Terms Associated with Close Reading - English Department

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Literary Terms

Definitions contain examples fromJane Eyre and Antigonê, and anexplanation of how the use of thedevice links to meaning.

Literary ElementsArchetype is a character, action, or situationthat is a prototype, or pattern, of human life,occurring over and over again in literature,such as a quest, an initiation, or an attempt toovercome evil. Many myths contain archetypal.Two common types of archetypes involve set-ting and character. A common archetypicalsetting is the desert, which is associated withspiritual sterility and barrenness because it isdevoid of many amenities and personal com-forts. Archetypal characters are those whoembody a certain kind of universal humanexperience. For example, a femme fatale,siren, or temptress figure is a character whopurposely lures men to disaster through herbeauty. Other examples of archetypal figuresinclude the “damsel in distress,” the “mentor,”the “old crone,” the “hag” or witch, and the“naïve young man from the country.” Thesecharacters are recognizable human “types,”and their stories recreate “typical” or recur-rent human experiences. Jane Eyre’s journey isa heroic journey. She begins life as a lowly orphan, mistreated by her guardian. Bychallenging her unfair treatment, she findsherself sent away to school and into theworld. She travels through life, tested,tempted, and abandoned. In utter despair, she survives by remaining true to her convic-tions. Her ultimate reward is a strong (legal)marriage to Rochester, a marriage in which she is an equal partner.

Characters are people or animals who takepart in the action of a literary work. Readerslearn about characters from• what they say (dialogue),• what they do (actions),• what they think (interior monologue),• what others say about them, and• through the author’s direct statement.

The protagonist is the central character of adrama, novel, short story, or narrative poem.The adversary of this character is then theantagonist. To be believable, a character mustreflect universal human characteristics thatare the same despite geographical differencesand time periods. The emotions and concernsof real people of all times are expressed inconcrete terms through the traits of literarycharacters. An author may choose to empha-size a single important trait, creating what iscalled a flat character; or the author maypresent a complex, fully rounded personality(a three-dimensional or round character). Acharacter who changes little over the course ofa narrative is called a static character. Thingshappen to these characters, but little happensin them. A character who changes in responseto the experience through which he or shepasses is called a dynamic character.Epiphany is a sudden unfolding in which acharacter proceeds from ignorance and inno-cence to knowledge and experience.

The protagonist of Jane Eyre is Jane herselfbecause it is her story, and she is alwayscentral to the action. She is dynamicbecause she changes and adjusts to newcircumstances throughout her journey.

Jane Eyre’s chief antagonist is Rochesterbecause he tries to make her into some-thing that she is not, as does St. John laterin the story.

Terms Associated with Close Reading

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A flat, static character in Jane Eyre is thespiteful Aunt Reed, who never changes inher attitude towards Jane, not even on herdeathbed.

Motivation – Jane’s motivation is self-preservation; she is trying to find ameasure of happiness in a world of drearyprospects for an orphan girl with no money.

Epiphany – For example, Jane Eyresuddenly understands all the mysteriousevents and signs when she hears Mr.Briggs announce that Mr. Rochester has awife still living. Everything makes senseto her now.

Foil – a character, usually minor, designedto highlight qualities of a major character:e.g., Blanche Ingram enhances Jane’squalities of modesty and humility.

Stock – a flat character in a standard rolewith standard traits; e.g., Mrs. Reed islike a wicked stepmother, and her chil-dren act as wicked stepsisters and brother.

Details are the facts, revealed by the authoror speaker, facts that support the attitude ortone in a piece of poetry or prose: e.g., inJane Eyre, Rochester explains the arrange-ments he made for housing his “mad” wife in this way.

‘I had some trouble in finding an atten-dant for her: as it was necessary to selectone on whose fidelity dependence couldbe placed; for her ravings wouldinevitably betray my secret: besides, shehad lucid intervals of days – sometimesweeks – which she filled up with abuse ofme. At last I hired Grace Poole, from theGrimsby Retreat. She and the surgeon,Carter…, are the only two I have everadmitted to my confidence. Mrs. Fairfax

may indeed have suspected something;but she could have gained no preciseknowledge as to facts’ (272).

Rochester seems to have made the bestarrangements he possibly could have madefor Bertha, but he also wants to keep herhidden away. Since she has periods of sanity,she might reveal her identity if othersinteracted with her.

Diction is word choice intended to convey acertain effect: e.g., in Jane Eyre, Brontedescribes Bertha in harsh terms:

In the deep shade, at the further end of the room, a figure ran backwards andforwards. What it was, whether beast orhuman being, one could not, at firstsight, tell: it grovelled, seemingly, on allfours; it snatched and growled like somestrange wild animal: but it was coveredwith clothing; and a quantity of dark,grizzled hair, wild as a mane, hid itshead and face (257-258).

Words such as grovelled, snatched, mane makeBertha appear as something less than human.

The denotative and connotative mean-ings of words must also be considered.Denotation refers to the dictionarydefinition of a word, whereas connota-tion refers to the feelings and attitudesassociated with a word. Here is anexample from Jane Eyre: “And, MissEyre, so much was I flattered by thispreference of the Gallic sylph for herBritish gnome, that I installed her in anhotel…” (123).

