clear anddistinctive positioning statement using the elements of the retailing mix. Consequently it wasthought to be the most suitable framework for application within this study. However,although there are a number of positioning typologies developed in the marketing andretailing planning context [59, 73-74], there is still a lack of empirical research testing thesetypologies [61, 64].

The literature suggests that small retailers, like those addressed within this study, aredifferent from larger companies in terms of management systems and resources, and that planning, control and strategy are a result of the personal objectives and personality of theowner manager [91-93]. However, within the vintage retail sector, this proposition has not been tested. This research serves to help address this issue.


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METHODOLOGY

Small companies are dominant within the vintage retail sector and generally evolve fromthe entrepreneurs who are enthusiastic about vintage themselves [12, 14]. The decision to

focus on small scale companies is also supported by evidence provided in the vintage retailingliterature, as existing research focuses on small companies [53, 54]. To be selected for thisstudy the vintage retailers had to meet some or all of the specifications within the literature.They had to have high levels of experience in both buying and merchandising and so had tohave been in business for at least two years. The participants of the study therefore had between two and twenty three years experience of running a vintage retailing company. Toensure consistency of trading practices, participants were required to trade as bricks andmortar businesses.

Therefore, participants would provide credible information as to the concept, positioningand differentiation of small vintage fashion retailers. Thirty nine vintage fashion retailersfrom Scottish towns and cities were identified from The Yellow Pages, trade journals andcompany websites.

Of these, twenty seven were found to have been in business for over two years, howeverone was found to sell only on an online basis. A letter was sent to these twenty six vintagefashion retailers from the population sample of thirty nine in September of 2009. A follow up phone call was made a week later. Sixteen retailers responded that they were willing to participate in the study, however, one potential participant remained unavailable. Thereforefifteen interviews were carried out with owner/managers of vintage retail stores. All participants had direct experience in the areas of buying and merchandising within the vintage

retail sector. The owner managers were between twenty three and fifty eight years old.The interviews took place within the retail premises and were approximately two hourslong. Confidentiality was assured. The interviews were taped, transcribed and retained asMicrosoft Word documents. Analysis was carried out by one member of the research team toensure consistency. First of all the transcripts were analysed to identify commoncharacteristics and emerging themes and issues.

At this stage, a cluster approach was adopted and a framework for theoreticaldevelopment began to emerge [94]. These clusters were selected on the basis of significance,mutual exclusivity and ability to stand by themselves [95]. Yin [95] suggests that dataanalysis consists of examining, categorising, tabulating, and testing the content to address theinitial propositions of the research. Interviews were analysed one at a time individually andthen on a cross interview analysis. Patton [96] suggests that the analysis involves theapplication of the existing theoretical framework, developed from the literature, and thesubsequent analysis of the interviews to allow for an examination of emerging patterns.

According to the theories and concepts extracted from the literature, the intervieweeswere asked open-ended questions about their definition of vintage, the vintage customer,merchandising and the positioning of the vintage store.

The results and discussion section is therefore divided into three sections. Firstly, theresearch seeks to define vintage fashion and investigate the vintage fashion movement,secondly, the research explores the characteristics of the vintage fashion consumer from the perspective of the store owner/managers, and finally it explores positioning in relation to theretail vintage fashion sector.


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R ESULTS

Defining Vintage Fashion

There was no unified or clear definition of vintage with each vintage retailer offeringdiffering opinions and suggestions. However, three dimensions emerged. Firstly theage ofthe apparel, secondly the style, (a piece of clothing which sums up the era), and finally thequality of the vintage clothing. The majority stated that fashion which predates the 1990swould be considered to be vintage. To a number of interviewees vintage could becategorised as anything up until the 1950s, with anything that pre dates 1980 being classifiedas retro, and anything before the 1920s being considered as antique.

