Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
-
Upload
oana-roxana-dumitru -
Category
Documents
-
view
227 -
download
0
Transcript of Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 1/32
Testing Geometric Brownian Motion: An
Analytical Look at the Black Scholes Option
Pricing Model
By Julian LamyAdvisor: John Rust
University of Maryland College Park
Department of EconomicsMay 16, 2008
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 2/32
Section 1: Introduction
Fischer Black and Myron Scholes revolutionized the way investors view financial
markets with their famous paper “The Pricing of Options and Corporate Liabilities” in
1973. The mathematical and economic implications of the paper led the way for new
intuition and creativity in how derivatives are priced. Despite their success however,
many academics have challenged the underlying assumptions behind their options pricing
model and its effective use. This paper adds to this research by testing the underlying
assumption behind the Black Scholes model which is that stock prices follow a
Geometric Brownian motion (GBM) diffusion process and compares this assumption
with alternatives.
Although the Black Scholes Model is quite successful when pricing options, it is
known to have certain biases associated with it. There has been strong evidence that stock
prices experience stochastic volatility over time and that the assumption of constant
volatility creates biases when using the Black Scholes model. Much research has been
dedicated to finding alternative models that account for this stochastic volatility and
prove this result by comparing different models to the Black Scholes model (For
example, see Amin and Ng (1993), Heston (1993), Jiang and Sluis (2000), Louis Scott
(1987)). In all of these studies, different models have been proven to perform better than
geometric Brownian motion as they allow for more movement in returns. This paper adds
to this research by comparing the Black Scholes model (more specifically, the geometric
Brownian motion assumptions underlying it), and compares it to a constant elasticity
model (CEV) which allows the volatility parameter of the diffusion to change over time.
2
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 3/32
Lauterbach and Schultz (1990) showed that the CEV model does outperform
GBM over a larger dataset when predicting warrant prices. The goal of the paper is to
show that during specific time periods where prices are in a transition in volatility, the
CEV does indeed outperform GBM in predicting price returns. However, during times of
relatively constant volatility, GBM predicts price returns as well or better than the CEV
model. The particular time intervals of interest are of April 30th, 1998 to February 16,
1999 and March 31st, 1994 to January 17th, 1995. The short intervals of these datasets are
chosen deliberately for this research as it reflects the short intervals that investors on Wall
Street use to predict prices on a regular basis (based on the historical volatility parameters
that they use). This paper aims to give practical advice to investors and therefore the time
intervals are also chosen to reflect a particularly interesting period in the financial
markets.
These particular time intervals are chosen for a specific historical purpose. During
the interval from 1994 to 1995, the US economy experienced economic prosperity and
the returns of S&P Index prices were at a relatively constant volatility. In the time interval
from 1998 to 1999 however, the world was thrown into a credit crisis when Russia
defaulted on its debt and many investors were apprehensive of owning various assets
causing large swings of volatility in asset prices. Contrasting these different periods can
help to explain what different methods are best when pricing options in specific market
conditions.
Each diffusion process is estimated using Maximum Likelihood estimation
methods created by Ait Sahalia (1999, 2002) and is then tested using specification tests
described in this paper (with suggestions from Norman Swanson). The results of this
3
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 4/32
paper show that over periods of transition in volatility, the CEV model estimates price
returns more accurately than GBM whereas during times of relatively constant volatility,
the GBM performs equally well or better than the CEV model.
The paper is split up into the following sections: Section 2 gives the reader
common background information about options and about the models that are tested
(those who are familiar with this material may wish to skip this section). Section 3
describes the data used by running certain tests which identify properties of the data.
Section 4 describes the tests used to test the GBM model versus the CEV model. In
Section 5, results are presented. Section 6 analyzes the results and explains their
implications for modern traders and investors. Section 7 concludes.
Section 2: Background
2.1 What is an Option?
An option is an agreement to buy or sell a certain security at a predetermined time
T at a predetermined “Strike price” K. The contracts themselves have a certain value
associated with them which is directly dependent on the value of the underlying security.