In this sentence, Charlotte Bronte empha-sizes the contrast between Rochester andCeline Varens, the French opera singer,by having him call Celine a sylph –“(1) any of a class of imaginary beingssupposed to inhabit the air. (2) a slender,

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graceful woman or girl.” And he callshimself a gnome – “in folklore, a dwarfsupposed to dwell in the earth and guardits treasures.” (definitions from Webster’s)

The connotations of these two wordsreinforce even more the differencesbetween Celine and Rochester. “Sylph”suggests beauty, delicateness, happiness,lightness, etc., while “gnome” suggestsugliness, heaviness, despair, darkness, etc. – or day and night. Neither sylphs norgnomes exist, Bronte perhaps suggestingthrough these words that neither doestheir relationship. Rochester discoverslater that Celine was only using him.

Dialect is the speech of a particularregion or group as it differs from those ofa real or imaginary standard speech. Forexample, John and Mary, the servants atFerndean, speak in a lower-class dialect,speech that distinguishes their position insociety. After Jane and Rochester marry,Jane hears John say, “ ‘She’ll happen dobetter for him nor ony o’ t’ grand ladies.’And again, ‘If she ben’t one o’ the’handsomest, she’s noan faal and varrygood-natured; and i’ his een she’s fairbeautiful, onybody may see that’ ” (395).(Translation: “She will be better for himthan any of the grand ladies.” And, “If she isn’t one of the handsomest, she’sno fool and very good-natured; and in his eyes she’s quite beautiful, anybodymay see that.”)

Euphemism is the use of a word or phrasethat is less expressive or direct but consid-ered less distasteful or offensive thananother: e.g., when Helen Burns is dyingof tuberculosis, the doctor says, “she’llnot be here long” (69). Then Jane visitsHelen and asks her, “ ‘Are you going

somewhere, Helen? Are you goinghome?’ ” And Helen replies, “ ‘Yes; to mylong home – my last home’ ” (70). Thesephrases (not be here long and long/lasthome) soften the blow of Helen’s dying.

Idiom – is an accepted phrase or expres-sion having a meaning different from theliteral: e.g., when Abbot and Bessie takeJane to lock her in the red room, she says,“The fact is, I was a trifle beside myself;or rather out of myself, as the Frenchwould say” (9). Both phrases are idiomsbecause it is physically impossible to benext to oneself or outside of oneself. Shemeans she is thinking and behaving in away she has not before.

Imagery consists of the words or phrasesappealing to the senses – the descriptivediction – a writer uses to represent persons,objects, actions, feelings, and ideas: e.g., in Jane Eyre, Jane describes one of her paintingsthat caught Rochester’s attention with its vivid images:

One gleam of light lifted into relief a half-submerged mast, on which sat acormorant, dark and large, with wingsflecked with foam: its beak held a goldbracelet, set with gems, that I had touchedwith as brilliant tints as my palette couldyield, and as glittering distinctness as mypencil could impart. Sinking below thebird and mast, a drowned corpse glancedthrough the green water; a fair arm wasthe only limb clearly visible, whence thebracelet had been washed or torn (110).

Not only do the images set an eerie mood,they also foreshadow disastrous events inJane’s relationship with Rochester.

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Mood is the emotional atmosphere in aliterary work: e.g., in Jane Eyre, theatmosphere of Moor House beckons to a miserable, destitute Jane:

I could see clearly a room with a sandedfloor, clean scoured; a dresser of walnut,with pewter plates ranged in rows, reflect-ing the redness and radiance of a glowingpeat-fire. I could see a clock, a white dealtable, some chairs. The candle, whose rayhad been my beacon, burnt on the table;and by its light an elderly woman, some-what rough-looking, but scrupulouslyclean, like all about her, was knitting astocking (292).

Nothing could appeal to Jane more at thispoint than a clean, warm home. The occupantstake her in, nurse her back to health, and helpher achieve a measure of independence.

Plot is the sequence of events or actions in ashort story, novel, play, or narrative poem.Freytag’s Pyramid is a convenient diagramthat describes the typical pattern of a dramaticor fictional work. The structure of the workbegins with exposition, in which the authorlays the groundwork for the reader by reveal-ing the setting, the relationships between thecharacters, and the situation as it exists beforeconflict begins. The inciting incident interruptsthe harmony and balance of the situation, and one or more of the characters comes intoconflict with an outside force, with his or herown nature, or with another character. Duringthe plot events that constitute the risingaction, the things that happen in the workbuild toward an irreversible climax, or pivotalpoint, after which the falling action leadsinevitably toward a revelation of meaning thatoccurs at the denouement, or unraveling, ofthe problem set up by the inciting incident.

Examples of each stage from Jane Eyre:• Exposition: The first two sections of the

novel, Gateshead Hall and LowoodSchool, provide details of Jane’s child-hood and adolescence. She demonstratescourage by standing up to John Reed,Mrs. Reed, and Mr. Brocklehurst andlearns to balance her temper with patiencefrom both Helen Burns and Miss Temple.

• Inciting Incident: Serious conflicts forJane begin when she takes a job as agoverness at Thornfield Hall.

• Rising action: Jane falls in love with heremployer, Mr. Rochester, as she growsincreasingly fearful of whatever haunts the attic.

• Climax: After Jane accepts Rochester’smarriage proposal and endures his out-rageous courtship methods, her discom-fort turns to horror and humiliationwhen she finally meets Bertha MasonRochester, his wife in the attic.

