Temporal Order in Disturbed Reading

Dirk Bakker

Dr. Dirk Bakker of the Paedologisch Institut, Amsterdam, has kindly supplied us with this summary of his doctoral dissertation which was presented to the Free University of Amsterdam. The dissertation, just published (Temporal Order in Disturbed Read- ing: Developmental and Neuropsychological Aspects in Normal and Reading-Re- tarded Children, by Dirk J. Bakker, with Introduction by Arthur L. Benton. Rotter- dam: Rotterdam University Press, 1972), is an extension of some of the work discussed in the Bakker and Satz volume reviewed in this issue of the Bulletin, and is dedicated *'To the peacemakers and the pacemakers"--in whose company, it seems to us, the work establishes the author's place.

Editor

Up to the present comparatively little research has been done on the

relation between the preception of temporal order (TOP) and reading. The

present study deals with this relation and is an attempt at describing its

neuropsychological correlate.

In Chapter I the concept of temporal order is placed in a theoretical frame of reference.

There is a distinction between the preception of temporal order and the

perception of succession. Temporal order, also called sequence, supposes at

least two different stimuli which maintain a temporal, or sequential, relation.

These stimuli can be identified separately. Also for the preception of succes-

sion at least two stimuli, but not necessarily two different stimuli, are

required.

Temporal order may indicate an inter-individual and an intra-individual

relation. In the first case the perceiver and what is perceived form the two

different individualities, which can be illustrated by the succession of two

different tones and the person perceiving this succession. With an intra- individual temporal relation the perceiver (the "'experiencer") and the thing

perceived (the "thing experienced") belong to the same category: it is I who experience that today comes after yesterday.

A temporal order can be imitated and explicated. Imitation of rhythmic

patterns and series of digits are examples of imitation (repeating tapped-out

patterns and spoken series). With series of digits the stimuli are verbal in

nature. When they are imitated one is dealing with verbal imitation (VI ) of

a temporally ordered pattern. One deals with verbal imitation also when the

stimuli are not verbal in nature but when they are verbally codified (as one

80

T E M P O R A L ORDER I N READING

thinks "circle" or "square"). When neither applies, the temporal pattern is conceived as nonverbally imitating (NI) (as in a succession of figures which are not readily describable). With explication of a temporal order, the loca- tion of the stimuli in the series is indicated explicitly (indicating, e.g., the place of 7 in the series, 5, 2, 7, 10). One deals with verbal explication (VE) when the stimuli are verbal in nature or verbally codifiable (such as meaning- ful figures). When neither is the case (meaningless figures) one is dealing with nonverbal explication (NE).

Chapter II discusses the literature on the relations between temporal order perception and reading. The relation between TOP and spoken lan- guage is also under discussion. The discussion starts from the scheme that was developed in the first chapter, so that a distinction is made between NI-, VI-, NE- and VE-studies. From the study of the literature it can be seen that a TOP-language relation appears to exist, but only when the temporal order is conceived in verbal terms, as verbally-imitating or verbally-explicating.

In the following three chapters personal research is discussed. The tasks presented to the testees are of the VE-type.

In Chapter III an investigation involving 412 pre-school children, age 6 years, is discussed. This group was a representative sample of the Dutch population of that age. The children were presented with two tasks: TOVV (temporal order visual-visual) and TOAV (temporal order auditory-visual).

The results of the two tests appear to correlate significantly, but not particularly highly, with the reading ability of the same children in the first and second form of the primary school (r-values between q-.30 and -I-.40). Moreover, performances with TOVV and TOAV appear to improve with age, but in girls more than in boys. In general, girls appear to score higher than boys in both initial and later tests.

In Chapter IV investigations are made into the relation between TOP, on the one hand, and age, sex, and sensory input, on the other, in 100 primary school children (50 boys and 50 girls) between the ages of 7 and 11, and in 75 boys from schools for children with learning and educational difficulties (age 9-13). The children were presented with series of three letters, visually, haptically, and auditorily. The serial positions of the letters were to be indi- cated.

