1. 1. MorePraiseforThisBook Abrilliantlyaccessibleguidetodevelopingtrainingthatworks!Thisbookbringsthebestofcurrent academicthoughttothepractitionerinaconversational,practical,andusableformat.Theendnotesarea phenomenalresourceforanyonewhowantstodigdeeper.Simplysuperb. BonnieBeresford VicePresident,ClientServices,CapitalAnalytics Ive been recommending this book for years to my staff, my students, and friends who work for nonprofits.Itsthemostaccurateandeasy-to-readbookforanyonewhowantstohelpsomeonelearn.The new section on technology is especially helpful for those of us involved in online learning. And my doctoralstudentswilllovethisupdatedversionwithmorethan300references. PettiVanRekom Professor,TrainingandPerformanceImprovement,CapellaUniversity DirectorofOnlineLearning,IowaWritersOnline Itishardtoimproveontheiroriginal,wonderfultrainingguide,butStolovitchandKeepshavemanaged todojustthat.ThiseditionofTellingAintTrainingidentifieschangesorganizationsmustmaketomeet modernworkplaceskillandknowledgeimprovementchallenges.Theendnotesareexceptional.Whata treasuretroveofscientificandprofessionalresourcesforadditionalresearchandreading!TellingAint Trainingisanessentialresourcefortrainers. ConnieDenicola InstructorDevelopmentManager, NationalCenterforBiomedicalResearchandTraining PraisefortheFirstEdition Acriticaltopicdeliveredinacompellingway.Icanseehowthisbookwillelevatetheconversation aboutlearningandperformance. AllisonRossett ProfessorofEducationalTechnology,SanDiegoStateUniversity Thispractical,innovative,andwell-researchedbookonhowwealllearnisaninvaluabletoolforall learningandperformanceprofessionals.Asaformervicepresidentoftrainingandchangemanagement,I wouldhavemadethebookmandatoryreadingfortrainers,coaches,andmanagers,haditexisted.Well done! MichelDesjardins SeniorVicePresident,BDCConsultingGroup, BusinessDevelopmentBankofCanada Thisisagreatbookthatwillchangeyourperceptionsaboutteaching.Ihavealwayslistenedcarefullyto what Harold and Erica have to say on this subject. Now I have what I always wanteda readily accessibleHaroldandErica.Aconvincing,fun,andinterestingread.
2. 2. J.KimballDietrich AssociateProfessor,FinanceandBusinessEconomics, UniversityofSouthernCalifornia IbelieveinTellingAintTrainingsomuchthatIhaveorderedfivecopiesandamgoingtodoabook studywiththefivetrainerswehaveinourdistrict.Iamsoexcitedtogettheopportunitytosharethe informationfromyourbookwithmytrainers.Ifeeltheywillbenefitandbebroughtuptothenextlevel. KenyonBoswell TechnologyTrainingSupervisor,KatyIndependentSchoolDistrict Iwantedtoletyouknowhowyourbook,TellingAintTraining,haspositivelytransformedacompanys trainingprogramandme!Themostexcitingparthasbeenthecommentsfromthenewhireswhohave gonethroughthetraining:Itssoorganized,Itssoeasytounderstand,ThisisthebesttrainingIve everbeenthrough.Themostincrediblepartisthefeedbackfromthecurrentstaffconcerningthehigh levelofthenewhiresaftertrainingandalsothefactthatthecurrentemployeesaresointriguedwiththe new training that they want to go through it themselves! Thank you for such an enlightening, easy-to- understand,transformationalbook! PamelaSullivan RecognitionandRetentionConsultant,PSSullivan&Co. I have just finished reading your book Telling Aint Training, and I wanted to drop you a note to commendyouonanexcellentbook.Ihavebeenreviewingconsiderableliteratureforthepastfewyears, andIthinkyourpublicationisoneoftheclearest,moststraightforwardpublicationsIhavecomeacrossin alongtime.Iamrecommendingthateveryoneinourtrainingorganizationreviewitbecauseitservesasa greattooltobringeverythingtogether. SteveSniderman PerformanceImprovementConsultant,GlobalEducation&Training, GlobalSalesDivision,Amway ReadersShareHowTellingAintTraining,FirstEdition,WasUsedinTheirOrganizations AtMerckSharpandDohme(NewZealand),wedrewtogetheragroupofpeoplewhoareinvolvedin the training and education of others and began monthly forum sessions based around Telling Aint Trainingand Training Aint Performance. The main changes have come from the growing awareness withinthegroupthattheyshouldbeperformancebasedandlearnercentered.Ithassignificantlychanged thewaytheyseetheirroles,and,inparticular,causedthemtogobacktothedrawingboardtolookat whattheyaretryingtoachieveandwhy.Inalmostallcases,mygrouphaschangeditsapproachfrom beingtrainerstoimproversofperformance.Whentheydoputtogethertrainingtheynowcarefully considerhowtobestenablepeopletolearnasopposedtojustattendingacourse. Weusedtohaveacalendaroftypicaltrainingworkshopsthateitherconsistedoftoomuchmaterial being transmitted or too many activities that were superfluous and didnt result in performance improvement.Soourtrainersarenowstartingwiththelearnersandwhattheyneedtoknowanddoand arethendesigningtrainingandotherperformancesupporttoenableit.Theresulthasbeenlessbutmore
3. 3. relevanttraining,lessmoney,andthecontentandstructurematchtheperformanceoutcomesrequired. Ilaminatedasimple,brightlycoloredcardforeachpersonthatsimplyreadsPerformanceBasedand LearnerCentered.Ivenoticedthateveryonehasitabovetheirdeskasareminderfortheireducational effortsandworkplaceconversations.Wevealreadyseennewlearner-centeredmaterialsbeingproduced togetherwithshortermodulesinformatsthatmaximizeretentionandlearning.Thankyouforacoupleof outstandingbooksthathavebeenwritteninawaythatwalksthetalk! RobBialostocki LearningandDevelopmentManager,MerckSharpandDohme(NewZealand) IamateacherofdevelopmentalEnglishatBaltimoreCityCommunityCollege.Mystudentsoftenhave deficitsinmoreareasthanjustgrammarandmechanics.Theirskilldeficitsoftenincludethebehavioral notsomuchbadbehavior,butlackofself-esteem.Fewofmystudentsfeelcomfortableworkingina group.Evenfewerknowhowtoaddressaspeakerorformagoodquestion. WhenIreturnedfromtheArlington,Virginia,TellingAintTrainingworkshop,Iimmediatelyemployed thePressConferencetechniqueinmyclass.TheonlymodificationImadewasthatIcoachedstudents ontakingturnstoaskquestionsandinwaystoposequestionspolitely. The technique demonstrated a remarkable amount of potential in my students. They were far more comfortableworkingingroupsandaskingquestionsaftertheyparticipatedintheexercise.Ifeelthat,with morepractice,Iwillbeabletoapplythetechniqueinmyclasswithaplomb.Thankyouforteachingme