• Falling Action: Jane escapes Rochesterand his desire to make her his pamperedmistress and, after much trouble, findsherself at Moor House, where her onlyliving relatives take her in and help her recover.

• Denouement: After Jane fends off St.John’s advances, she returns to Mr.Rochester, now blinded and crippled, buta widower whom she happily and legallymarries at Ferndean in the end.

Conflict is a term that describes thetension between opposing forces in awork of literature and is an essentialelement of plot. Some of the morecommon conflicts involve the followingforces: a person in opposition to anotherperson, a person opposing fate, an inter-nal battle involving contradictory forceswithin a character, a person fighting

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against the forces of nature, or a person inopposition to some aspect of his or hersociety. Examples of each conflict fromJane Eyre:• a person in opposition to another person:

Jane vs. John, Jane vs. Mrs. Reed, Janevs. Mr. Brocklehurst, Jane vs. St. John

• a person opposing fate: Jane vs. herposition in life as an orphan, a charityschool girl, a lowly governess, a villageschoolmarm

• an internal battle involving contradictoryforces within a character: Jane vs. herstrong feelings for Rochester, when he isstill a married man

• a person fighting against the forces ofnature: Jane vs. the elements and direhunger when she wanders penniless onthe moors after escaping Rochester

• a person in opposition to some aspect ofhis or her society: Jane vs. the rest ofsociety when she, a mere governess, firstaccepts Rochester’s marriage proposal

Flashback is a scene that interrupts theaction of a work to show a previous event:e.g., at different points in Jane Eyre,Rochester tells the stories of his affairwith Celine Varens, the French operasinger, and of his entrapment into a mar-riage with Bertha Mason, the West Indianmadwoman.

Foreshadowing is the use of hints or cluesin a narrative to suggest future action.Bronte uses foreshadowing in the passagethat follows:

As I looked up at them, the moonappeared momentarily in that part ofthe sky which filled their fissure; herdisk was blood-red and half overcast;she seemed to throw on me onebewildered, dreary glance, and buriedherself again instantly in the deep drift

of cloud. The wind fell, for a second,round Thornfield; but far away overwood and water, poured a wild,melancholy wail: it was sad to listento, and I ran off again (243).

The eerie color of the moon and the wildcry occur shortly before Jane’s illegalwedding. Both warn of the forthcomingdisastrous ceremony and the revelation of Rochester’s mad wife locked inThornfield’s attic.

Suspense is the quality of a short story,novel, play, or narrative poem that makesthe reader or audience uncertain or tenseabout the outcome of events. BecauseJane Eyre tells her own story, we experienceher confusion about Grace Poole, and herdread of the eerie cries and laughter, andher fear of the figure who visits her in the night to tear her wedding veil. Ourdiscomfort grows as does Jane’s duringRochester’s courtship. We know some-thing bad will happen and learn just howbad when Mr. Mason and his lawyer stopJane’s wedding. The tension builds as weclimb up to the attic with Jane and finallyrelents as we come face to face withBertha Mason Rochester.

Point of view is the perspective from which anarrative is told. Some technical terms fordifferent points of view include omniscientand limited; however, point of view may alsorefer to the bias of the person or thing throughwhose eyes the reader experiences the action.Jane Eyre tells her story from the distance often years’ time, a perspective that influencesher story yet provides the understanding shehas gained over the years.

Shift in point of view – The point of view shifts to Rochester’s in Chapter 26when he explains to Jane the history ofhis marriage to Bertha.

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Rhetorical Shift or turn refers to a change ormovement in a piece resulting from anepiphany, realization, or insight gained by thespeaker, a character, or the reader. In JaneEyre, when Jane falls in love with Rochester,her language reflects her new-found happiness:

I felt at times as if he were my relation,rather than my master: yet he was imperi-ous sometimes still; but I did not mindthat; I saw it was his way. So happy, sogratified did I become with this newinterest added to life, that I ceased to pineafter kindred. My thin crescent-destinyseemed to enlarge; the blanks of existencewere filled up; my bodily health improved;I gathered flesh and strength (129).

Of course, this happiness she feels now onlymakes more painful her disappointment laterwhen she discovers Rochester already has a wife.

Setting is the time and place in which eventsin a short story, novel, play, or narrative poemtake place. Jane Eyre takes place in the earlynineteenth century and has five major set-tings: Gateshead, Lowood, Thornfield, MoorHouse (Marsh End), and Ferndean Manor.

Style is the writer’s characteristic manner ofemploying language.

Theme is the central message of a literarywork. It is not the same as a subject, whichcan be expressed in a word or two: courage,survival, war, pride, etc. The theme is theidea the author wishes to convey about that

subject. It is expressed as a sentence orgeneral statement about life or human nature.A literary work may have more than onetheme, and most themes are not directlystated but are implied. The reader must thinkabout all the elements of the work and

use them to make inferences, or reasonableguesses, as to which themes seem to beimplied. An example of a theme on thesubject of pride might be that pride oftenprecedes a fall. Themes in Jane Eyre mightbe stated as “Be true to your beliefs” and“Act from a balance of passion and reason.”