In normal boys and girls a strong TOP-age relation is found with a linear as well as with a square component. In the learning-disturbed boys the relation appears to be less strong and purely linear in nature. This difference seems to be attributable to the fact that the normal readers in the study have,

8 i

BULLETIN OF THE ORTON SOCIETY

and the others, though older, have not yet, achieved a leveling off of modality competence, by the latest years shown.

It is probably of interest that girls up to the age of 8 or 9 give better TOP-performances than boys up to that age, a finding which is in line with a similar sex difference found in infants (Ch. III).

Performances are more or less equally high with a visual and auditory (telereceptive) input. With a haptic (proximoreceptive, such as touch) input they are lower than with a telereceptive one, especially at a later age. This implies that the telereceptive dominance of the visual and auditory modalities over the haptic modalities increases with age. This applies to girls particularly.

In Chapter V, the TOP-reading relation is under discussion, investigated in the same children and with the same tasks as mentioned in the preceding chapter.

At this age period, TOP appears to correlate with the reading ability of normal boys, but not with that of normal girls. The relation is strongest with an auditory input. In learning-disturbed boys, also, a strong TOP-reading relation is found under the auditory input condition.

Moreover, after elimination of IQ-differences between the two groups, TOP still appears to differentiate between normal and learning-disturbed boys of 9 and 11 years of age under each input condition.

On account of the TOP-differences found between boys and girls, as well as the TOP-reading relation present with boys but not present with girls, developmental-psychological models are suggested in which these results may fit. The "connected" model (including both critical period and TOP-threshold factors) postulates a Critical period of age, in the upper phase determined by a critical TOP-threshold, below which TOP interacts with the learning-to- read process.

With boys the upper phase occurs between the ages of 6 and 8, with girls between the ages of 4 and 6. The results of any investigation appear partly to confirm the model and partly to reduce its conclusive force. There- fore the "disconnected" model is introduced. Here, too, a critical period emerges, but in the upper phase it is disconnected from the critical TOP- threshold. A third model, the "variability" model which attributes the TOP- reading relation during a critical TOP and/or reading period to the increase of variability in scores during these periods, appears to make possible explana- tion of some, but not all, results.

Probably neurophysiological changes are at the root of critical periods.

82

T E M P O R A L ORDER IN READING

In the last two chapters attention is paid to the functional changes on the cerebral level which occur during development.

In Chapter VI results that were found thus far are once more summarized and interpreted. It is argued here that many reading-disturbed children do not present any verbal labeling problem nor any temporal ordering problem as such, but show difficulties which occur when verbal items are presented in a time scheme. In other words, it is not so much these main factors which are disturbed as it is the interaction between time and verbal codes. As far as the functional changes are concerned one thinks in particular of an increasing cerebral Iateralization of functions.

Chapter VII deals with the hemispheric specializations in temporal per- ception and analysis. The conclusion of our theoretical and empirical analysis is that TOP is represented neither exclusively left- nor exclusively right- cerebrally. Where this perception is primarily mediated depends on the material which is temporally ordered. If this material is verbal or verbally codifiable it will be mediated left-cerebrally, but if it is not verbally express- able, it will be mediated right-cerebrally. Our research appears to support this hypothesis.

The last part of Chapter VII is a theoretical discussion of the language- time aspect of the more general time dimension in life, and the time aspect of the more complete language dimension. Such thinking is essential if one is to keep time, language, and their crucial but-not all inclusive relationship in perspective with all of human living and the brain functions which subserve it.

The last chapter is devoted .to a possible neurophysiological correlate of the TOP-language interaction. Language develops in stages as does TOP and the two develop more quickly in girls than in boys. The hemispheric special- ization for TOP as well as for language probably also proceeds gradually. The critical period for TOP-language interaction is thought to coincide with the period in which language and temporal order have come to be represented in the same hemisphere.

The fact that boys in TOP and language mature later than girls finally brings out two practical questions. How would it be possible, if desired, to accelerate maturation in boys; and why should not the starting-age for boys' and girls' learning-to-read be kept flexible as long as the first question has not been answered ? Ultimately, of course, this suggests pedagogical timing and stimulation based on the individual equation, with sex as one very potent factor.

83