Mongol Studies, number 1 December, 2012

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on, pulled by horses controlled through nose rings. How-ever, the chariot’s days were numbered: as the upheavals and migrations of 1200 BC triggered by climate change in-creased competition on the steppes for valuable pasture-land, an ever-heightening reliance on herding dramatically raised the value of horse-riding. In order to take full advan-tage of the speed of the horse, this period also saw an evo-lution in bridle technology. A bridle is essential for effect-ive riding. It is relatively easy to turn a horse’s head due to his physiology—through a rope connected to his elongat-ed snout, humans can manipulate a horses’ lengthy neck. Early in the history of the chariot, Central Asians invented the bit, a strip of organic material—leather or rope—which when inserted into the horse’s mouth puts pressure on the corners of his lips, reducing the need to physically overpower the animal. The late 2nd millennium BC saw the introduction of bronze and iron bits, drastically increas-

ing their effectiveness. A final Near Eastern development was the introduction of the snaffled bit, consisting of two pieces hinged in the middle, which is still in use to this day.

The second essential item of the steppe rider was the sad-dle. In its earliest form, the saddle consisted of a blanket, to absorb sweat and reduce chafing. This was followed with the addition of padding, usually of stuffed leather, provid-

Steppe Cavalry Technology: A Chronological Developement

The Mongol warriors of Genghis Kahn and his successors are widely viewed as the most effective mounted force of all time. Indeed their very achievements justify this pos-ition. For European observers, this race of mounted horse archers descending out from the steppes had little preced-ent, there ascendance was shocking, their tactics ground-breaking. However, for the settled peoples of Central Asia, the appearance of hordes of superior horse-warriors was not at all unusual, although still highly demoralising. Much ink has been shed over the equipment of the Mongol war-rior. From his superior bow to his hardy pony, the weap-onry and equipment of the Mongol are well documented. However, what is often neglected is that the Mongols of the thirteenth century represent a climax of a warrior culture and technology going back thousands of years. As the agri-culturalists of Central Asia can well attest to, the essential steppe toolbox, bride, saddle, and stirrups, as well as the remorseless recurved bow, had been in development for well over two thousand years. Combined with the military

and organisational genius of Genghis and his successors, these tools resulted in the greatest empire ever created.

Our earliest known visual evidence of horse riding comes from the kingdom of Akkad in 2400 BC. However, although this represents the first pictorial evidence of riding, horses had been domesticated on the Eurasian steppes for food and pack since the fifth millennium BC, and doubtless oc-casions of incidental riding arose. Regardless, our first evi-dence of bridles and horse tack used for military means begins with the introduction of chariots, featuring horses controlled through bridles, around 2000 BC. The chariot instantly rendered obsolete the Near Eastern battle wag-

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equipment, weaponry and even tactics were by no means new; rather they were based on long standing steppe tech-nology and tradition, stretching back thousands of years. We have here focussed on the equipment which enabled the emergence of the steppe warrior as an elite cavalry-man. The initial development towards equine dominance was the bridle, followed by the saddle. A relatively late development was the stirrup, which only rendered an elite cavalry tradition yet more dominant. Finally, the recurved composite bow, developed during the cataclysmic Bronze Age Collapse, triggered the eclipse of dominant military forms, and signalled the twenty-five hundred year reign of the mounted bowman over the steppes of Eurasia.

ing additional support while reducing the horse’s discom-fort. An excellent example of an Iron Age steppe saddle comes from the Pazyryk Kurgan cemetery in the foothills of the Altai Mountains, in Russia near the Mongolian bor-der. We find saddles consisting of two stuffed leather cushions attached to a felt pad, with rigid arches to the front and rear. Brest and haunch strapping kept the saddle in place and prevented it from slipping forward or back. Notably, the lack of a girth, which would attach the saddle around the belly of the horse, precludes the use of the stir-rup. Although the Scythians may have experimented with the concept, as may be seen through their art, it was likely only as an aid in mounting. The first true non rigid stirrup appears in 50 BC in Mathura, India. The first rigid iron stir-rups appears in Northeast China around the turn of the fifteen century AD, an invention quickly adopted by steppe peoples. The stirrup provided additional lateral support and stability. Although steppe riders, notably the Parthians and Sarmatians, had previously utilised heavy armour and two handed lances, the advent of the stirrup allowed a horse’s full momentum to be transferred through the rider to the lance. The stirrup was introduced to Europe by in-vading Mongol Avar heavy cavalry in the sixth century AD.

The final item of the Mongol toolbox we will here discuss is perhaps the most important: it is the composite recurved bow. Interestingly, the recurved bow was not a new inven-tion. In fact, the recurved bow was invented around the end of the second millennium BC, a period tellingly con-current with the beginnings of cavalry military dominance (see above). This weapon, combined with the emergence of more sophisticated forms of horse control, would defeat the chariot, and go on to dominate Eurasia until faced with the artillery of the 19th century. The composite bay was made of a variety of materials, and required a great deal of work. The initial wooden core was generally selected from maple or mulberry wood. A layer of horn was added, and allowed to dry for several months. Next, alternating layers of sinew and glue were added, interspersed with long per-iods of drying during which the bow was tied back in various ways to give it its recurved shape. The result was a power-ful bow with far more tensile and compressive strength than wood, at a fraction of the size. There was one draw-back to this bow: it lost much of its power and accuracy in humid climates and when wet. It was perhaps for this rea-son that Genghis abandoned his invasion of India in 1221.

The Mongols of the thirteenth century AD were undoubt-edly a superior military force, and their achievements should not be detracted from in any way. However, their

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