Tone is the writer’s or speaker’s attitudetoward a subject, character, or audience, andit is conveyed primarily through the author’schoice of diction, imagery, figurative lan-guage, details, and syntax. Tone may be seri-ous, humorous, sarcastic, indignant, etc.Jane’s description of the morning afterRochester proposes to her reflects her intensehappiness:

I was not surprised, when I ran down intothe hall, to see that a brilliant June morn-ing had succeeded to the tempest of thenight; and to feel, through the open glassdoor, the breathing of a fresh and fragrantbreeze. Nature must be gladsome when Iwas so happy. A beggar-woman and herlittle boy – pale, ragged objects both –were coming up the walk, and I ran downand gave them all the money I happenedto have in my purse – some three or fourshillings: good or bad, they must partakeof my jubilee. The rooks cawed, andblither birds sang; but nothing was somerry or so musical as my own rejoicingheart (226).

Again, this supreme happiness of hers willsoon come crashing down when Jane learnsof the existence of Bertha Mason Rochester.

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Tone shift, multiple tones – reveal changesin attitude or create new attitudes: e.g.,when Jane has run from Rochester andhas to spend the night on the moor, atfirst her tone is apprehensive – “Whatwas I to do? Where to go? Oh, intolerablequestions, when I could do nothing and gonowhere!” (284) But then she adjusts, andher tone grows calm: “I looked at the sky;it was pure: a kindly star twinkled justabove the chasm ridge. The dew fell, butwith propitious softness; no breeze whis-pered. Nature seemed to me benign andgood…” (285).

Figures of SpeechFigures of speech are words or phrases thatdescribe one thing in terms of something else.They always involve some sort of imaginativecomparison between seemingly unlike things.Not meant to be taken literally, figurative lan-guage is used to produce images in a reader’smind and to express ideas in fresh, vivid, andimaginative ways. The most common exam-ples of figurative language, or figures ofspeech, used in both prose and poetry aresimile, metaphor, and personification.

Apostrophe is a form of personification inwhich the absent, or dead, are spoken to as ifpresent, and the inanimate, as if animate.These are all addressed directly: e.g., thenight after Jane learns about Rochester, shelies in her room thinking what to do:

She broke forth as never moon yet burstfrom cloud: a hand first penetrated thesable folds and waved them away; then,not a moon, but a white human formshone in the azure, inclining a gloriousbrow earthward. It gazed and gazed and gazed on me. It spoke to my spirit:immeasurably distant was the tone, yet so near, it whispered in my heart –

‘My daughter, flee temptation!’‘Mother, I will’ (281).

Motherless Jane finds the comfort andsupport she needs in the light of the moonjust as she will find in the heath after she runs from Thornfield.

Metaphor is a comparison of two unlikethings not using like or as: e.g., in Bronte’sJane Eyre: “The gaping wound of mywrongs, too, was now quite healed; and theflame of resentment extinguished” (200).Here, Jane has returned to Gateshead to visither aunt, Mrs. Reed, on her deathbed. She callsher old emotional hurt a “wound” and herresentment a “flame,” and both are now gone.

Also, “A fierce cry seemed to give the lie toher favourable report: the clothed hyena roseup, and stood tall on its hind feet” (258). Inthis quote, Jane says upon first seeing her that Bertha literally is a lowly hyena, ascavenging animal.

Both quotes enhance understanding of andoffer insight into Jane’s emotions.

Extended (controlling) metaphor –differs from a regular metaphor in that itis sustained for several lines or sentencesor throughout a work. Bronte sustains theBertha as less-than-human (animal)metaphor throughout the story.

Metonymy is a form of metaphor. Inmetonymy, the name of one thing is appliedto another thing with which it is closelyassociated: e.g., in A Tale of Two Cities,Dickens describes the common people in thestreets: “A narrow winding street, full ofoffense and stench, with other narrow windingstreets diverging, all peopled by rags andnightcaps, and all smelling of rags and night-caps, and all visible things with a brooding

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look upon them that looked ill.” The starvingcommoners are associated with their “rags and nightcaps” to emphasize their extremedeprivation.

Oxymoron is a form of paradox that com-bines a pair of opposite terms into a singleunusual expression: e.g., in Jane Eyre, whenSt. John explains to Jane why he will notmarry Rosamond Oliver, the great love of his life, he calls what he feels a “deliciouspoison” (328). He knows that his marriage toRosamond would consume his passion, dis-tracting him from his goal to be a missionary.(Poison is not “delicious.”)

Paradox occurs when the elements of a state-ment contradict each other. Although thestatement may appear illogical, impossible, orabsurd, it turns out to have a coherent mean-ing that reveals a hidden truth: e.g., inBronte’s Jane Eyre, it is paradoxical that Mr.Rochester must go blind before he can “see”the errors of his ways and gain humility.

Personification is a kind of metaphor thatgives inanimate objects or abstract ideashuman characteristics. Bronte uses personifi-cation in the passage that follows. “ ‘Yourpity, my darling, is the suffering mother oflove; its anguish is the very natal pang of thedivine passion. I accept, Jane; let the daughterhave free advent – my arms wait to receiveher’ ” (270). Here, Rochester tries to persuadeJane to live with him as his mistress, and hiscomparison of pity to a mother is meant toplay upon Jane’s sympathetic nature.