There are numerous types of options with different underlying assets but for brevity, I
will define only the following:
Call Option: The right to buy a security at time T for price K Put Option: The right to sell a security at time T for price K European Option: A call or put option that can only be exercised at time T American Option1: A call of put option that can be exercised at or before time T
1 American and European options can also be thought of as the same asset in this paper. It has beenthoroughly proven that the value of a European and American call option are the same because it isoptimal to exercise a call option at time T regardless of its classification (Ross, 2003).
4
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 5/32
At the expiration time T, the payoff of a call option can be defined as
Max { S T – K , 0 }Where: S T = underlying security’s price at time T
K = Strike Price
To see that this is the case, notice that if S T > K, then the option holder could
exercise the option and purchase the security for price K and immediately sell the
security on the open market for S T making a profit of S T – K. If S T <= K, then the option
is not exercised and there is a 0 profit. Notice that the exact opposite relationship exists
for a put option. Mainly, the payoff becomes:
Max { K – S T , 0 }Where: S T = underlying security’s price at time T
K = Strike Price
2.2 Geometric Brownian motion and the Black Scholes Options Pricing Model
Inspired by the research and development of Brownian motion from Robert
Brown and further by Norbert Weiner, Louis Bachilier who applied Brownian motion to
stock prices and other economists who tried using Brownian motion to model market
behavior, the Black Scholes model assumes that security prices follow a geometric
Brownian motion diffusion process. This assumption implies the following:
(2) dS t = uS t d t + σS t dW t
S t is the security’s price at time t d t is the time changedS t is the change in St over time d t u is a drift parameter σ is the volatility parameter dW t is a Weiner Process ~N(0, d t )
Notice that one can then rearrange the equation (2) as follows:
5
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 6/32
(3) [dS t ]/ S t = ud t + σ[dW t ]
The left hand of the equation in (3) is simply the stock price return during a given
time t. Geometric Brownian motion therefore assumes that stock price returns are defined
by the constant drift u plus the random element defined by the Weiner process times a
constant volatility parameter. Looking at how [dS t ]/ S t is defined above, it is clear that
stock returns follow a normal distribution with mean dt*u and volatility parameter dt*σ 2
when assuming GBM. (To see this, note that dW t ~ N(0,dt) and that u and σ are defined as
constants).
Some interesting observations can then be made about (3). Notice that returns are
therefore assumed to have a very well-behaved normal distribution with constant drift
and volatility parameters. This assumption may be impractical when looking at actual
market data. Later in this paper, this issue will be analyzed thoroughly with historical
datasets.
Another observation that can be made by assuming geometric Brownian motion
for stock prices is when the equation (3) is rearranged in the following way:
Notice that mathematically, one can also write [dS t ]/ S t as log(S t / S t – h ) where h is thelength of dt. Rearranging,
(4) log(S t ) = log(S t-h ) + uh + σ[dW t ]
OR log(S t ) = log(S t-h ) + uh + W t Where W t ~N(0, hσ 2 )
From (4), letting h=1, one can interpret the equation as being a random walk with
a drift parameter u. Under Geometric Brownian motion, the log of stock prices should
therefore be independent of all lag variables except the first lag. This observation is
important as it implies that past prices (beyond lag 1) should not affect the present price.
6
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 7/32
One last important observation to make is when (4) is rearranged as follows:
(5) S t = S t – h *E(W t )Where: W t = uh + √h σZ t and Z t ~N(0,1)
From the above specification of stock prices in (5), one can then find the expected
value of prices in the future; E(St). If one then prices an option based on the expected
value of its future profit, then one can use this specification to compute the expected
value of [St – K, 0] which is the return of a call option with expiration t and strike price
K. This procedure is that which the Black Scholes Options Pricing Model is based. It is
therefore a critical assumption to allow stock prices to follow a geometric Brownian
motion. If this assumption does not hold, than pricing options using the Black Scholes
model will produce inaccurate results.