Probably not the 1990s but anything before that, especially the 1980s at themoment. Only the fashion forward are looking for 1990s articles

Some items of clothing were seen to represent the zeitgeist of bygone eras and these were particularly important to vintage consumers. Examples included a 1950s prom dress orDiors New Look full skirt. In 1960, Twiggy-style 1960s mini dress, in the 1970s platform shoes and bell bottom trousers and 1980s pedal pusher short trousers and frilledshirts from the New Romantic movement.

All participants agreed that, in order to satisfy customers, articles have to be of goodquality. Almost all the participants agreed that vintage fashion was second hand, however, afew retailers sold old clothing manufactured in the past which was unworn. One retailer was

selling unworn Brutus and Lee denim jeans from the 1970s which had been discovered ina warehouse. The most desirable items were those which had been bought in a past era buthad rarely or never been worn, for example items which have been kept for special occasionsand were in pristine condition. Examples included evening dresses, a wedding dress or aformal suit. One participant summed up the general opinion stating:

Vintage fashion isnt something that is just old. If a 50s dress is an ugly hideousrag- that is what it is, an ugly hideous rag. Vintage is the very, very best of its type.

Characteristics of the Vintage Consumer

Retailers were invited to define the vintage consumer from their own viewpoint.Participants stated that many of their customers were fashion conscious and youngconsumers, with an average age of between eighteen and twenty (many of them students),however all participants stated that the age range of their consumers was very diverse. It wasfound that he 18-25 year old consumers are most likely to be influenced by fashion trends. Itwas recognised that this particular segment had adopted the ongoing vintage trend which had positively increased demand for vintage clothing overall. These younger consumers were seen

to be setting the trend for current trickle up fashion looks such the nerd college look, andgeek chic (spectacles, drainpipe trousers or retro skirts with blouses and tank tops). Theinterviewees proposed that these trends had also extended to celebrities and were linked tosub-culture music trends.


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Young consumers were seen to purchase for originality and enjoyment, to display aspectsof their own individual style, and in many cases, price. Participants stressed their ability tooffer uniqueness which people see as a method of individual self expression. There was acertain status provided by the originality of rare clothing. One proposed:

You always feel quite smug when you say Oh its Vintage theres no way the personcan go out and copy you

The next most important group of consumers identified were older customers (aged 30-70) who tended to purchase on price and nostalgia rather than trend. This segment were likelyto invest more time, money and effort in their purchases and were generally more motivatedabout the authenticity of the product. For example, a number of participants discussed theimportance to the customer of the story behind the garment; what one termed as vintagemagic. Consumers were buying more than a skirt or shirt, they were buying a piece of

history, and often enjoyed hearing a story behind an item or a treasure. Additionally, participants highlighted an increase in the number of ethical consumers, conscious ofenvironmental issues and recycling. This customer group was diverse in age and nature.Finally, a small proportion of customers were collectors and business customers, for exampletelevision, film and theatre wardrobe designers and stylists for fashion magazines.

Vintage Retailer Positioning

Merchandising StrategyThe main concern by the retailers in sourcing garments was the authenticity of vintagefashion. Most considered vintage fashion to be authentic by the perceived age and its level oforiginality. They particularly sought garments which had been handmade and were thereforeexclusive. Exclusivity is of particular importance as it allows premium pricing and providesdifferentiation for the store. Older designer clothing from fashion brands such as Chanel andBiba are becoming rare and difficult to source. Some of these older garments particularly with brand names are highly sought after. Products that are mass produced (even older clothingfrom the 1980s for example) are less likely to be perceived as authentic and are therefore lessdesirable. One retailer stated:

Authentic vintage is an original garment and not a vintage label from a high streetstore. They are obviously complete one offs and that in my mind is worth a lot more thansome dress thats been churned out by Marks and Spencer. Back in the 40s, 50s and60s people were making their own clothes, which are highly desirable now.

Participants explained that they were able to verify the authenticity of garments throughtheir personal expertise, gained through experience of sourcing and buying. Many retailersconsidered themselves to have expert technical knowledge, and could determine garment

authenticity by the stitching, (e.g., of hand sewn products rather than machine produced) thefabric quality, and the smell of the garments. Because of the increasing difficulty in sourcinggood quality vintage items some retailers had decided to sell more modern items that had been manufactured more recently but were made to an appropriate vintage design.