Pun is a play on words that are either identi-cal or similar in sound but have sharplydiverse meanings. Puns may have serious aswell as humorous uses: e.g., Jane’s last name“Eyre” might be a play on “air” (Rochester’s

describing her consistently as an enchantedbeing) or on “heir” (Jane inherits a fortunelarge enough to split four ways) or “err” (Janemakes mistakes). Another pronunciation of“Eyre” is “ire.” Jane learns to express her “ire”and to control it as she grows more mature.

Simile is a comparison of two different thingsor ideas through the use of the words like oras. It is a definitely stated comparison inwhich the poet says one thing is like another.When Jane has caught up with a blinded,maimed Rochester at Ferndean, Brontewrites, “The water stood in my eyes to hearthis avowal of his dependence: just as if aroyal eagle, chained to a perch, should beforced to entreat a sparrow to become itspurveyor” (387). Jane has always consideredRochester to be a powerful, controlling man.Now his helplessness reminds her of achained majestic hunting bird reduced torequesting help from a little songbird.

Epic simile (Homeric) – more involved,more ornate than the typical simile. Whentrying to make something new andstrange understandable to their audience,authors compare it to something familiar.For example, when St. John pressuresJane to marry him, she hears a voicecalling her, giving her strength to resistSt. John. She thinks about it later:

The wondrous shock of feeling hadcome like the earthquake which shookthe foundations of Paul and Silas’sprison: it had opened the doors of the soul’s cell, and loosed its bands – it had wakened it out of its sleep,whence it sprang trembling, listening,aghast; then vibrated thrice a cry onmy startled ear, and in my quakingheart, and through my spirit; whichneither feared nor shook, but exultedas if in joy over the success of one

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effort it had been privileged to make,independent of the cumbrous body (371).

Bronte refers to a biblical story her audi-ence would have been sure to recognize.Jane feels as if she has been releasedmiraculously from prison by somethingsimilar to an earthquake when she hearsthe voice.

Synecdoche is a form of metaphor. In synec-doche, a part of something is used to signifythe whole: e.g., “All hands on deck.” Also, itcan represent the reverse, whereby the wholecan represent a part: e.g., “Canada played theUnited States in the Olympic hockey finals.”Another form of synecdoche involves thecontainer representing the thing being con-tained: e.g., “The pot is boiling.” In one lastform of synecdoche, the material from whichan object is made stands for the object itself:e.g., “The quarterback tossed the pigskin.” Anexample from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesaroccurs in Antony’s speech: “Friends, Romans,countrymen, lend me your ears” (III.ii.75). InJane Eyre, Jane marries the blind, maimedRochester and says, “Mr. Rochester continuedblind the first two years of our union: perhapsit was that circumstance that drew us so verynear – that knit us so very close! For I wasthen his vision as I am still his right hand”(397). She means, of course, that, eventhough he still has his “right hand,” he relieson her for help.

Sound DevicesSound devices are stylistic techniques thatconvey meaning through sound. Some exam-ples of sound devices are rhyme (two wordshaving the same sound), assonance (repeti-tion of similar vowel sounds), consonance(repetition of consonant sounds in the middleor at the end of words), alliteration (wordsbeginning with the same consonant sound),

and onomatopoeia (words that sound liketheir meaning).

Alliteration is the practice of beginningseveral consecutive or neighboring wordswith the same consonant sound: e.g., JaneEyre describes a perfect summer day: “I sawa bee busy among the sweet bilberries.” The repetition of “b” captures the erraticmovement of the insect.

Assonance is the repetition of vowel soundsin a series of words: e.g., the words “cry” and “side” have the same vowel sound and soare said to be in assonance; e.g., Jane Eyrereturns to Thornfield after her encounter withthe stranger (Rochester) whose horse slippedon ice and who needed her to help him. Atthis point Thornfield is cozy, but dull for her:“The hall was not dark, nor yet was it lit, onlyby the high-hung bronze lamp: a warm glowsuffused both it and the lower steps of the oakstaircase” (102). The repeated “o” gives thescene a mellowness, but all that will changewhen she finds that the stranger she helped isRochester who has arrived home.

Consonance is the repetition of a consonantsound within or at the end of a series of wordsto produce a harmonious effect: e.g., whenJane Eyre is lost and wandering the moors,she says, “while the rain descends so, must Ilay my head on the cold, drenched ground?”(290). She wishes to die at this point, and the“d” sound suggests a dull, thudding finality.Just before this scene, she looks up at theMilky Way: “Remembering what it was –what countless systems there swept space likea soft trace of light – I felt the might andstrength of God” (285). The repeated “s”suggests a sighing or a “shushing” sound amother might use to soothe an unhappy child,something Jane has never heard.

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Meter is the measured, patterned arrangementof syllables according to stress and length ina poem. In the lines from the song Rochestersings to Jane (see rhythm below), the meteralternates from tetrameter (4 stressed sylla-bles per line) to trimeter (3 stressed syllablesper line). Authors provide variations inrhythm and meter to keep poems frombecoming repetitious or too predictable.

Onomatopoeia (imitative harmony) is the useof words that mimic the sounds they describe:e.g., “hiss,” “buzz,” “bang.” When onomato-poeia is used on an extended scale in a poem,it is called imitative harmony. The soundsBertha Mason makes when the wedding party confronts her in her attic room are onomatopoetic: “snatched,” “growled,” “bellowed.” These words recreate the animalsounds she makes.