2.3 Constant Elasticity of Variance
A Constant Elasticity of Variance (CEV) diffusion assumes that stock prices are
governed by the following diffusion process:
(6) dS t = ud t S t + σS t b/2dW t
Notice that the process above is a generalization of geometric Brownian motion
specified in (1) when the constant b = 2. Notice that when b does not equal 2, the
volatility parameter will vary with the stock price. Rearranging (6) to reflect stock
returns:
(7) [dS t ]/S t = ud t + σS t b/2 - 1dW t
7
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 8/32
The volatility parameter then becomes σS t b/2 – 1which may be a more realistic
model for stock returns. Assume for example the economy is experiencing a recession;
one would expect the volatility to change over this period because investors are more
apprehensive. Since the volatility parameter depends on the stock price in the CEV
model, the model should therefore be able to capture some of these changes in volatility.
This opposes the GBM model which would assume the same volatility no matter what
external events may be happening in the market. For this reason, this paper uses this
diffusion process to model market prices.
Section 3: Defining and testing the dataset
3.1 Defining the dataset
The dataset that is analyzed in this paper is S&P 500 Index adjusted closing prices
from April 1998 to February 1999 and from March 1994 to January 1995. This data
reflects the general performance of equity prices over these time interval and therefore
provides a generalization of this analysis to various equities. Instead of just choosing the
500 largest companies, the S&P Index selects those that are among the leaders in the
major industries in the economy. Since the S&P Index is also one of the most widely used
measures of stock market performance, using these datasets is consistent with previous
research in modeling stock returns (see Lo and Mackinlay, Ait-Sahalia, etc.).
These particular time periods were chosen in order to reflect certain situations in
market behavior as they specifically reflect different trends in price volatility over time.
In the period from 1994 to 1995, the volatility is relatively constant whereas the period
from 1998 to 1999 experiences volatility that moves from low to high in transition. The
8
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 9/32
claim of this paper is that if one were to predict returns during a period of transitions in
volatility, he will benefit from using the CEV model as opposed to the GBM diffusion
which assumes a constant volatility parameter. However, during periods of relatively
constant volatility when an investor is modeling returns, the GBM diffusion will be
sufficient and accurate. It is only during transitions between these time intervals that
merit the use of the CEV model over GBM.
Plotted below are the price returns from June 4 th, 1990 to June 8th, 2007 in order to
demonstrate the trend of S&P Index returns over the past two decades and give some
intuition as to why these particular intervals were chosen.
Graph 1: S&P Index Prices June 1990 to June 2007
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
(Plotted on the y-axis are daily S&P returns. Plotted on the x-axis is the number of business days starting from the date June 4th , 1990.)
9
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 10/32
Judging by the graph of returns, it is clear that volatility is not constant throughout
this extended time period. There are several positions in the data where the volatility is
transitioning from low to high and vise versa. The shifts in volatility can be described by
the following table:
Table 1
Time period (t) Corresponding dates High/low volatility Interval
(0, 500) June 90 – June 92 High 1
(500, 1900) June 92 – Jan 1998 Low 2
(1900, 3300) Jan 98 – July 03 High 3
(3300, 4290) July 03 – June 07 Low 4
Each of these time periods correspond to periods where the US economy is
experiencing economic downturn or prosperity. Interval 1 corresponds to the recession
1990 – 1991, Interval 2 corresponds to the economic boom in the mid 1990’s, Interval 3
corresponds to the credit crisis in the late 1990’s and the technology bubble and Interval 4
corresponds to the recent economic boom that the United States has experienced. In each
of these time periods, the price returns transition from different levels of volatility. Based
on these observations, if one were to assume constant volatility over the time period
when modeling returns, he could experience significant errors.
One can notice then that this paper chooses to compare time periods from interval
2 and interval 3. The overall results of this paper indicate that in interval 2, GBM is
sufficient for predicting returns whereas the CEV model is a better model for interval 3.
The rest of this section is dedicated to testing the datasets for statistical properties of
normality and heteroskedasticity.
10
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 11/32
3.2 Testing the datasets
This section performs tests for normality and homoskedasticity of the time
periods of March 1994 to January 1995 and of April 1998 to February 1999. The analysis
below provides evidence that each dataset has different properties that will ultimately
affect the performance of the GBM model.