howtoconductPressConferencesinthetraining/instructionalclassroom. CaroleQuine AssociateProfessor,English,BaltimoreCityCommunityCollege(USA) Iorganizedabookclubforabout25trainersdispersedthroughoutmycompany.Becausetrainingisvery decentralized here, we dont really have many opportunities to share experiences or learn from one another.BychoosingTellingAintTrainingforourinauguralmeeting,Ihopedtoinstillafoundationfor futurediscussions.Wehadalivelydialoguearoundthisrelevantbook.Iamcurrentlydesigningaclass that is PowerPoint free where the focus is on the learner. Less is indeed more! Thanks for the inspiration. JanetDiVincenzo SeniorInstructionalDesigner,FulfillmentTraining, NewCenturyMortgage(USA) IhaveusedwhatIhavelearnedfromTellingAintTraininginperhapsmoresubtlewaysthanchangesto trainingcoursesthemselves: Ihavepurchasedcopiesformembersofthecorporatelearningleadershipteamtoopentheirthinking to fundamentals and challenge the way we often think about training (for example, basic understanding of when training is even relevant or the most effective means of addressing performancegapsorknowledge/skillgaps). Icreatedmyownfour-pagesummaryandshareitwithcolleagueswhencertaintopicscomeup(for
4. 4. example,someonerecentlystressedtheimportanceofjust-in-timetrainingandthatalittleofthe rightstuffismoreeffectiveandoftenmuchcheapertocreatethanlargevolumesofcontent). TwokeyoverallmessagesthatIhavepromotedare theconceptoflearner-centeredsimplebutpowerful,easytoexplainandhaveothersthink differentlyaboutwhattrainingshouldprovideandhowweofferit the understanding of the human learner and the way our senses work, including filter mechanisms;itexplainssomuch. ThanksforthebookIuseitweeklyinmanyways! MickThomas LearningLeader,DowChemical
5. 5. 2011theAmericanSocietyforTraining&Development Allrightsreserved.PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,distributed,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans, includingphotocopying,recording,orotherelectronicormechanicalmethods,withoutthepriorwritten permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, please go to www.copyright.com,orcontactCopyrightClearanceCenter(CCC),222RosewoodDrive,Danvers,MA 01923(telephone:978.750.8400,fax:978.646.8600). ASTDPressisaninternationallyrenownedsourceofinsightfulandpracticalinformationonworkplace learning and performance topics, including training basics, evaluation and return on investment, instructionalsystemsdevelopment,e-learning,leadership,andcareerdevelopment. Orderinginformationforprintedition:BookspublishedbyASTDPresscanbepurchasedbyvisiting ASTDswebsiteatstore.astd.orgorbycalling800.628.2783or703.683.8100. LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2009903513(printeditiononly) PrinteditionISBN:978-1-56286-701-0 PDFe-bookISBN:978-1-60728-793-3 ASTDPressEditorialStaff: Director:AnthonyAllen Manager,ASTDPress:LarryFox ProjectManager,ContentAcquisition:JustinBrusino SeniorAssociateEditor:ToraEstep AssociateEditor:AshleyMcDonald EditorialAssistant:StephanieCastellano Copyeditor:ToraEstep Indexer:AprilMichelleDavis Proofreader:KrisPatenaude InteriorDesignandProduction:KathleenSchaner CoverDesign:AnaIlievaForeman
6. 6. Dedication Preface Section1:TheHumanLearnerWhatResearchTellsUs Chapter1:LearningIsNotEasy(EspeciallyWhenOthersMakeItSoHard) Challenge1 Challenge2 WhatIsThisBookAbout? Chapter2:AnIntroductiontoSomeFamiliarTerms BasicVocabularyTheTermsoftheTrade TwoKeyPrinciples:YourMantraasaTrainer(Educator,Instructor) LiveorTechnology-Based:ItsAlltheSame WhatsinThisBookandWhy RememberThis Chapter3:TheHumanLearner WhatIsLearning? HowWeLearn:Senses,Filters,andMemory WhatDoesThisMeanfortheLearnerandtheTrainer? RememberThis Section2:WhatYouMustKnowtoBeaBetterTrainer Chapter4:GettingLearnerstoLearn DifferentTypesofKnowledge:DeclarativeandProcedural KeyIngredientsforLearning AdaptingforDifferencesinAbility,PriorKnowledge,andMotivation RememberThis Chapter5:AdultLearningPrinciples GoodClassesandBadClasses FourKeyAdultLearningPrinciples TheBottomLineonAdultLearningPrinciples RememberThis Chapter6:AFive-StepModelforCreatingTerrificTrainingSessions SixUniversalPrinciplesFromResearchonLearning AUniversalModelforStructuringAnyLearningSession TheTrainingSessionPlanningSession TheTrainingSessionScriptingSheet UsingtheFive-StepModeltoRetrofitExistingTrainingSessions FinalReviewoftheFive-StepModel RememberThis Chapter7:GettingLearnerstoRemember
7. 7. Metacognition:TheExecutiveLearningControls CognitiveStrategies:HowtoBuildLearningFaster,Better,Cheaper RememberThis Section3:ApplyingWhatYouHaveLearnedMakingLearningResearchWork Chapter8:TrainingApproachesandaCornucopiaofLearningActivities FourMajorTypesofTraining PullingtheFourTypesofTrainingTogether 25TrainingActivitiesYouCanUse SummarizingtheActivities ClosingtheDooronThisActiveChapter RememberThis Chapter9:TestingorExaminingWhatstheDifference? WhatWasThatAllAbout? TestingVersusExams HowDoIGoAboutCreatingTests? CreatingTests RememberThis Section4:Training-LearningWithTechnologyandBeyond Chapter10:TrainingandTechnology WhatIsTechnologyandWhatDoesItDoforLearning? IdealVersusReal WhatCanWeRealisticallyExpectFromtheUseofTechnologyinLearning? ShouldWeIgnoreTechnology? CaveatEmptor(LettheBuyerBeware) Promises,Promises,Promises RememberThis Chapter11:LearningWithTechnology:MakingItWork HitorMyth? WhatMakesforQualityOnlineLearning? OnlineLearningIsNottheFirstDecisionYouMake BlendedLearning HowWouldYouBlend? BeyondTraditionalBlendedLearning NewInformalLearningApproaches TheRiseofWeb2.0 IntegratingWeb2.0IntoTraining ResourcesandExamples:IdeasforUsingNewMediainLearning TheNewBlendedLearningandtheFutureofTraining RememberThis ClosingOutonLearningWithTechnology:MakingItWork Section5:WrappingItUp Chapter12:HitorMyth:WhatstheTruth? TheBottomLineonLearning HitorMythAFinalMatch-Up
8. 8. Chapter13:ConcludingReflectionsonTellingAintTraining ARapidReviewofTellingAintTraining SomethingtoThinkAboutReflectionsFromCarlJung Endnotes AbouttheAuthors Index
9. 9. Forthepleasureofsharinginyourgrowthandlearning,wededicatethisbookto RyanSamuelBender ShelbyAnneBender FrancescaRuthBarlin Youalwayskeepusawarethattellingtrulyainttraining.