Rhyme is the repetition of sounds in two ormore words or phrases that appear close toeach other in a poem. End rhyme occurs atthe end of lines; internal rhyme, within a line.A rhyme scheme is the pattern of end rhymes.The following lines from Jane Eyre illustratehow regular rhyme (a rhyme scheme ofABAB) connects the lines of the ballad withclarity and concision:

My feet they are sore, and my limbs theyare weary;

Long is the way, and the mountainsare wild;Soon will the twilight close moonless anddreary

Over the path of the poor orphan child (18).

Bessie sings this song to Jane; it capturesJane’s present and foreshadows her future.Rhyme may enhance the experience ofreading a poem and may promote memorythrough the pattern of sounds.

Rhythm is the varying speed, intensity, eleva-tion, pitch, loudness, and expressiveness ofspeech, especially poetry. The rhythm of thisstanza from a song Rochester sings for Janeis iambic rhythm with the first syllableunstressed and the second syllable stressedthroughout:

Her coming was my hope each day,(iambic tetrameter)

Her parting was my pain; (iambic trimeter)

The chance that did her steps delay(iambic tetrameter)

Was ice in every vein (239). (iambic trimeter)

Iambic rhythm is the natural rhythm of theEnglish language and possesses a smooth,flowing feel as does this song.

Literary TechniquesAllusion is a reference to a mythological,literary, or historical person, place, or thing:e.g., in Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre: “Ilingered in the long passage to which this led,separating the front and back rooms of thethird story: narrow, low, and dim, with onlyone little window at the far end, and looking,with its two rows of small black doors allshut, like a corridor in some Bluebeard’scastle” (93). The echoes of “Bluebeard”become obvious as the story of Rochester’smad wife locked in the attic unfolds.

Antithesis is a contrast or opposition. St. Johnwith his icy disposition is the antithesis of thefiery-natured Rochester:

‘The picture you have just drawn is sug-gestive of a rather too overwhelming con-trast. Your words have delineated veryprettily a graceful Apollo: he is present toyour imagination, – tall, fair, blue-eyed,and with a Grecian profile. Your eyesdwell on a Vulcan, – a real blacksmith,

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brown, broad-shouldered; and blind andlame into the bargain’ (388-389).

Bronte’s allusions to Apollo and Vulcancapture perfectly the contrast between the two men.

Argumentation functions by convincing or persuading an audience, or by proving orrefuting a point of view or an issue. Argumentation uses induction, moving from observations about particular things togeneralizations, or deduction, moving fromgeneralizations to valid inferences aboutparticulars – or some combination of the two –as its pattern of development. Composers of arguments will also use a combination oflogical (logos), emotional (pathos), andethical (ethos), evidence to establish boththeir credibility as writers or speakers. ThoughJane Eyre contains no formal arguments, theconflicts between (or within) the charactersillustrate the appeals made in attempts topersuade the audience.

Emotional – In his attempts to make Janeagree to become his mistress, Rochesterplays upon her guilt feelings: “ ‘Then youcondemn me to live wretched, and to dieaccursed?…Then you snatch love andinnocence from me? You fling me back onlust for a passion – vice for an occupa-tion?…Is it better to drive a fellow-crea-ture to despair than to transgress a merehuman law – no man being injured by thebreach?’…” (278-279).

Ethical – St. John employs the tactic ofposing as God’s voice as he tries to con-vince Jane to marry him: “ ‘A missionary’swife you must be – shall be. You shall bemine: I claim you – not for my pleasure,but for my sovereign’s service…Think like me, Jane – trust like me. It isthe Rock of Ages I ask you to lean on: do

not doubt but it will bear the weight ofyour human weakness’ ” (354).

Logical – In his attempts to persuade Janeto marry him and become a missionary,St. John appeals to Jane’s reason, to herlogic, by enumerating her strengths: “ ‘Inthe village school I found you could per-form well, punctually, uprightly, labouruncongenial to your habits and inclina-tions; I saw you could perform it withcapacity and tact: you could win whileyou controlled’ ” (355). Earlier Jane usesher logic to resist Rochester’s appeals:

“I care for myself. The more solitary,the more friendless, the more unsus-tained I am, the more I will respectmyself. I will keep the law given byGod; sanctioned by man. I will hold tothe principles received by me when Iwas sane, and not mad – as I am now.Laws and principles are not for thetimes when there is no temptation:they are for such moments as this,when body and soul rise in mutinyagainst their rigour; stringent are they;inviolate they shall be. If at my indi-vidual convenience I might breakthem, what would be their worth?They have a worth – so I have alwaysbelieved…” (279).

Cause/Effect consists of arguing from thepresence (or absence) of the cause to theexistence (or nonexistence) of the effect,or result. Conversely, one may argue froman effect to its probable cause(s). As Janewrestles with her conscience and hersympathy for Rochester, she fears that, byleaving him, she will be the cause of hisreturn to a life of dissipation and, ultimately,his ruin: “Oh, comply! it [feeling] said. ‘Think of his misery; think of his danger – look at his state when left alone;

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remember his headlong nature; considerthe recklessness following on despair –soothe him; save him; love him; tell himyou love him and will be his’ ” (279).