3.2.1 Time period April 1998 to February 1999
Normality
Recall (3) from the previous section, the GBM specification assumes the following:
[dS t ]/ St= ud t + σ[dW t ] ~ N(dt*u, dt* σ 2 )Where u and σ are assumed to be constant
It is therefore necessary to test whether the dataset follows a normal distribution
given constant parameters. Below is a histogram plot of the data estimated with the
sample mean and variance of the data:
11
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 12/32
Graph 2: Normal Plot
- 0 . 0 6 6 - 0 . 0 5 4 - 0 . 0 4 2 - 0 . 0 3 - 0 . 0 1 8 - 0 . 0 0 6 0 . 0 0 6 0 . 0 1 8 0 . 0 3 0 . 0 4 2 0 . 0 5 4
0
5
1 0
1 5
2 0
2 5
3 0
3 5
4 0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
r e t u r n s
The data does appear to stray from the estimated normal distribution which is
given by the blue line. To get a better visualization of how normal the data is, below is a
probability plot of the data. This plot is a graphical technique for assessing whether or not
a dataset is approximately normal. The data are plotted against an estimated normal
distribution where the blue line represents how close the actual data fit this estimated
distribution.
12
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 13/32
Graph 3: Probability Plot
0 . 1 1 5 1 0 2 5 5 0 7 5 9 0 9 5 9 9 9 9 . 9
- 0 . 0 7 5
- 0 . 0 5 0
- 0 . 0 2 5
0
0 . 0 2 5
0 . 0 5 0
0 . 0 7 5
r
e
t
u
r
n
s
No r ma l P e r c e n t i l e s
Notice that the data is close to a normal distribution for values that are in the
middle of the distribution. For percentiles beyond 5% and above 95% however, the data
strays from normal. This phenomenon is common when looking at financial data as it
suggests that the distribution has “fat tails”. The significance of this observation is that
the normal distribution assumption does not capture the extreme values of returns when
there is a large shock to prices as is the case during this period. When thinking of the
volatility transitions mentioned earlier in this section, it is clear that during this period,
the market experienced large shocks to price returns at a changing rate. Assuming a
normal distribution with constant parameters for returns would then largely underestimate
these extreme shocks to the market and would assume much lower volatility than
necessary to model returns.
13
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 14/32
Another method for testing the normal assumption is by using statistical normality
tests. Provided below are the p-values for the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk
tests which test the null hypothesis of normality of the data given the sample mean and
sample variance. Notice that one can fail to reject the null hypothesis of normality for
both tests with p-values less than 1% which indicates a strong rejection of the null. These
results further support the fact that this particular time interval is not a well behaved
geometric Brownian motion based on its underlying assumptions.
Table 2
Test p-valueKolmogorov-Smirnov <0.0100
Shapiro-Wilk <0.0001
Homoskedasticity Tests
Another observation worth making about the data is to test whether the
distribution of the data experiences constant volatility. As assumed by GBM, the
volatility parameter σ is assumed to be constant and therefore, returns [dS t ]/ S t experience
constant volatility. Levene’s test for heteroskedasticity is used in this case because it is
less sensitive to the departures from normality (which, from the previous analysis, is an
issue with this data).
The test requires that one splits the data into subgroups and then test the null
Hypothesis that all the groups have the same variance. This particular dataset is broken
into 6 states that are defined by the transition intervals described in the previous section.
If the geometric Brownian motion holds, then the variance from all these different time
intervals should be the same. From speculation after viewing the data, it seems clear that
this assumption will not hold. Below are the results from running Levene’s test in SAS:
14
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 15/32
Table 3
Test P-Value
Levene’s Test <.0001
Welch’s Test 0.7177
Notice that Welch’s test is also provided in the above results. This test checks if
the means across the states are significantly different given that the data does experience
heteroskedasticity.
The p-value for Levene’s test and Welch’s test are equal to <0.001 and 0.7177
respectively. This suggests that one can reject the null hypothesis of homoskedasticity as
expected yet one fails to reject the null hypothesis of equality of means across the
distribution. This result is consistent with previous research that identifies the constant
volatility assumption is the main inconsistency with GBM as opposed to the drift
parameter (Heston, Scott, etc.).