10. 10. Itisdifficulttobelievethatnearly10yearshavepassedsincewesatdowntowritethefirsteditionof Telling Aint Training. We thought then that we were done. However, when we were approached to produceanupdated,expanded,andenhancedversionofTellingAintTraining,ideasbegantobubbleto the surface. How could we decline such a tempting offer? So much has happened since Telling Aint Trainingwasfirstpublished.Yet,somuchstillremainsthesame.Whattosay?Whatchoicestomake? ResponsetothefirsteditionofTellingAintTrainingwasoverwhelming.Weheardfromhundredsof readersabouthowthebookhadaffectedthewaytheyandtheirorganizationsapproachtraining.Wealso heardfromschoolteachers,professors,andparentswhosawhowtheprinciplesandstrategiesofTelling Aint Training could be applied in their settings. Examples and testimonials poured in. We were so pleasedwhenourreadersaskedformore.Andmoreiswhattheygot! In 2004, the American Society for Training & Development (ASTD) published our companion book, Training Aint Performance, which addresses the more expansive nature of what we do to improve humanperformanceintheworkplace.In2005and2006,respectively,welaunchedourtwofieldbooks, Beyond Telling Aint Training Fieldbook and Beyond Training Aint Performance Fieldbook. These publicationsfurthersupportedtheimplementationofourapproachinorganizationsworldwide. TheAintseriesofbooks(whichiswhatthegroupoffourisoftencalled)werenottheonlymeansof spreadingtheword.Infact,basedonthepopularityofTellingAintTraining,ASTDinvitedustoconduct Telling Aint Training mini conferences throughout the United States. This then led to Telling Aint Training events in ASTD and International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI) chapters; the CanadianSocietyforTrainingandDevelopment(CSTD);andcorporations,governmentagencies,and nonprofitsthroughouttheworld.WhocouldhaveimaginedthatTellingAintTrainingwouldbedelivered live,onaverage,20timesayear? ThefirsteditionofTellingAintTrainingwasawonderfullyenjoyablebooktowrite.Itwasntatypical book for us but more of a conversation about training. We have devoted our professional lives approximately 80 years combinedto teaching, designing instruction, helping organizations create learning and performance support solutions, and conducting research on learning and workplace performance.Wehavespenttheseyearsinboththeacademicandcorporateworlds.Weveproduced manyprofessionalandscientificpublications.TellingAintTrainingwastotallydifferentfromanything elsewehadeverwritten.ThiseditionofTellingAintTrainingupdated,expanded,andenhanced remainstruetotheapproachandstylesetintheoriginalpublication. Aswiththefirstedition,wehavedoneawaywithmanyoftheconventionswenormallyapplytoour writing.Exceptforafewreferencestospecificindividualsfromwhomwehavedirectlyborrowedideas orwords,wehaveeliminatedtheusualcitationpractices.Instead,wehaveplacedattheendofthebook
11. 11. asectioncalledForFurtherReading(updatedandgreatlyexpandedinthisedition)thatyoucanconsultto digmoredeeplyintosomeaspectofwhatwepresent.Inthissecondedition,wealsoprovideendnotesto not only cite references, but also position them. The endnotes expand Telling Aint Trainings depth. Huntingforresearchreferencesandcitationstobringtheneweditionuptodate,enhanceit,andaddmore evidencetosupportorupdateitscontentwasanintensivetwo-yearactivity.Butwhatanexcitingand enlighteningoneitwas!Readingarticles,manuscripts,reports,researchabstracts,meta-analysisstudies, books,andeveninterviewsummariessignificantlyexpandedourownhorizons.Wearehappytoshare whatwediscoveredaswescouredtheuniversefornewmaterial. Justasinthefirstedition,wehavemaintainedaconversationalalmostspeakingtoneinourwriting. Wevealsousedcontractions,dialogue,asides,funexercises,teasers,challenges,andanyothertechnique wefeltwouldkeepthisbookasreader-friendlyaspossible. To create Telling Aint Training: Updated, Expanded, and Enhanced, we took what accumulated research and well-documented professional procedure have demonstrated to be sound and desirable practicesfortraining-learning(thatis,thedeliberateactionstakentotriggerdesirableskill/knowledge acquisitionandtheoutcomesoftheseactions)andmadethemmoreapproachablethantypicallypresented in the scientific and professional journals. Our purpose was to make the best principles of training availabletobothnewlyappointedtrainersandmoreexperiencedpractitionerssearchingforexplanation andconfirmationonwhycertainthingswork(orperhapsdont).Innocasehavewedumbeddownthe researchfindings.Wehaveworkeddiligentlytomaintaintheintegrityofthevariousresearchersand authors works while modifying the language (never the ideas or findings) to make their discoveries accessibletoabroadtrainingaudience.Inthislatestedition,wealsospendmoretimeandspaceonhow the basic principles of training-learning play out in a changing worldone that has experienced the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001; a major economic downturn; and the advent of many technological advances such as e-learning, webinars, social media, e-readers, and virtual worlds. Workplacelearninghasbeentransformedinwayswecouldhavenotimaginedwhenwewrotethefirst edition. With respect to technology and training, we felt that the best way to include content about this ever- changingscenewouldbebydeferringtosomeonewithgreaterexpertisethanwepossess.Fortunately,our colleagueandfriend,MarcJ.Rosenberg,whohasauthoredexcellentbooksone-learningandtheuseof technologytoimprovehumanperformanceatwork,acceptedourinvitationtobecomepartofthewriting team.Heco-authoredthesectionofthisbookcalledTraining-LearningWithTechnologyandBeyond. This section consists of two chapters. The first provides a historical perspective and conceptual framework for using technology in training-learning. The second is more pragmatic and includes rich examplesoftechnologyatwork.Weareextremelygratefulfortheknowledgeandwisdomhehasshared toexpandandenhancethissecondeditionofTellingAintTraining. Youwillnoticethatwehavedividedthebookintofivesectionscontaining13chapters.Thefirsttwo chaptersdescribethecontentsandlayoutaroadmapforwhatliesahead.Theensuingchaptersprovide youwithbothsubstanceandtoolstobringTellingAintTraining:Updated,Expanded,andEnhancedto life.Eachchapterstartswithabriefoverviewofitshighlightstohelpyouprepareyourselfforthecontent that follows. To avoid too much telling, which is almost inevitable in a book, and one-way communication,whichiswhatwereaskingyounottodo,everychaptercontainsactivitiesthataremeant toengageyouinmeaningfulways.Theexercisesmanyofthemfun,severalofthemtimedtoincreasethe challengeofferopportunitiesforyoutointeractwiththelearningcontent.Allofthechapters(exceptthe
12. 12. firstone)concludewithbrief,summaryexercisesandactivitiesthatpromptyoutorecallwhatyouve learnedandhelpyouretainkeypointswhenyouvefinishedreadingthebook.Alongthewayyouwill encounterthefollowingicons: Thisiconsignalsanimportantfactforthereader. Thisiconidentifieskeypointsforusingtheinformationwevesupplied. Thisiconaccompaniesareviewofthemajortakeawayknowledgeineachchapter. WewouldliketothankformerASTDPressacquisitionseditorMarkMorrowforinvitingustocreatethe originalTellingAintTrainingandforsupportingussoenthusiasticallythroughitspreparationandthe otherbooksintheAintseries,includingthisupdated,expanded,andenhancededition. OurthanksalsogotoJustinBrusino,ASTDPressacquisitionseditor,whowastheprojectmanagerfor the second edition of Telling Aint Training. His assistance, guidance, and support were most appreciated. OursincereappreciationgoestoToraEstep,formerASTDPressseniorassociateeditor,forcleaningup ourtextbeautifullywithoutstrayingfromourcentralmessageorstyle. Thereisnowaywecouldhavecompletedthisbookwithouttheconstantsupportofourverydearright and left hand, Barbra Hellwig, who took care of all the hard stuff while we wrote. Barbra, we are eternallyinyourdebt. WehavenowordstoexpressourdeepestappreciationtoSamanthaGreenhill,whocollaboratedonthis fifthbookintheAintseries.Herabilitytoworkwithus,tolerateourunendingdemands,andnotflinch fromourtighttimelinesneverceasestoamazeus.Calmly,sheabsorbswhatwesendher,alongwithour crypticinstructions,andturnsitallintosomethingcoherent.Astonishing! In creating this book, we thought especially about the countless workers and managers who find themselvesthrustintotheroleoftrainer,oftenwithnoformalbackgroundintrainingandlearning.Our hopeisthattheseindividualsfeelguidedandsupportedbythispublication. Oneofthegreatestjoysofwritingabookinwhichyousharewhatyouhavelearnedwithreadersisthat of sharing the experience with a co-author you admire. We are not just co-authors; we are also professionalcolleaguesandlifepartners.Toeachother,then,thanksforcontinuingthejourneytogether. HaroldD.StolovitchandEricaJ.Keeps LosAngeles,May2011
13. 13. TheHumanLearnerWhatResearchTellsUs
14. 14. LearningIsNotEasy(EspeciallyWhenOthersMakeItSo Hard) Chapterhighlights: Openingteaser Setofchallenges Discussionofwhatthisbookisabout. Mostbooksstartlogically,wemightaddwithanintroductionthatsetsthestageforwhatstocome andthenlaysout,inoverview,thecontentsofthevolume.Wellgetaroundtothatsoonenough.Youhave ourwordonthis.However,wevealwaysenjoyedtheopeningstothrillermoviesthathityouwitha teasertoarouseyourinterestbeforemovingontothetitle,openingcredits,andtherestofthemovie. Prepareyourself,then,foracoupleofchallengingteasers. Challenge1 Youvegot60secondstolearnthefollowing18-digitsequence.Oneerrorandthebombexplodes.Time yourself.Ready?Go! 412527246060313028 Now,coverthenumbersequence.Youhave30secondstowritedownall18digits,inorder,withno errorsinthefollowingbox.Go! Howwelldidyoudo?Howeasyorhardwasit?Almostnoonecandoit,especiallyundertimepressure. Isthereanywaywecanmakethelearningtaskeasier?Here,oncemore,isournumber: 412527246060313028 Andherearecluestoaccompanyit.Pleasepaycloseattention.Yourlifedependsonit!