Classification, one of the traditional waysof thinking about a subject, identifies thesubject as a part of a larger group withshared features. Jane asks Helen Burnsabout the teachers at Lowood School and,though Helen will not criticize them orclassify the teachers as good or bad, Janedoes. She thinks Miss Scatcherd is a badteacher because she constantly picks atHelen for the slightest infraction. Janethinks Miss Temple is the best teacherbecause she is so kind, dignified, andintelligent.

Comparison is a traditional rhetoricalstrategy based on the assumption that asubject may be shown more clearly bypointing out ways it is similar to some-thing else. The two subjects may each beexplained separately, and then theirsimilarities are pointed out. For example,Rochester explains to Jane about hisliving with mistresses, how it is “ ‘thenext worst thing to buying a slave: bothare often by nature, and always by posi-tion, inferior: and to live familiarly withinferiors is degrading’ ” (274). And Janesees that she would be no different fromCeline, Giacinta, or Clara:

I felt the truth of these words; and Idrew from them the certain inference,that if I were so far to forget myselfand all the teaching that had ever beeninstilled into me as – under any pre-text – with any justification – throughany temptation – to become thesuccessor of these poor girls, hewould one day regard me with the

same feeling which now in his minddesecrated their memory (274).

Contrast is a traditional rhetorical strate-gy based on the assumption that a subjectmay be shown more clearly by pointingout ways in which it is unlike anothersubject. When Jane first hears of BlancheIngram’s beauty, she tries to maintain hergrip on reality (she has no businessfalling in love with her employer) throughpainting two portraits showing the con-trast between her and Blanche – “Portraitof a Governess, disconnected poor, andplain” and “Blanche, an accomplishedlady of rank” (141).

Characterization is the act of creating or developing a character. In directcharacterization, the author directly states acharacter’s traits. Through Jane’s character,Bronte makes direct statements aboutRochester’s character:

…all my acquaintance with him was con-fined to an occasional rencontre in thehall, on the stairs, or in the gallery, whenhe would sometimes pass me haughtilyand coldly, just acknowledging my pres-ence by a distant nod or a cool glance,and sometimes bow and smile withgentlemanlike affability. His changes ofmood did not offend me, because I sawthat I had nothing to do with their alterna-tion; the ebb and flow depended oncauses quite disconnected with me (113).

Bronte also uses indirect characterization toreveal Rochester’s character: Rochester talkswith Jane during his first evening at home,questioning her about her skills and demand-ing that she demonstrate her piano playing.Soon after she begins playing, he called outin a few minutes, “ ‘Enough!’ ‘You play a

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little, I see, like any other English schoolgirl: perhaps rather better than some, but notwell’ ” (109). His comments reveal hisbrusque, imperious manner.

Hyperbole is a deliberate, extravagant, andoften outrageous exaggeration. It may be usedfor either serious or comic effect. Bronte usehyperbole in this passage:

My hopes were all dead – struck with asubtle doom…. I looked on my cherishedwishes, yesterday so blooming and glow-ing: they lay stark, chill, livid corpses thatcould never revive. I looked at my love:that feeling which was my master’s –which he had created; it shivered in myheart, like a suffering child in a coldcradle; sickness and anguish had seized it;it could not seek Mr. Rochester’s arms – itcould not derive warmth from his breast.Oh, never more could it turn to him; forfaith was blighted – confidencedestroyed! (260).

These words of Jane’s capture the seriousnessof her mood shortly after her discovery ofRochester’s dishonesty, but the words areexcessive because Jane never truly loses herhope, faith, or confidence.

Irony occurs in three types.Dramatic irony occurs when a characteror speaker says or does something thathas a different meaning from what hethinks it means, though the audience andother characters understand the fullimplications of the speech or action: e.g.,Oedipus curses the murderer of Laius, notrealizing that he is himself the murdererand so is cursing himself. Also, thefollowing passage from Bronte’s JaneEyre contains dramatic irony:

[Mr. Brocklehurst]’…each of theyoung persons before us has a stringof hair twisted in plaits which vanity

itself might have woven; these, Irepeat, must be cut off; think of thetime wasted, of –’Mr. Brocklehurst was here interrupt-ed: three other visitors, ladies, nowentered the room. They ought to havecome a little sooner to have heard hislecture on dress, for they were splen-didly attired in velvet, silk, and furs.The two younger of the trio (fine girlsof sixteen and seventeen) had greybeaver hats, then in fashion, shadedwith ostrich plumes, and from underthe brim of this graceful head-dressfell a profusion of light tresses,elaborately curled; the elder lady wasenveloped in a costly velvet shawl,trimmed with ermine, and she wore afalse front of French curls (56).

In this scene, Mr. Brocklehurst has justordered haircuts for the impoverishedgirls at Lowood School so they aren’tindulging in vanity. In walk his wife and daughters, decked out in the latestfashions and sporting fashionable hairdos.He obviously does not see the irony herein applying different rules to his own fam-ily than to the girls at Lowood.

Situational irony occurs when a situationturns out differently from what one wouldnormally expect – though often the twist is oddly appropriate. Bronte’s Jane Eyrecontains this example:

‘…that if either of you know anyimpediment why ye may not lawfullybe joined together in matrimony, ye donow confess it…’He paused, as the custom is. When isthe pause after that sentence everbroken by reply? Not, perhaps, oncein a hundred years. And the clergy-man, who had not lifted his eyes fromhis book, and had held his breath but

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for a moment, was proceeding: hishand was already stretched towardsMr. Rochester, as his lips unclosed toask ‘Wilt thou have this woman forthy wedded wife?’ – when a distinctand near voice said; – ‘The marriagecannot go on: I declare the existenceof an impediment’ (254).