3.2.2 Time period March 1994 to January 1995
Normality
The results of testing this dataset indicate a stark contrast to that of the period
analyzed above. Indicated by the normal plot, probability plot and normality tests below,
it is clear that returns during this time period do appear to follow a well-behaved normal
distribution. It therefore seems likely that GBM would work well for this particular
period based on its adherence to the underlying assumptions and properties defined by
this model.
15
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 16/32
Graph 4: Normal Plot
- 0 . 0 1 6 - 0 . 0 1 2 - 0 . 0 0 8 - 0 . 0 0 4 0 0 . 0 0 4 0 . 0 0 8 0 . 0 1 2 0 . 0 1 6 0 . 0 2
0
5
1 0
1 5
2 0
2 5
3 0
3 5
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
r e t u r n s
16
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 17/32
Graph 5: Probability Plot
0 . 1 1 5 1 0 2 5 5 0 7 5 9 0 9 5 9 9 9 9 . 9
- 0 . 0 2
- 0 . 0 1
0
0 . 0 1
0 . 0 2
0 . 0 3
r
e
t
u
r
n
s
N o r ma l P e r c e n t i l e s
Table 4
Test p-value
Kolmogorov-Smirnov 0.0614
Shapiro-Wilk 0.0861
Homoskedasticity
The same tests are then run for testing for homoskedasticity in the data interval
from April 1994 to February 1995. The results below indicate that one can fail to reject
the null hypothesis of equality of variance and equality of means across the distribution.
These results would indicate that the GBM properties exist in this dataset and therefore,
using GBM to price returns should produce accurate results.
17
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 18/32
Table 5
Test P-Value
Levene’s Test 0.6353
Welch’s Test 0.9258
3.3.3 Conclusion
From analyzing these datasets, it is clear that one can reject the null hypothesis of
a GBM for the period from 1998 to 1999 based on the properties that are assumed by this
diffusion. The opposite result takes place for the interval of 1994 to 1995. It therefore
seems likely that GBM would work better for the latter interval and not well for the
former.
Section 4: Testing GBM vs CEV models
In this section, the procedures used to estimate and test the two diffusion models
over each interval are described.
4.1 Method of estimation
A challenge faced when testing diffusion models is finding an accurate way to
estimate the parameters in the model. A number of econometric methods have been
recently developed to estimate these parameters. The main issue faced when estimating is
that typically with financial data, there is no continuous time data available. When
considering market prices such as in this paper for example, most data consist of daily
prices rather than trade-for-trade data. In addition, the pure nature of financial price data
is discrete because the amount of time that trading occurs each day is finite. The CEV and
GBM diffusion models are continuous time differential equations therefore, estimating
18
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 19/32
the models can be quite difficult using the given discrete datasets used in this study. This
paper uses the maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) methods derived by Ait-Sahalia
(Ait-Sahalia 1999, 2002) in order to evade this problem.
When estimating a continuous time model, a very robust method for estimating its
parameters is by using maximum likelihood estimation. The main caveat when using this
method in the context of this paper is that the estimated likelihood function for discrete
observations generated by the diffusion cannot be determined explicitly for most models.
What Ait-Sahalia is able to do in his paper is to construct closed-form sequences of
approximations to the transition density and therefore, approximations to loglikelihood
functions. From these estimated approximations of the likelihood function, one can then
find the parameters of the desired model. In addition to the method, Ait-Sahalia also
provides Matlab code which estimates certain diffusion models based on his
methodology. This paper uses manipulations and modifications of his code in order to
estimate the parameters of the CEV and GBM diffusions.
4.2 Testing Procedures
In order to test the CEV and GBM diffusions for certain time intervals, I design
the following structure of estimation, simulation and testing. The general approach is to
predict return prices using both models and to then test which model predicts price
returns more accurately. This process is tested by using a test derived and explained in
this paper and also uses likelihood ratio tests1.
1 The testing method was derived with the suggestions and comments from Norman Swanson who is well-known for research in diffusion specification testing (Swanson, 1993).
19
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 20/32
4.3 Estimation Procedure
- Start with the interval of interest and estimate both the CEV and GBM modelsusing the MLE method derived by Ait-Sahalia.
- Increase the original dataset by 1 additional day of price returns data and estimate the model again.
- Keep estimating the model n times where n is the number of predictions that aredesired. (In this paper, each interval has n = 200 estimated models and corresponding predictions).