15. 15. Readthesequenceagainasyoutrytoretainthenumbers.Thetotalofthetworeadingsshouldtakeabout 60seconds. Now,oncemore,coverthenumbers.Take30secondsnomoretowritedownthesequencein thespacebelow.Go! Andheresthecorrectanswer: 4seasonsinayear;12monthsinayear;52weeksinayear;7daysinaweek;24hoursinaday;60minutesinanhour;60secondsinaminute;31,30,or28daysinamonth Howdidyoudothistime?Inourtestswithvariouslearners,mostdofarbetterwhentheyactivelywork outthecluesthanwhentheyjuststudythenumbers.Theresareasonforthisonethatwellexplainlater. Challenge2 Upforanotherchallenge?Theotherdaywereceivedthefollowinginvitationtoapartyinacitywehad never visited. Please read it through without trying to memorize it. You should spend about 30 to 45 secondsonit.Thencoverthenoteandanswerthequestionsthatfollowtheinvitation. Hi,herearethedirections:Fromtheairport,taketheroadthatleadsoutoftherentallotandfollow itpastthebarrieraroundthelotuntilyougettotheendwhereyouconnectupwiththeroadout.Take theroad,andjustbeforeitveersright,youllseeatriplefork.Ifyoutaketheleftbranch,youllhead westandawayfromthelake.Dontdothat!Straightputsyouundertheviaductandreallyofftrack. Taketherightbranchandbearrightatthenextforktotheroundaboutwhereyougonotquitehalfway aroundtothesecondroad.Its379East,althoughitreallygoessouth,sodontworry.Fromthenon, itsastraightshot.Cheers,Andr Answerthesequestionswithoutreferringtothenote: 1. Wherestheparkinglot?
16. 16. 2. Wherearetherentalcars? 3. Whatdoyouhavetopasstogetoutoftheparkinglot? 4. Whatdoyouseejustbeforetheroadveersrightoutoftheparkinglot? 5. Afterthesecondfork,whatdoyouwatchfor? 6. Doyougooverorundertheviaduct? 7. Whichhighwaydoyoutake? Weaskedforclearerdirections.Ourfriendssistersentusthemapyoullfindonthenextpage(figure1- 1). Studythismapforabout30to45seconds.Then,comebacktothispageandwithoutreferringtothemap, answerthesamesevenquestionsasbefore: 1. Wherestheparkinglot? 2. Wherearetherentalcars? 3. Whatdoyouhavetopasstogetoutoftheparkinglot? 4. Whatdoyouseejustbeforetheroadveersrightoutoftheparkinglot? 5. Afterthesecondfork,whatdoyouwatchfor? 6. Doyougooverorundertheviaduct? 7. Whichhighwaydoyoutake? Turnthebookovertofindthecorrectanswers.
17. 17. AnswerKey: 1. Infrontoftheairport 2. Atthefrontoftheparkinglot(orjustinfrontoftheparkinglot) 3. Abarrier 4. Atriplefork 5. Aroundabout 6. Neither 7. 379east Wasiteasierthattime?Onceagain,inourtrialswefoundthatalmosteveryonehaderrorsinthefirst attempt.However,nearlynooneerredoncetheyhadseenthediagram. Wepresentedthesetwolearningchallengesforthefollowingreasons: Todemonstratethatthesamecontent,presenteddifferently,createsadifferentimpactonlearningand retention. To get you to participate, respond, and receive feedbackall key to creating excellent learning events. Togiveyouatasteofthisbooksstylefun,easytoread,challenging,abittongueincheek,but focusedonaserioustheme. Beforewegiveawaytoomuchofthestory,whydontyouparticipateoncemore? Intable1-1aresetsofpairedstatements.Pleasecheckthestatementineachpairthatmostclosely correspondstoyourpersonalexperienceoflearning(checkonlyonefromcolumnAorcolumnB eachtime). Fromourownexperienceinlearningandfromtryingoutthesestatementpairswithalotofadults,we suspectthatyoucheckedmostofthestatementsincolumnBandfewtononeincolumnA.Nosurprise. Whatdoesastonishus,however,isthatthosewhoteachforaliving(instructors,teachers,professors, trainers)alsocheckalmostallthecolumnBstatements,butwhenweobservethemteachingortraining, theyactasthoughcolumnAstatementsweretrue! Table1-1.PairedStatements ColumnA ColumnB SomeonewhoknowssomethingIdonttellsmeaboutit. Iwatchsomeoneperformafulldemonstration. Iattendlecturesinwhichaninstructorpresentsinformationtome. Iseewhatsinitfortheorganization. Thecontenthasalotofdetail. Whatispresentedtomeisorganizedaccordingtothelogicofthecontent. Iamshownhowthingsaredone. Iattendlonglearningsessions. Iaminaformalinstructionalsetting. Iamtoldhowthingswork. IdiscusswithsomeonewhoknowssomethingIdont. Igetinvolvedandtrythingsoutduringademonstration. Iattendsessionsinwhichaninstructorengagesmeinatwo-wayinteraction. Iseewhatsinitforme. Thecontentisminimalandmeaningful. WhatispresentedtomeisorganizedaccordingtothelogicofhowIlearnthings. IgettotrythingsformyselfasIambeingguided. Iattendshorterspacedlearningsessions. Iaminaninformalworkandlearningsetting. Iexperiencehowthingswork. Timeandagain,weseealmostacompletereversalbetweenwhatpeoplesayabouthowtheylearnand howtheytrytohelpotherslearn.Quitetheparadox!Itsalsooneofthemainreasonsforwritingthis
18. 18. book. WhatIsThisBookAbout? Enoughteasing.Letsseewhatthisbookisallabout.Alotoftraditions,myths,andmisguidedalthough well-intentionedprinciples and activities in training create barriers to effective learning. We have producedthisbookfortwomainreasons:todispelthesecounterproductivebeliefsandpracticesthat harmtheinstructionalprocessandtohelpyoutobethemosteffectivetrainerorinstructoryoucanbe. HeretheniswhatTellingAintTraining:Updated,Expanded,andEnhancedoffersyou: Separationofmythsfromresearch-basedfindingsaboutlearningandtraining.Wehavedonethis inanonacademicwayusinglotsofexamplesandexercises.Thegoalistomakeyoureflectuponand rejecttheill-foundedmythsthatmanypeopleintheteaching-learningworldperpetuate. A breezy and friendly style that we believe will get our message across better than a formal approach.Butdontletthestylefoolyou.Everythinginthisbookisbasedonwhatthebestresearch evidencetellsusabouthowtohelppeoplelearn. Lots of endnotes that offer additional reading and useful references to support what we have coveredinthebook.Asyouread,youwillcomeacrossnumbersinsuperscript.Theserefertothe endnotesatthebackofthebook.Theyservefourpurposes:tobeasinobtrusiveaspossibleand hencenotinterferewithyourreading;tosubstantiatewhatwesayandallowyoutobackupany argumentsyoumaymaketoothersbasedonthisbook;sometimestoelaborateonwhatisinthetext; and,finally,tosuggestadditionalreadingsifyouwishtopursueaparticulartopic. Lotsofinteraction.Asyouvealreadyseen,yougettodothingsandthinkaboutthem,notjustread words.Tomakeourmessagemeaningfulandcredible,wewanttouseanapproachthatisconsistent withwhatweareproposing.Allhumanbeingsandthatincludesyouanduslearnthroughactive mentalengagement.Inthisbook,wemakeeveryefforttoengageyoumentallyinmeaningfulways. Practicalanddown-to-earthcounsel.Oneofusauthorshasdevotedhisalmost50-yearcareerto studying and conducting research about learning and then translating findings into practical application.Theotheroneofushasspentcloseto40yearsinbusinessmanagingthelearningand performanceofpeople.Together,thetwoofusfocusonwhatitreallytakestohelppeoplelearn. Aboveall,asharingwithyouofwhatwehavelearnedinourlifetimes.Thegoalisforyouto becomehighlyeffectivetrainersmuchmorequicklythanwedidbyinteractingwiththecontentsof thisbook. Areyouconvinced?Evenfiredup?Thenletusturntothebeginningtheintroduction.