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They understood that the authenticity of these garments was debatable; however theyagreed that consumers wanted to purchase this type of pseudo-vintage product due to thedesire to follow the vintage trend.

Retailers sourced second hand merchandise from a wide variety of second hand storesand markets both at home and abroad, charity and second hand clothing stores, car boot sales,recycling plants and many garments are donated by customers or other shoppers who wish torecycle. Vintage retailers will also recycle clothing back to recycling plants or rag yards ifthey are unable to sell the garments.

Merchandise was both bought in bulk by the sack or large load, or handpicked.Retailers occasionally sourced more exclusive merchandise from private individuals who perhaps were collectors themselves and chose to trade their personal vintage garments to beenjoyed by other enthusiasts or vintage collectors.

Some store representatives discussed of more recent emerging markets in Eastern Europewhich offer opportunities for trade and sourcing of vintage clothing, offering alternatives towhat is still available in the UK market. Participants also highlighted France and the US asfruitful sources. One stated that the US was particularly good for 1920s dresses. One retailerobserved:

I am sure there is a totally untapped market in Russia. I would like to visit there andraid some wardrobes. Russia is so large and many people dont know the value of vintagegarments yet.

Retailers selected merchandise according to gut feel and intuition and was therefore avery personal issue. Participants sourced according to their personal expertise of the market,their customers and their personal knowledge of fashion history. The research found thereforethat this personal expertise was highlighted by all participants as their main point ofdifferentiation and competitive advantage. In many cases they proposed that a synergy existed between themselves, their knowledge of style and their customers. In most cases retailersexplained that they understood their regular customers needs and wants and were able to buyaccordingly.

The most popular brands were found to be Biba, Bus Stop, Mary Quant, Burberry, Diorand Chanel. Unlike high street fast fashion models, stock was not turned around in weekshowever, there is a seasonal approach to vintage merchandise. During the spring and summer,female consumers were looking for summer dresses, 1950s style dirndl skirts (full skirtgathered at the waist), miniskirts and more recently in line with changing fashion trends, maxidresses. During the winter, the demand was for heavier outerwear and coats, hats, gloves andscarves. Retailers explained that as a result of catwalk trends, there is still demand for real furcoats.

Participants explained that consumers believed that the wearing of old, second hand furcoats was acceptable to many of their customers because these items were manufactured priorto increased ethical awareness of animal rights issues.

Older fur therefore was perceived as glamorous and stylish despite the recent concerns

surrounding new fur products. Occasion dresses from any vintage era were always indemand and at Christmas, customers were looking for appropriate glamorous party wear. Atable of the most popular items is outlined in Table 2 below. Selection of these items was based on more than half of the sample highlighting these product categories:


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Table 2. Most popular vintage items for men and women

Ladies vintage items Mens vintage items1950s prom dresses1960s shift dresses,1970s maxi dressesEvening wear glamorous gowns, sequined andembroidered dressesReal and fake fur coats and jacketsCashmere jumpers and cardigansJewellery and watchesHandbags, scarves and beltsHigh heels and flat boots for ladies from the1960s, 1970s and 1980s

Formal wear

Evening suitsSuits from the 1950s and 1960sTraditional dress (Kilts)Retro Adidas tracksuit tops from the 1970sLevis jeans and denim jacketsCowboy bootsMilitary dressLeather briefcasesTies

One of the key challenges that participants highlighted was the procurement ofappropriate, second hand stock which is in good condition. Due to the popularity of the trend,there is an increasing scarcity of stock as older garments become more worn and thereforeless appealing due to reduced quality. This was seen to be an enduring problem which hasheightened competition in the vintage sector.