It is ironic that Jane has just thoughtabout how the ceremony is rarely stoppedbecause of an impediment when hers isinterrupted by Mr. Briggs, the Londonsolicitor, who announces that Rochester“has a wife now living.”

Verbal irony occurs when a speaker ornarrator says one thing while meaning theopposite. In A Tale of Two Cities, the titleof Chapter 12, “The Fellow of Delicacy,”is ironic. This chapter concerns the self-important Mr. Stryver who presumes thatLucie Manette will be thrilled to marryhim, never thinking that she may haveother plans. When Mr. Stryver shares hiswedding plans with Mr. Lorry, Mr. Lorrytries to make Mr. Stryver see that it wouldnot be at all “delicate” to ask Lucie tomarry him based on what Mr. Stryversees as his personal credentials: “a man of business – a man of years – a man ofexperience – in a Bank.” Dickens usesverbal irony also in the title of Chapter 14,“The Honest Tradesman.” This chapter concerns Jerry Cruncher, the grave-robber,a man anything but honest.

Sarcasm is the use of verbal irony inwhich a person appears to be praisingsomething but is actually insulting it.The remark may also be taunting orcaustic. For example, when St. JohnRivers tries to persuade Jane toaccompany him to India as a mission-

ary’s wife, she finally realizes why hemakes her uncomfortable and refusesto marry him, saying she will accom-pany him only as a sister: “ ‘Oh! I willgive my heart to God,’ I said. ‘You donot want it’ ” (357).

Motif is a term that describes a pattern orstrand of imagery or symbolism in a work ofliterature. For example, fire recurs throughoutJane Eyre – Bertha Mason sets Rochester’sbedroom on fire and, later, all of ThornfieldHall. Rochester’s suffering from his burnsbrings about his ultimate redemption and thereturn of his true love.

Satire refers to the use of devices like irony,understatement, and exaggeration to highlighta human folly or a societal problem. Thepurpose of satire is to bring the flaw to theattention of the reader in order that it may be addressed, remedied, or eradicated. InChapters 17-19 of Jane Eyre, Bronteexaggerates the flaws of the Ingrams and other members of the upper class atRochester’s house party. Her criticism of their behavior enhances Jane’s character,for she is above reproach.

Symbolism is the use of any object, person,place, or action that not only has a meaningin itself but also stands for something largerthan itself, such as a quality, attitude, belief,or value. There are two basic types, universal(a symbol that is common to all mankind) andcontextual (a symbol used in a particular wayby an individual author). For example, in JaneEyre, the chestnut tree stands as a symbol ofwhat happens to Jane and Rochester. Theywill be separated for a time but rejoined afterRochester suffers burns and mutilation tryingto rescue Bertha from a burning Thornfield:

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…I faced the wreck of the chestnut-tree;it stood up, black and riven: the trunk,split down the centre, gasped ghastly. Thecloven halves were not broken from eachother, for the firm base and strong rootskept them unsundered below; thoughcommunity of vitality was destroyed – thesap could flow no more; their greatboughs on each side were dead, and nextwinter’s tempests would be sure to fellone or both to earth: as yet, however theymight be said to form one tree – a ruin,but an entire ruin (243).

Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole.It is a kind of irony that deliberately representssomething as being much less than it reallyis: e.g., Jane Eyre tries to make sense of GracePoole and her eccentric behavior. Puzzled byeveryone’s tolerance of Grace, she will notallow herself to grow too alarmed: “Whenthus alone I not unfrequently heard GracePoole’s laugh….” (96). Her understatedthoughts help keep her panic to a minimum.

Literary FormsAristotle’s Rules for Tragedy

Catharsis is the release of emotion (pityand fear) from the audience’s perspective.e.g. After watching Antigonê, the audiencewill feel pity for the tragic deaths and fearfor themselves because if even the “best”in society fall, what future awaits thecommon man?

Dramatic UnitiesTime – The play has to take place within

a 24-hour period. e.g. Antigonêtakes place in “real” time; theaudience experiences the action asit unfolds.

Place – The action of the play is set inone place. Antigonê is set in frontof the royal palace in Thebes.

Action – The play contains one hero andone plot. The action in Antigonêfocuses on Antigonê’s determi-nation to bury her brotherPolyneices and the resultingconsequences.

Hamartia is the tragic flaw that leads tothe tragic hero’s downfall. In AntigonêCreon’s tragic flaw of holding himselfabove the prophets and the laws of thegods dooms him.

Hubris is arrogance before the gods. InAntigonê Creon’s pride and arrogancecause his downfall.

Recognition occurs as the hero meets hiscatastrophe, at which point he recognizeshis flaw and the reason he must die. InAntigonê Creon acknowledges hisresponsibility for the deaths of his familyand confesses he was too proud.

Reversal occurs when the opposite ofwhat the hero intends is what happens. InAntigonê Creon thinks he is doing theright thing by imprisoning Antigonê, butthis action leads to the suicides of his sonand his wife.

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Terms Associated with Close Reading - English Department

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