19. 19. AnIntroductiontoSomeFamiliarTerms Chapterhighlights: Vocabularylessononfamiliarterms Underlyingphilosophyofthebook Applicationtovariousmedia Overviewofthebookscontents. BasicVocabularyTheTermsoftheTrade Traininginstructioneducationlearning.Thesearewordsweoftenuseinterchangeably.When we analyze the words, however, we discover that each conveys a unique meaning. Individually and combined, these four activities give us power to build different types of skills and knowledge. Lets examineeachofthesewordsandbegintobuildavaluablevocabulary. Training Youaretryingtogetyourdogtositatyourcommand.Checkofftheexpressionbelowthatbest describeswhatyouaredoing: trainingyourdog instructingyourdog educatingyourdog. You probably chose training your dog because it seems to fit best. The other two sound somewhat strangewhenappliedtoanimals.Ifwedigdeeper,werealizethatwhentrainingadogwhatwewantis forittoperformsomethingspecificandprecise. Wealsowantthedogtodoitoncommandandwithoutvariation.Yousay,sit,andthedogsits.The moreeffectivethetraining,themoreaccuratelyandrapidlythedogresponds.Intraining,ourpurposeis tocreateachangeinlearners(includingdogs)thattheyconsistentlyreproducewithoutvariation.Through intense training, the learner becomes increasingly able to reproduce the learned behavior with fewer errors,greaterspeed,andundermoredemandingconditions.Examinethelistbelowandcheckallthe itemsforwhichyoubelievetrainingisappropriate: typing assemblingarifle statingarule
20. 20. executingacomplexskatingmaneuver recitingmultiplicationtables selectingtherighticononascreen applyingallthestepsoftheemergencyshutdownprocedure. Ifyoucheckedalltheitems,youwereright.Soundsmechanical?Thatsallright.Learningthingsthatyou applyautomaticallyandinvariablyisoftenanecessarypartoflearning.Howmuchvariationdoyouwant innamingobjects,slicingatomato,orloggingontoacomputer?Beingabletoexecutementalorphysical procedureswithoutthinkingisimportantinourlives(forexample,shiftinggearsinacar,brushingour teeth,andrecognizinglettersandwords).Itcutsdownonourcognitive(thinking)load.Traininghelps makeourliveseasier. Instruction Instructionhelpslearnersgeneralizebeyondthespecificsofwhatistaught.Theabilitytoreproduce unconsciously what we have learned is absolutely insufficient to make us complete as human beings. Therefore,weaddinstruction. Heresanexample:InFrench,theinfinitiveformsofregularverbsalwaysendiner.Forinstance,the verbdonner(togive)isaregularverb.Soisdemander(toask).WhichoftheseverbsareFrenchregular verbs? choisir(tochoose) chanter(tosing) nommer(toname) vendre(tosell) apporter(tobring) vouloir(towant) EventhoughyoumaynotknowmuchaboutFrench,youprobablywereabletotaketheruleandthetwo examples above and generalize to new instances. If you checked chanter, apporter, and nommer, flicitations(congratulations)! In work settings, we require a lot of instruction. Lets take, for example, safety issues. We provide examplesofworkplacehazardsandmeansfordealingwithdifferenttypesofdangeroussituations.Butno matterhowmanyexamplesandrulesweprovide,weallknowthatwemayrunintomanynovelinstances notcoveredduringinstruction.Theexpectationisthatlearnerswillbeabletogeneralizebeyondwhat wastaught. Justasfortraining,thepurposeofinstructionistobuildnewskillsandknowledge.Thekeydifferences arepresentedintable2-1. Table2-1.DifferencesBetweenTrainingandInstruction Trainingallowsyouto Instructionallowsyouto reproduceexactlywhathasbeentaught actautomatically applylearningwithoutvariation,regardlessofconditions. generalizebeyondwhathasbeentaught actthoughtfully adaptlearningtoeachnewsetofconditions. Just to be sure youve got it, place a T beside each action below that you believe to require trainingandanIbesidethosethatseemtofitwithinstruction.
21. 21. 1. _____Lightalighter. 2. _____PronouncetheFrenchwordmanger. 3. _____Selectanappropriateproductforacustomer. 4. _____Respondtoacomplaint. 5. _____Placeaspecificcomponentinthemotherboard. 6. _____Tieareefknot. Items 1, 2, 5, and 6 are all tasks for training (reproduce without variation). Items 3 and 4 require instructionbecauseeachnewcustomerwillbedifferent,aswilleachcomplaint.Thoseactionsdemand generalizationoflearningandadaptationofbehaviors. Education Thethirdkeyvocabularytermiseducation.Asyouprobablyalreadysense,educationconveysamore long-termandbroaderconnotationthandotrainingandinstruction,whicharegenerallyshort-termand narrowlyfocused.Educationistheresultofavarietyoflifeexperiencesandhighlygeneralizedlearning principlesandevents.Mucheducationderivesfromimplicitmessagestransmittedthroughthebehaviors ofrolemodelsratherthanfromexplicitlystatedones.Thepurposeofeducationistobuildgeneralmental modelsandvaluesystems. Lets place this in a work context and continue with the safety example: Training enables us to build specificsafetybehaviors,suchassetoffanalarm,activateafireextinguisher,orselecttherightnumber to call. Instruction allows us to acquire the skills to identify new safety hazards or to act when an emergencyoccursthatwehavenotencounteredbefore.Finally,educationenablesustoadoptasafety outlookonlife.Weautomaticallytakeprecautionsandproactivelyapplymeasurestoavoidaccidents.We foreseepossibledangers,andweadvocatesafeworkingconditionsandbehaviors. Inourworkasparents,teachers,andworkplacetrainingprofessionals,wedoallthree:train,instruct,and educate.Allthreeactivitieshavetheirplace.Oneisnotmoreimportantthananother.Allthreework together.Imagine,forexample,thatyouareresponsibleforbuildingskillsandknowledgeinatechnical servicecenterwherecustomersupportspecialistshelpcallerssolvetechnicalproblems.Considerthelist ofrelevanttaskspresentedbelowandplaceaTbesideeachitemrequiringtraining,anIbesidethe instructionitems,andanEbesidethoseappropriateforeducation. 1. _____Logacall. 2. _____Probetoclarifytheproblem. 3. _____Fillinfieldsinacustomerrecord. 4. _____Displayempathyforcustomersfrustrations. 5. _____Statestepsforaspecifictroubleshootingprocedure. 6. _____Drawoutfromthecustomerwhatsheorhealreadyhasdoneinattemptingtocorrectthe problem. 7. _____Selecttypeofcallcodebeforefilingthereport.