There was a level of preparation required for all second hand garments. All the vintageretailers washed or dry cleaned items before sale. Some items required repairs such as sewingon buttons or zips, or making alterations such as altering hem lines. However, normallyalterations were minimal so that the authenticity of the garments was not compromised. Insome cases however, participants created new garments by combining two pieces together. Ifa part of a garment was too worn out to be sold, sections of garments and fabrics could berescued. One participant proposed:

We buy dresses that are full length and we cut them to mini dresses. We actuallyhave a tailor next door who does all that for us. We have bought blazers and putaccessories on them to make them look more interesting

Customer Service

Personal service was found to be essential to the success of most of the retailers. Mostemployees were owner/managers, assisted by partners, friends or family members who had avested interest in the success of the store. All retailers explained that they know a high proportion of their customers very well, considering individual customer tastes, needs andstyle when sourcing garments. Some participants would store items for particular customers.In addition, customers frequently request the sourcing of specific items. Therefore, the basisof much of the customer service for vintage retailers was the building of relationships.Additionally, all had a loyal and regular customer base. Many proposed that the developmentof these relationships allowed retailers to offer a personalised service. A number of retailersoffered an alteration service for their customers. Therefore differentiation was possible forthese retailers due to the relationships and customer service they developed with theirconsumers.


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Most proposed that they themselves personally were the differentiation through their passion for the vintage concept, their choice of merchandise, their expert knowledge andexpertise. One participant stated:

Its me. The company is built around my personality, personal style and taste. Mycustomers like that and they trust my judgement.

CommunicationsStore image elements were the most important methods of communication for vintage

stores. That is, the window display and the store interior. The window display was seen asvitally important to generate interest and curiosity from passersby and the unique storeinterior and merchandise communicated a distinctive brand image. In terms of traditionalcommunications, most of the retailers did not use print advertising often due to expense anddue to limited success using this method in the past. A few advertised in local directories andthe Yellow Pages. Many participants explained that local press editorial had proved to be veryeffective in increasing awareness and enhancing business profile. The main type ofcommunication reported that was thought to be essential by all interviewees is word of mouth(WoM) marketing due to the high levels of personal service outlined above. Positive customerexperiences were thought to be vitally important for promotion and generating custom.

The group was divided in relation to e-marketing. Only half of the participants operated awebsite. However, several participants interacted with social media platforms (at varyinglevels) in order to connect with the vintage fashion community, to increase brand awarenessand generate enquires and consumer awareness.

Store Trading FormatAll the participants in the study were small-scale retailers who were independently

owned. Typically, most stores were single units which were 700-1100sq.ft. in size. Manywere located in secondary geographical locations with a neighbourhood feel. All of theretailers included in this research described themselves as traditional bricks and mortar boutique-style shops. Of those that operated websites, most were non transactional, and twoof the stores had their own on-line stores. The majority of sales were traditional, meaning instore retailer to consumer business. Interestingly, a few retailers had evolved their stores frommarket stalls and indicated that a proportion of vintage trade still took place on that basis.

All proprietors explained that the store image was essential to vintage retailing. Many participants stated that the window styling, store layout and product display was important tocreate the atmosphere of a bygone era and many described the stores as quirky andindividual. Each store represented the personality of the owner, with one retailer explainingthat he wanted to create the right kind of vibe with music from a previous era and choosingitems carefully to represent his sense of taste and style. Many displayed interesting pieces thatwere collectors items or were appropriate to present the vintage image. Old gramophones,old bicycles, wallpaper from the 1970s and 1980s, old pictures and pieces of art and variousother pieces of memorabilia were displayed according to the proprietors preference. The

product display varied from store to store. Most displayed clothing in racks similar to newmodern high street retailing and many had containers such as baskets and boxes and shelvesof mixed accessories and jewellery that consumers enjoyed sifting through and hunting fora treasure or a bargain.


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CONCLUSION

The vintage movement was mainly something of a fad that was followed by a smallgroup of innovators such as art school and fashion students. However more recently it would

appear to be an enduring trend, increasing in popularity, growing into a mainstream fashion phenomenon. This is evidenced by its diverse customer base, adopted by young, fashionconscious consumers and maintaining a group of diverse traditional vintage customers of avariety of age groups.