4.4 Simulating
Once the desired number of models is estimated, simulations are then run in order
to predict the returns for the next day using the corresponding model with estimated
parameters. A total of n predictions are calculated using the estimated models.
For example, suppose one was to simulate the CEV diffusion given estimated
parameters for a starting interval. The model can be written as follows:
dX t = b(a – X t )d t + c*X t ̂ d* dW t dW t ~ N(0, d t )Where a, b, c and d are the parameters estimated by the MLE method
One can then rewrite the equation as:dX t /X t = [b(a – X t ) d t + c*X t ̂ d* dW t ]/X t
Notice that this form of the diffusion reflects the returns over time dt. Using this
model, one can then take the last observation in the corresponding interval and set it as
Xt. Letting dt = 1/252, the equation then predicts the returns for the following business
day. This provides one of the n desired predictions needed for testing. In order to get the
other predictions, one can then increment the original interval by one more data point and
re-estimate and simulate the model as done above to get the predicted returns of the next
20
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 21/32
business day. This procedure is done n times for a total of n estimated models and
corresponding predictions for both the CEV and GBM diffusions.
4.5 Testing
After getting n predictions, tests can be run in order to see which diffusion works
best. This paper creates a simple test for observing the differences between the models
and also uses loglikelihood ratio tests.
4.5.1 Comparing average squared errors
The following test is created in order to check if either the CEV model weakly
dominates GBM or vise versa. Recall that during the simulation process, n predictions are
estimated corresponding to a certain time interval. For each n predictions, one can then
create an array of squared errors:
ErrSQ = [returns_predicted – returns_actual]2
The test takes the difference between the CEV and GBM squared errors and compares
them for each n simulations.
Err_Diff = CEV_ErrSQ – GBM_ErrSQ
This will create an array of n differences in error. The test then counts to see how
many of the entries in this array are negative and checks to see if the count is greater than
or equal to n/2. If the count is greater than or equal to n/2, then the CEV predictions
contain fewer errors than those of the GBM diffusion.
Notice however, that if one were to simulate the models as described by the
simulation procedure multiple times, each simulation would produce different predicted
21
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 22/32
returns. This results from the fact that dW t is by definition a randomly generated number
and will therefore effect the results of Err_Diff.
In order to address this problem, the process above is repeated 100 times and the
average number of times that the CEV errors are less than GBM errors is computed. If the
value is greater than 50, then the CEV model weakly dominates the GBM model for the
respective time interval.
4.5.2 Loglikelihood ratio tests
Since the parameter estimation involves a MLE procedure, the loglikelihood
function is readily available for analysis and can be used to compare the two models of
interest. Notice that the CEV diffusion is a generalization of the GBM diffusion. Defining
the CEV diffusion as follows:
dX t = b(a – X t ) d t + c*X t ̂ d* dW t Where a, b, c and d are parameters of the diffusion.
Letting d = 1 and a =0, the model becomes:
dX t = b X t d t + c*X t * dW t
Notice that the above diffusion is GBM.
Because the CEV model is a generalization of GBM, one can therefore run a
loglikelihood ratio test given that one knows the loglikelihood computation for each
estimated model. This computation is given when estimating the parameters from the
method by Ait-Sahalia.
22
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 23/32
The null Hypothesis H0 of the test is that the generalized model (CEV) is not
statistically a better predictor than the condensed model (GBM). The test statistic is
defined as follows:
-2*(loglikelihood_CEV – loglikelihood_GBM) ~ ChiSQ(2)
Where ChiSQ(2) is a chi-squared distribution with degrees of freedom equal to the
number of parameter of CEV minus the number of parameters of GBM which equals 2.
Rejecting the H0 means that one can reject GBM as being equivalent to the CEV model
for the given dataset.
Section 5: Results
This section explains the results of the tests described in the previous section.
What is found is that during the interval from April 1998 to February 1999, the CEV
model significantly outperforms the GBM model when predicting price returns 200 days
out of the sample. During the time period of March 1994 to January 1995, the GBM
model is found to predict returns as well as the CEV model.