22. 22. Items 1, 3, 5, and 7 are most likely tasks to be trained. Item 2 probably is one best handled through instruction.Item6islargelyinstructionbuthassomeaspectsofeducationinit.Youhavetolearnhowto goaboutdrawinginformationfromacustomerandapplyinglisteningskills.Therapportyoucreatecan makeallthedifferenceinthequalityofcustomerresponsesyouobtain.Youcanacquirethetechniques throughinstruction,butthenuancesofhelpfullyinteractingwiththecustomerdrawfromtheeducationof the customer support specialist. Finally, item 4, displaying empathy, is a subtle skill not inherent in everyone. Empathy derives from the support specialists own life experiences plus the models and implicit messages he or she communicates through actions. A person requires education to become empathicwithcustomers. To conclude our vocabulary drill, training, instruction, and education all aim to build knowledge and skillsinlearners.Eachoffersauniqueanddistinctapproach,andallarenecessarytohelppeoplelearn. Theyseldomremainpure.Theycanbemixedsothatevenwhiletrainingforaspecificbehavior,we maybeeducatingbyattitudeandbytheexamplewecreateforourlearners. Learning Learningischange.Dontforgetthatthewholereasonfortraining,instruction,andeducationistoenable peopletolearn.Inchapter3,wewillinvestigatelearningmoredeeply.Sufficeittosayatthispointthat weareseekingtotransformourlearners.Ifwetrainthegeneraltermcommonlyusedinthework setting for all three sets of activitieswe do not simply transmit information. We change people. We transformlearnersinwaysthataredesirablebothforthemandfororganizations. Today, most organizations have moved from traditional training departments to learning and developmentgroupsorevenworkplacelearningandperformanceteams.Theemphasisontraininghas givenwaytoaclearfocusonlearninganditsimpactonproducingbetterresults.1
23. 23. TwoKeyPrinciples:YourMantraasaTrainer(Instructor,Educator) Weareseatedinacircleonthefloorwithourlegscrossed.Oureyesareclosed,andwearerelaxed.The lightisdim.Werepeatoverandoveragain,learnercenteredperformancebasedlearnercentered performancebased.Whythismantra?Becausethesetwotermsarethekeystotransforminglearners. Letsexamineeachofthetermsindividually. LearnerCentered Imagine you are an accountant and have been asked to conduct a session next week for a group of technicalandprofessionalpersonnelrecentlypromotedtomanagers.Yourmandateistoteachcashflow managementtothesenonfinancialmanagers.Whatwillyoudotoprepare?Behonestandcheckoffwhich ofthefollowingtwoscenariosmorecloselydescribesactionsyouwouldtake. A. Gather materials on cash flow management. Examine documents for key concepts and terms. Createanoutlineofthecontentinlogicalsequencesothatyouensureyouhitallthefundamentals. Studyupandrehearsesothatyouappearcredibleandcanansweranycontentquestionsthelearners raise.Puttogetherinformationandexercisesthatclarifywhatcashflowisandhowitworks.Verify thatallofyourcontentisaccurateandstateoftheart. B. Gather information on the prospective learners jobs with respect to cash flow. Gather information on the learners backgrounds and experiences concerning cash flow management. Investigate to identify problems new managers encounter and create with respect to cash flow. Gatheralistoforganizationalexpectationsofthesenewlyappointedmanagersconcerningcashflow management. Create realistic scenarios and tools to help the learners acquire expected competencies.Createalistofbenefitstothemandtotheorganizationwhentheymanagecashflow well. Fromexperience,wehavefoundthattheoverwhelmingmajorityofpeople,whenplacedinthisposition, optforA.Theygoforthecontent.Themoreappropriateanswer,however,isB.Focusonthelearners withtheirneeds,concerns,desires,fears,frustrations,andcharacteristics.OptionAleadstotellingand transmission.Theemphasisisontheinstructorsabilitytopresentagreatdealofinformation.OptionB leadstotrainingandtransformation.Thefocusisonthelearner. PerformanceBased Ifyouexaminemostcoursenotes,eitherthoseofthetrainerorinstructororoftheparticipants,youlikely
24. 24. willfindthemfilledwithlotsofcontent.Thereisanimpressionthatmoreisbetter.Howoftendoyou heartrainerscomplain,Ididnthaveenoughtimetocoverthecontent? Heresasimplechoice:Youhaveagroupoftechnicianswhohavetolearnaboutatotallynewapproach todiagnosingaproblem.Checkoffyourresponsebelow.Doyouwantthemto knowaboutthenewapproach? dothejobcorrectly? The obvious choice is do the job correctly. You probably wouldnt mind them knowing about the approach,butthepriorityisclear.Wewantthemtobeabletoperform,notmerelytoknowandtalk about.Thefirstchoiceleadstoacontent-basedapproach.Thesecondisperformancebasedbeingable toactandtoachieveworthwhile,verifiableresults.2 Learnercenteredperformancebased.Thatsthemantraofthisbookandtheheartofourmessage. Instructor-centered and content-based efforts lead to telling and transmission. Learner-centered and performance-basedeffortsresultintrainingandtransformation. LiveorTechnologyBased:ItsAlltheSame Perhapsyourimpressionisthateverythingwehaveincludedthusfarappliesexclusivelytolive,face-to- faceinstruction.Oneareaofresearchonlearninghasnotvariedinitsfindingsformorethan50years mediaandinstructionaldeliveryoptions.Tosummarizehundredsofstudies,theeffectivenessofmessages aimedatlearningisnotboundupinthedeliveryvehiclebutratherinhowthemessageitselfisdesigned.3 Themessagedevelopedtotransformyouwilleithersucceedorfailbasedonhowwellwehavedesigned it,notonwhetherwebringittoyoulive,throughthepagesofthisbook,inavideo,orviacomputer.4 ThemessageandprinciplesofTellingAintTraining:Updated,Expanded,andEnhancedare equally valid for e-learning, live instruction, or any form of mediated instruction (for example, video based, computerbased,orsimulationlab).Tellinginanyformengenderspassivity.Itisone-waycommunication. Itiscontentfocused.Itistransmission.Truelearner-centeredandperformance-basedtraining,instruction, oreducationrequiresdialogueandexperienceengagingconversation5andmeaningfulinteraction6to transform.Self-pacedprintorsophisticated,electronicallydeliveredinstructionisonlyaseffectiveasthe instructionaldesignprinciplesthatareapplied. Later,inchapters10and11,wewillfocusspecificallyontrainingwithtechnology.Wewillbringyouup to date on the latest trends in technology use for learning and help you wisely select the form of technologythatmakessensetouseinyoursetting. WhatsinThisBookandWhy? Wehavegivenagreatdealofthoughttothecontentofthisbookandtothewaywevepresentedit.The followingpointshavebeenourguidingprinciplesinchoosingmaterialtodiscussandinselectingthe meanstoportraythatmaterial:
25. 25. Startwiththelearnerandneverlosethatfocus.Weassumethatyouareinteractingwiththisbook becauseyouwanttolearnsomething.Wereexcitedaboutthis.Youarethereasonforourefforts, andweneverforgetthat.Thanksforcontinuingtheconversation. Presentprinciplesthatapplytoalltypesoflearning:mental(cognitive),physical(psychomotor), emotional (affective), and, of course, combinations and mixtures of these. Although the emphasis mayvaryfromchaptertochapter,werecognizethatalltypesoflearningareimportant.Youwillfind numerousexamplesforeachtypeoflearning,aloneorincombination. Provide a training session structure that you can apply universally and that is based on learning research. As an added bonus, this user-friendly model even lets you retrofit existing training programsandinstructionalmaterials.Chapter6isdevotedtothismodelandreturnstoitfromtime totime. Includelearningstrategiesandactivities,completewithexamples,thatyoucanapplyandadaptright away.Youwillnoticethatwepreferthesimple.Ifcheapcandothejob,whycomplicatethings? However,somecircumstancesrequiremoresophisticatedtoolsandtechnologies.Complexdecision making,handlingofdelicateordangerousequipment,orlife-or-deathproceduresareinstancesthat maydemandtrainingtoolsandmethodsthatemployresourcesfarbeyondtheusual. Layoutpracticaltoolsfordesigningyournexttrainingsessionwithahighprobabilityofsuccess. Almostalloftheseareeasytoapplyoradapttomeetyourneeds. Presenthelpfulwaystoevaluateyourtrainingeffectiveness.Theresacompletechapter(chapter9) ontesting,alongwithjobaidsforselectingandcreatingteststhatverifylearning. Provideaccesstotheworldoftechnologyforlearninginamannerthatiseasytounderstandand allowsforintegrationoftraining-learningfundamentals.Acompletechapteronthis(chapter11)gets youstartedonconsideringtechnologyforyoursetting. Presentbothmythsandscience-basedfindingsabouttrainingandlearningsothatyoucanseparate ineffective (and often counterproductive) lore from what research has shown leads to a high probabilityoflearningsuccess.Thisdifferentiationoftruthandfalsehoodshouldhelpstrengthen yourowncompetenceandconfidenceandshouldprovideyouwithammunitiontocombatpractices thatwasteorganizationaltime,energy,andresources. Concludewithsomepracticalwisdomandthoughtsaboutapplyingandmaintainingwhatyougain fromthisbookinyourpracticethattellingreallyainttrainingandthatyourgoalistransformation ofthelearnerratherthantransmissionoftheinformation. RememberThis Training,instruction,educationuseallofthesetotriggerlearning. Thewholepurposeoftraining,instruction,andeducationistoenablepeopletolearn.Yourmission isnottotransmitinformationbuttotransformyourlearners. Yourmantraasatrainer,instructor,oreducatorislearnercenteredperformance-based.Any approachshortofthisleadstoone-waytransmissionanduncertainresults. Liveortechnologybased,itsallthesame.Themediumisnotthemessage.Theprinciplesinthis book are valid regardless of the delivery vehicle you select. Focus on meaningful interaction to transformyourlearners.
26. 26. TheHumanLearner Chapterhighlights: Tripthroughthebodyandbrainofthelearner Explanationofwhatlearningis Capacityandlimitationsofthehumanlearner. Welcometoavoyagethroughthebodyandbrainofyourlearner.Whyundertakesuchavoyage?Two reasons.First,ifyouarereallydedicatedtotransformingpeopleinwaysthatbenefitthemandthosethey serve,doesntitmakesensetoknowasmuchaspossibleaboutthecharacteristicsandcapabilitiesof theseindividuals?Thischapteroffersyouinformationandinsightsintothehumanlearner.1Itincreases yourabilitytoadaptyourinstructionaleffortsformaximumeffect.Second,mostwritingsabouttraining focusoninstructionalstimuluselements,thatis,whatyoushoulddotobeagreattrainerordesignerof instruction.Theyrarelyexplainhowthelearnerdealswithandinternalizesthesestimuli.Withoutaclear understanding of how humans access, treat, and retrieve what we transmit to them, we decrease the probability of successful learner transformation. Lets begin our study of the learner by defining learning. WhatIsLearning? Beforeweshareourdefinition,stophereforamomentandcomeupwithyourownwordstodescribe learning.Writethemhere: Basically,learningischange,adaptation.Allorganismsaregeneticallycodedtoreproducetheessential characteristicsoftheirspecies:Daffodilsbegetotherdaffodils.Humansarenodifferent.Weareallmore orlessthesame.Wediscriminateeasilybetweenourselvesandnonhumansbecause,ashumans,weshare somanycharacteristics.Buteachindividualmemberofaspeciesisdifferentfromallothermembersof thespeciesinsubtleways.Thesevariationsarecriticaltooursurvival.Asenvironmentalconditions change,theindividualvariationsresultinsomemembersofthespeciesadaptingbetterthanothers.This allowsspeciestosurviveandevolveovertime. Humans have an enormous capacity for learning, a capacity genetically coded into us. This learning capability permits us to change as we receive information from the environment. The most adaptable individuals,especiallyinprimitivetimes,learnedmorerapidlythandidothersabouttheopportunities anddangerssurroundingthem,andtheypassedthislearningabilityontotheiroffspring,whoeventually passeditontous.Today,wehumansareincrediblelearningorganisms.Nootherspeciesonearthdoesit better.Thatsthegoodnews.
27. 27. The bad news is that we are genetically programmed for an environment that no longer exists. In the naturalworld,ittakesthousandsofgenerationstoalteraspeciessignificantly.(Wecanspeedthingsup throughdeliberatebreedingprograms,butthisisnothowitworksinnature.)Thinkaboutit.At25years pergeneration(theaveragetimetoreproduceandgrowareplacementhuman),howmanygenerations havetherebeensincetheyear1A.D.? 2,000years25=________ Eightygenerations!Notenoughtomakeevenamilddentinourevolution.Butimaginehowdifferentthe worldfacingtodaysyoungstersisfromthatof2,000yearsago.Even10,000yearsrepresentsonly400 generations.Hardlyadropintheevolutionarybucket. Remember that we are speaking of learning as changethe ability to adapt to new information.Learningisaninnatecapabilityofallhumans,butlikeheightorbodybuild,itvariesby individual.Thisiskeytoyourworkasatrainer,instructor,educator,instructionaldesigner,ortraining manager. Your job is to help people learnto help them change. Your job is to facilitate that transformation,nottotransmitinformation. Herearetheresultsofthreetrainingsessions.Inyourview,whichonewasthemostsuccessful?Placea checkmarkinthatsessionsbox. Session1:Thetraineesleftthesessionchucklingoverwhatthetrainerhadtoldthemaboutthenew products.Theythoughtshewaswittyandhadbeenentertainingandfun. Session2:Thetraineesleftthesessionwithanarmloadofmanualsandastrongimpressionthat soontheywouldbedealingwithalotofnewproducts. Session3:Thetraineesleftthesessionabletopositionthearrayofnewproductsandsellthemto theircustomers. Session1apparentlywasfun,buttheonlychangenotedwasanewmemoryofanentertainingpresenter. Session2suggeststhatthechangewroughtwasanimpressionofalotofnewproducts.InSession3, traineesleaveusefullytransformed.Theycandotwothingstheywerentcapableofdoingpriortothe session:Theycanpositionthenewproducts,andtheycansellthem.ApplausefortheSession3trainer! HowWeLearn:Senses,Filters,andMemory Nowwebeginourguidedtourofthehumanbodyandbrainwithsomefascinatingpausestoviewlearning inaction.Letsstartwiththesenses.2 SensesandPerception Imagineyourselfasalearner.Thereyouare,surroundedbytheuniverse.Justyouandtheuniverse.