The movement has also gained interest due to more recent concerns over ethical issuessuch as recycling and sustainability. This study discovered two main groups of consumers;young and fashion conscious, interested in current trends and mix and matching from variousstyles, high street and vintage and also an older customer with a greater focus on price andinterest in nostalgia. An emerging issue for many customers were their ethical concerns. Thisresearch explores the retailer perspective of the vintage fashion trend. Future research isnecessary, to investigate consumer motivation buying vintage fashion of these differentgroups.

This research set out to define the concept of vintage fashion within its current context.Therefore, vintage fashion can be defined as:

Garments and accessories which are more than twenty years old, which represent a particular fashion era, and which are valued for their uniqueness and authenticity.

Positioning strategies of vintage fashion retailers was also explored. Table 3 highlights

the key areas of positioning within vintage retailing.The research therefore revealed that vintage retailers position themselves through theirdistinctive retailing mix. Vintage proprietors explained they could source items that weretotally individual and unique. As one store owner stated,You are buying a piece of historya treasure. This was the main difference between other independent stores.

Table 3. Vintage Retailer Positioning Elements

Customercommunication Trading format

Merchandisestrategy Customer service

Individual retail brandimage, quirky andconstantly evolving,distinctive storeenvironment, windowand interior displays,retro props, localisedPR, word of mouth,growing importance ofsocial media

Small scale,independent, singlesite, secondarygeographicallocation, multi-channel participation, boutique style,unique store imagewhich represents the personality of theowner

Sourcing: personal,diverse, intuitive,expert and historicalknowledge, global

Product: authentic,original, exclusive,rare brands, pre-owned, handpicked,

limited supply ofmerchandise

Personal, individual,relationship based,long term, synergy between businessowner and customer,availability ofadjustments andalterations,employee passion

for the vintageconcept

Source: adapted from Walters [22].


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Sourcing therefore was an extensive challenging and time consuming process whichreflected the personality and expertise of the proprietors. The quirkiness of the store interiorand environment was also of importance and word of mouth communication was also foundto be very important in terms of promotions. Vintage retailers are often small scale, owner-managed businesses, and are because of this, closer to their customers and able to formindividual relationships through merchandise supply and customer service. The influence ofthe owner/manager, their style and personality is consequently reflected and embedded in the positioning of the company, offering differentiation of their individual stores in the market.There remains a gap in the literature in terms of analysis of the vintage customer. The positioning model above could, in future studies, be used to establish consumer responses tovintage retailer strategy.

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In: Textiles: History, Properties and Performance ISBN: 978-1-63117-262-5Editor: Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal 2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 2

DEVELOPINGSUSTAINABLEDESIGN ON DENIMR EADY-MADEAPPARELS BY

STONE ANDENZYMATICWASHING Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal 1, and Md. Mashiur Rahman Khan1,2,

1Polymer and Textile Research Lab., Department of Applied Chemistryand Chemical Engineering, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi, Bangladesh

2Department of Apparel Manufacturing Engineering, BangladeshUniversity of Textiles, Tejgaon, Dhaka, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT

Denim is the most preferable apparel of todays youth. Washing is one of thefundamental chemical processing steps prior to finishing fresh-assembled denim ready-made apparels and has the largest effect on outlook appearance and other physico-mechanical properties of finished denim apparel. The fresh denim trousers, twill 3/1weave and composition 100% cotton, have been processed by enzyme washing and pumice stone-enzyme washing technique using various parameters namely concentrationsof pumice stone (10 to 70%) (owg), concentration of cellulase enzyme (0.5 to 3.5%)(owg), washing temperatures (40 to 65oC) and treatment times (20 to 60 min) with fixed pH (4.8) in fiber to liquor ratio of 1:10 in an industrial sample washing machine. In orderto evaluate the influence of these washing parameters on the properties of denim apparellike tensile strength, fabric weight, color change, stiffness and water absorption has beendetermined. Fabric surface was also examined by scanning electron microscope (SEM)and fluorescence microscope (FM). The washing parameters has a great influences on the properties of denim. Stone washing increased the softness (by reducing stiffness) andflexibility (in terms of bending length) of denim apparels and gave a used lookappearance on denim apparel distinctly. The properties of denim apparels are varieddepending on the amount of pumice stone used.

Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal: Polymer and Textile Research Lab., Department of Applied Chemistry and ChemicalEngineering, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi- 6205, Bangladesh. E-mail: [email protected].

Md. Mashiur Rahman Khan: Polymer and Textile Research Lab., Department of Applied Chemistry and ChemicalEngineering, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi- 6205, Bangladesh. Department of Apparel ManufacturingEngineering, Bangladesh University of Textiles, Tejgaon, Dhaka-1208, Bangladesh.


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Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal and Mashiur Rahman Khan20

The results indicate that for producing sustainable denim apparel the optimizedwashing condition for the best value is 30% pumice stone with 2.0% cellulase enzyme at55 oC for 40 min.

Keywords: Denim apparel, cotton, cellulase enzyme, pumice stone, tensile strength, washing,color fading

1. INTRODUCTION

The increasing demand of denim apparel in the world market has imposed extreme pressures on the textile industries. The use of chemicals in the textile industry has beenknown and applied commercially for many years. In particular, textile washing industries areusing various chemicals in processing denim ready-made apparels for producing specific

washing effects and designs. The research attempts to examine different washing techniquesfor the modification of denim apparels and searches for the dynamic best method for producing sustainable denim apparel designs. Understandably, this concern motivates manyefforts to modify denim apparels with new designs in order to face the challenges of fast-changing fashion trends. Although denim apparel has been popular since the early1980s, theterm sustainable denim is a relatively new concept to the apparel industry. Sustainabledenim has become to be a dominating factor in the apparel industry. Now-a-days, there isawareness on environmental concern among the customers and buyers. In this respect, presentwork has been undertaken to fulfill the current demand of customers using environmentfriendly chemicals for denim washing.

Therefore, the study investigated evaluative specifications used by designers and buyersfor producing denim apparel with sustainability. Bangladesh is a textile industry baseddeveloping country. At present, Bangladesh earns about 80% foreign currency from thetextile and RMG sectors. Bangladesh started RMG export in 1977-78 and continues exportunder quota to the US till 2004. In January 2005, the RMG sector of Bangladesh faced newchallenges due to the withdrawn of quota by US government. From that time, the US marketis open for all and highly competitive. Currently there are about 5600 ready-made garmentindustries in Bangladesh and from these RMG industries Bangladesh earns about 21.51 billion US dollar [1]. To sustain the RMG sector of Bangladesh in the competitive worldmarket, it is essential to produce new design and fashion apparel with sustainability. Denimapparel is produced from very strong and stiff denim fabric and its popularity is increasingday by day in the world market. Without washing/finishing treatment denim apparel isuncomfortable to wear, hence it can be modified by washing and introduces new look andfashion. There have been many attempts to use chemicals in various washing techniques like bleach wash, enzyme wash, stone wash, etc. The washing of denim apparel by enzymatic process, specially cellulases that would degrade the color of denim and improve the handleand drape, dimensional stability and surface characteristics reported by Kawamura andWakida [2], Tyndall [3], Kumar et al. [4], Duran and Marcela [5], Gubitz and Cavaco-Paulo

[6] and Cortez et al. [7]. Cellulases are introduced to replace aggressive chlorine bleach indenim washing [8] but the enzymatic attack of cellulase is not only limited to the surfaces, actsynergistically in hydrolysing cellulose to glucose [9], causing unacceptable weight andstrength loss to the fibers.