5.1 April 1998 to February 1999
Comparing average squared errors
On the interval of April 1998 to February 1999, the average number of times that
the CEV errors were smaller than the GBM errors is described by the following table:
23
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 24/32
Table 6
Number of Predictions out from the data Average
200 57.74
Notice that the results of this testing procedure are as expected. CEV tends to predict
price returns better than GBM during times of transitioning volatility.
Loglikelihood ratio test
The p-value associated with the likelihood ratio test was 0.0797 indicating that
one can reject the null that the CEV model is not significantly better than the GBM
model.
5.2 March 1994 to January 1995
Comparing average squared errors
On the interval of March 1994 to January 1995, the average number of times that
the CEV errors were smaller than the GBM errors is described by the following table:
Table 7
Number of Predictions out from the data Average
200 52.58
Notice that the results of this testing procedure are as expected. GBM tends to predict
price returns almost as well as CEV during times of relatively constant volatility.
Loglikelihood ratio test
The p-value associated with the likelihood ratio test was 0.3657 indicating that
one can fail to reject that the null that the CEV model is not significantly better than the
GBM model.
24
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 25/32
5.3 Graphing the results
The general conclusion of the tests run is that the CEV diffusion weakly
dominates the GBM diffusion during times of transition in volatility. During times of
constant volatility, GBM tends to predict more relatively the same as CEV. Below are
graphs of the squared errors when predicting returns for GBM and CEV plotted on top of
each other for each time period. Notice that for the period of 1998 to 1999, GBM errors
are clearly higher than CEV whereas for the period 1994 to 1995, errors are relatively
similar.
25
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 26/32
Graph 6: Squared Errors April 1998 to February 1999
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 2000
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5x 10
-3
n predictions
S q u a r e d
e r r o r
CEV and GBM
CEV
GBM
26
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 27/32
Graph 7: Squared Errors March 1994 to January 1995
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 2000
1
2
3
4
5
6x 10
-4 CEV and GBM
S q u a r e d
E r r o r s
n predictions
CEV
GBM
Section 6: Interpretation of Results
An important aspect of this research is to provide practical interpretations of these
results for investors and traders. This section therefore aims to highlight the main
conclusions of the results found in this paper and relates them to everyday trading and
investment strategy. In particular, this subsection explains what these results imply about
option pricing.
The Black Scholes model for option pricing is by far the most widely used option
pricing tool in the financial sector. It is therefore interesting to note that this model is
based on the geometric Brownian motion diffusion for the underlying asset of the option
of interest. As it was thoroughly analyzed in this paper, GBM models price returns very
27
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 28/32
well during times of relatively constant velocity but is weakly dominated by the CEV
model during times of transition in volatility. The main caveat when using GBM is that
one must assume constant volatility in the dataset which can lead to inaccurate
predictions of price returns. Historically, the use of GBM has been very accurate except
during particular times when it leads to extreme losses.
It is important to note that investors and traders do not blindly choose volatility to
be constant and then price assets based on this value. There are many aspects to deriving
option prices on Wall Street and it is rarely based solely on historical volatility as done in
this paper.
Information from traders in investment banks and private equity firms (who prefer
to remain anonymous) adds a more practical element to this paper. Based on their
comments on how their respective companies conduct trades, there are several volatilities
that are calculated. These traders look at the implied volatility for given assets (solving
the Black Scholes model for volatility given the option’s price), a measure of qualitative
information called a put and call skew and the historical volatility. The implied volatility
captures the market’s interpretation of where the volatility is in the market. The put and
call skews are qualitatively determined and affect the volatility parameter by adding or
subtracting value to it based on what information they know about the asset of interest.
For example, if a positive financial report from a company is to be released in the near
future, then the call and put skews associated with the option based on that company’s
stock would positively increase the volatility parameter in order to account for this event.
The historical volatility captures the past volatility of the asset of interest. Combining all
28
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 29/32
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 30/32
measures may account for errors in the constant volatility assumption (GBM) when used
correctly, but they are subject to human error. If investors are able to rely more on the
data by using a more generalized model, then less human errors could result. Therefore,
investors could use another model such as the CEV model or other stochastic volatility
models (Heston, Scott, etc) to predict returns allowing them to rely solely on the data
when pricing options. According to this research, during times of transition in volatility, it
would be even more useful to apply an alternative model in order to insure accurate
pricing. Traders could still apply qualitative analysis but would be able to rely more
heavily on the model for choosing the correct volatility.
Future research needs to be done in order to verify this claim. A challenge in
answering this question would be the ability to find option price predictions from a
company that uses this approach and compare it to simulated option prices derived from
the CEV model.
Section 7: Conclusion
This paper tests the geometric Brownian motion and constant elasticity of
variance diffusions for S&P 500 Index prices from April 1998 to February 1999 and from
March 1994 to January 1995. The results show that over time periods of strong
transitions of volatility, the CEV model predicts price returns more accurately than the
GBM. During times of relatively constant volatility, both the CEV and GBM models
predict returns equally well. Although the CEV model did not drastically outperform the
GBM model, the results imply that it is necessary to incorporate a stochastic element to
volatility when predicting returns. This could perhaps also be done using other models
30
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 31/32
such as GARCH models or perhaps even Jump Diffusion models which would allow for
the volatility to jump. Further research is necessary to explore these different avenues to
search for an ideal method for modeling price returns and pricing options.
References
Aït-Sahalia, Yacine. “Maximum Likelihood Estimation of Discretely Sampled
Diffusions: A Closed-Form Approximation Approach.” Econometrica. 70 (Jan., 2002):223-262.
Amin, Kaushik I. and Victor K. Ng. “Option Valuation with Systematic Stochastic
Volatility.” The Journal of Finance. 48.3 (Jul., 1993): 881-910.
Black, Fischer and Myron Scholes. “The Pricing of Options and Corporate Liabilities.”The Journal of Political Economy. 81(May - Jun., 1973): 637-654.
Broadie, Mark and Jerome B. Detemple. “Option Pricing: Valuation Models andApplications.” MANAGEMENT SCIENCE. 50 (September 2004): 1145–1177.
Cody, Ronald P. and Jeffrey K. Smith. Applied Statistics and the SAS Programming
Language. Ed. 5. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc., 2006.
Corradi, Valentina and Norman R. Swanson. “Bootstrap Specification Test for Diffusion
Processes.” Working Paper. (June 2003): JEL No. C12, C22.
Crouch, R. L. “A Nonlinear Test of the Random-Walk Hypothesis.” The American Economic Review. 60 (1970): 199-202.
DePeña , Javier and Luis A. Gil-Alana. “Do Spanish Stock Market Prices Follow a
Random Walk?” Working Paper. No.02/02 (April 2002): JEL No. C22, G14.
Ewald, Christian-Oliver. “Mathematical Finance Introduction to continuous time
Financial Market models.” Continuous Time Finance, School of Economics and Finance
University of St. Andrews. 27 March 2007.
Heston, Steven L. “A Closed-Form Solution for Options with Stochastic Volatility with
Applications to Bond and Currency Options.” The Review of Financial Studie. 6.2(1993): 327 – 343.
Hong,Yongmiao and Halbert White. “Consistent Specification Testing Via Nonparametric
Series Regression.” Econometrica. 63(Sep., 1995): 1133-1159.
31
7/27/2019 Testing Geometric Brownian Motion
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/testing-geometric-brownian-motion 32/32
Jiang, George J. and Pieter J. van der Sluis. “Index Option Pricing Models with
Stochastic Volatility and Stochastic Interest Rates.” Center for Economic Research.(March 2000).
Lo, Andrew W. and A. Craig MacKinlay. “Stock Market Prices do not Follow RandomWalks: Evidence from a Simple Specification Test.” The Review of Financial Studies. 1
(Spring, 1988): 41-66.
Ross, Sheldon M. An Elementary Introduction to Mathematical Finance. Ed. 2. New
York: Cambridge UP, 2003.
Scott, Louis O. “Option Pricing when the Variance Changes Randomly: Theory,Estimation, and an Application.” The Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis.
22.4 (Dec., 1987): 419-438.
Swanson, Norman. “Bootstrap Specification Testing for Diffusion Processes.” Journal of Economic Literature. (June, 2003).