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Developing Sustainable Design on Denim Ready-Made Apparels 21

It is believed that if the denim apparels are chemically washed with enzyme and stone-enzyme separately in order to decrease their minimum strength and weight for producingspecific washing effects and designs, their chemical attack would be restricted only to thesurface of the fabric, which is the main purpose of this research work. Thus, the work proposes the use of bio-degradable cellulase enzyme and stone-enzyme in place of harmfulchemicals and attempts to optimize the process parameters, such as, concentrations ofchemicals, concentrations of pumice stone, temperatures, and times with high wear performance like durability and longevity (with minimum strength losses) of apparel in producing sustainable denim apparel.

1.1. Denim Apparel Washing

The washing of apparel generally means cleaning of dirty apparels with soap ordetergent. But industrial apparel washing is a technology which is used to modify theappearance, outlook, comfort ability and fashion of the apparels. With the changes of time,human choices, demands, and apparels design and fashion changing very quickly. To meetthe present demand of consumers, apparel manufacturers are adapting new technology and processes in washing. The washing technology needs various types of chemicals for washingapparels. Denim washing is the aesthetic finishing process given to the denim apparel toenhance the fabric properties and provides fashion effects. Various chemicals are used invarious washing processes, e.g., bleaches are used in bleach washing process, enzymes areused in enzyme washing process, pumice stones are used in stone washing process etc.

1.2. Denim

Denim is a yarn-dyed cotton twill fabric, basically warp yarns are dyed with indigo andweft yarns are white [10]. Indigo is insoluble dye and diffused on yarn surface [11]. Indigodye is popular for denim because it washes down easily and clear bright blue shades areachieved by washing [12]. Today denim has various washing aspects for designs, it can bestone washed, bleach washed or enzyme washed. The word denim is derived from the Frenchword Nimes, the Nimes was the French city where the denim was first produced. The fabricwhich was produced in Nimes was called Serge in French. Resultant it was called Serge De Nimes means fabric of Nimes, later the name was shortened to DENIM.

1.3. Sustainable Design

Sustainability is a vital topic within the design world. Sustainable practices are nowgrowing in the apparel industry. In the past, apparel designers and merchandisers haveemphasized a products functional, aesthetic, and economic aspects during the design process

[13]. With increased consumer interest in the environmental implications of apparel production, many companies have introduced sustainable practices [14, 15]. Consumers arealso interested to get fashion products [16] which are a challenge to sustainable practices inthe apparel industry.


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Md. Ibrahim H. Mondal and Mashiur Rahman Khan22

Figure 1.1. Flow chart of denim manufacturing.

Designers seek to practice environmental responsibility and discover solutions for current problems [17]. Literature suggests that sustainable practices in the textile and apparelindustries include the use of renewable and non-harmful materials [18-20], applying low-impact processes [21, 22], the re-cycling of waste materials [23], the eco-friendly, green andenvironmental friendly process [24], and fashion product which is one of the biggest barriersencountered in the apparel industry [25]. Along with increasing global awareness ofenvironmental problems, consumers awareness of sustainability has risen and consumers areseeking environmentally friendly clothing, and producers are exploring ways to meet thesedemands while processing clothing. Sustainable design includes production processes also. In

producing sustainable design, the designers determine the properties of the products withsustainability [26]. Sustainability requires a delicate balance of choices. Therefore,sustainable denim designs represent an apparel product which is fashion oriented,

performance based; and environmental friendly. Therefore, sustainable denim apparel refersto eco-friendly, fashionable, aesthetic, durable and high wear performance apparel, based oncustomers choice.

Sustainable practices are growing in the apparel washing industry. In denim washingindustry, bleaches are commonly used with other chemicals. Most of the cases, textile andapparel manufacturers are using traditional hydrogen peroxides and hypochlorite bleaches in

processing textile and denim apparels, which has more or less negative-impact in the

environment. Enzymatic washing and stone-enzyme washing processes are now popular andincreasing its use in textile and apparel washing industry, because it is eco-friendly, supportthe green chemistry and safe for the environment.

8/10/2019 Textiles- History, Properties and Performan

Textiles- History, Properties and Performance and Application 2014

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