28. 28. Whatconnectstheinternalyoutotheexternaluniverse?Howdoesinformationfromtheoutsideworldget in?Answer:Itentersthroughyoursenses.Howmanysenses?Pleaseinsertyournumberintheboxbelow. Takeamomentnowtodotwothings.Intable31,writethenamesofthefivesenses.Thesefiveprovide uswithallofoursensoryinputseverypieceofinformationweobtainfromtheoutsideworld.Then estimatewhatpercentageofallthesensoryinformationwereceivecomestousthrougheachsenseand writethatnumbertotherightofthesense.Anotherwayofansweringthisistoestimatetheprocessing capabilityofeachsensecomparedwiththatoftheothers(howmuchinformationwecangatherfromeach senseinthesameunitoftimerelativetooneanother).Assumeallsensesareworkingperfectly,withno impairments. Table3-1.SensesPercentofInformation,Estimated Sense PercentageofInformation Total:100% Theanswersareintable32. Table3-2.SensesPercentofInformation,Actual Sense Percent Sight 83.0% Hearing 11.0% Smell 3.5% Touch 1.5% Taste 1.0% Total:100%
29. 29. Surprised?Youwontbeafteryoureasonitout.Imaginethatyoureinanopenfield.Itsacalm,clear day.Howfarcanyousee?Probably50miles,maybemore. Hear?Amileortwo.Smell?Tento20yardsifnowindisblowing.Touch?Armslength.Taste?A coupleofinches. Letstryasimpledemonstration.Closeyoureyes.Openthemforonesecond.Notehowmuchyousaw (shape,color,texture,depth,space,position,andsoforth).Ifyoulistenedtoanorchestraplaying,would youperceiveasmuchcomplexityandindividualityinthesameonesecond?Whataboutsmell?Touch? Taste?Thisdemonstrateshowpowerfuloursenseofsightis.Hearingprocesseslessinformationinthe sametimeframe.Smell,lessthanhearing.Touch,evenless.Tasteisverylimited. Its important to remember that the human learner has multiple senses, each with different processing capacities.Sight,obviously,isextremelyimportantforlearningbecauseitissuchamajorsense.Hearing is also enormously important because through our hearing we acquire language, especially in early childhood.Languageprovidesuswiththewordsandconceptstonameandexplainphenomena.Together thesetwopowerfulsenseshelpusperceivemuchofwhatsurroundsus.Thefivesensesaretheportals throughwhichtherawmaterialsforlearningenterourbodies. Themoreofthelearnerssensesweengageinorganizedandmeaningfulways,themoreeasily learningcanoccur. Anoteofcaution,however.Numerousadvocatesofmultimediainstructionaimedattargetingmultiple senseshypesystemsandmethodsthatusecombinationsofmediaandassertthatthesearehighlyeffective forlearning.Thistypeofoversimplifiedandwholesaleadvocacyisnotsupportedbyresearch.Whilethe notionofmultisensoryinstructionmaypleaselearnersinitially,especiallythecombinationofauditory plus visual presentation, research evidence suggests that this may, in fact, overwhelm learners informationprocessingcapabilities.Useofattractive,seductiveelementsoftendoesnothingmorethan addirrelevantnoisetothelearnersinformationprocessingsystem.3Thereisamajordistinctionbetween spatiallyandtemporallyintegratedmultisensoryinputversusmixturesofnotwellconnectedaudiovisual (andevenother)sensorymessages.Theevidenceindicatesthattheformerhasabeneficialeffectwhereas
30. 30. thelattertendstoproduceadecremental(negative)effectonlearning.4 Filtering the Stimuli: The Brain Stem, the Autonomic Nervous System, and the EndocrineSystem Informationisconstantlybombardingoursenses.Doweperceiveallofit? Yes No Testyourself.Beforeweaskedthisquestion,wereyouevenawareofthesensationsyourblouseorshirt wascreatingonyourbody?Didyouheareverysoundaroundyou?Whenyouwereconcentrating,did noisesseemtofadeout?Ourhumanmakeupissuchthatweselectivelyperceiveenvironmentalstimuli. Weonlynoticewhatappearstoberelevant.Inyouropinion,isthatgood? Yes No Fromasurvivalperspective,theanswerisaresoundingyes.Ifweperceivedeverythingaroundus,we wouldnotbeabletoeliminatetheirrelevant.Thatlionbearingdownonusshouldcommandallofour attention,andtheprettyblueflowernearbyshouldnotdistractus. Asaninformationprocessingorganism,wearehardwiredwithanautomaticabilitytofilteroutperceptual irrelevancies.Itispartoftherolethreekeysystemsinthehumanbodythebrainstem,theautonomic nervous system,5 and the endocrine systemplay. These automatically adjust our awareness to environmental stimuli. They create what is scientifically referred to as arousal, which triggers the releaseofadrenalinetoincreaseheartrateandthuspumpmoreoxygentothemusclesandbrainforfight orflight.Inparticular,theautonomicnervoussystemmanagesrespiration.Itcausesourattentiontobe alertandarousedbyenvironmentalinformationortoignoreit.Figure31depictsthisgatekeeperfunction. Attention,likebreathing,tendstobeautomaticallycontrolled.Youcantakechargeofbothforashort time, but as soon as you cease consciously controlling them, they revert to automatic. From a traininglearning perspective, that is very important. Whether it be a live trainer, a computermediated learningprogram,oravideoclipinaDVD,ifthelearnerunconsciouslyfeelsthattheinformationisnot Figure3-1.TheAutonomicNervousSystemFiltersExternalStimuli
31. 31. vitaltohisorherneeds,theautonomicsystemmayraisethethresholdofsensoryinputandfilteroutwhat isbeingtransmitted.Asaresult,thereisnoperceptionandnolearning. Short-TermMemory:TimeandCapacity Information that passes our perceptual filters enters our shortterm memory. Thats not a place; its an informationtreatmentfunction.Theinformationisexaminedandeitherdroppedorpassedintolongterm memory.Howshortisshorttermmemory?Imaginereceivingapieceofinformationinatrainingsession. What would you estimate to be the length of time that shortterm memory will hold that piece of information,ifleftuntreated,beforeittotallydisappears? 10to15seconds onetotwominutes onetotwohours. If untreated, information in shortterm memory begins to disappear almost immediately and is gone in somewherebetween10and15seconds.Shorttermmemoryislikeabufferzone.Itfillsuprapidlyand thenquicklyempties.Thisisduetoaprocessknownasendocytosis,whichcausesshorttermmemoryto decay.Fromapracticalperspective,thisisalsobecausesurvivalrequiresyoutotreat,sort,eliminate,or storeinformationatgreatspeed.Thankthoselonggoneancestorswhosesuperiorlearningcapabilities enabledthemtoliveenoughyearstopassthosewonderfulcharacteristicsontous. Howmuchinformationcanweholdinshorttermmemory?Notmuch.Foralongtime,researchsuggested thatfivetonineitems(orchunks)ofinformationcanbeaccommodatedatatime.Thesizeofachunk dependsonthepriorknowledgeofthelearner.Forexample,is213oneitemorthree?Theansweris,it depends.Ifthosearethreeindividualdigitstoberetained,theyarethreeitems.Ifyouseethethree numbersasaLosAngelestelephoneareacode,youprocessthecodeasasinglechunk.Morerecent research suggests that more individual variability exists than previously thought.6 More than likely, however,formostpeople,aroundfourchunksmaybemoreaccurate.Frightening,isntit? Fortrainingandlearningpurposes,regardlessofcapacity,itsimportanttocreatemeaningfulchunksthat
32. 32. condense several pieces of information into one. This facilitates perception, learning, and retention. Heresanexample: Thefourcardinalpointsofacompassarenorth(N),east(E),west(W),andsouth(S)(fouritemsto storeinmemory). Rememberthisacronym:NEWS(oneitemtostoreinmemory). Bycreatingasinglechunk,wereducetheshorttermmemoryload.Themorenavethelearneris(thatis, thelesspriorknowledgesheorhepossessesforagiventopic),themorerapidlyshorttermmemoryfills up.Whenlearnersareininformationoverloadmode,itdoesntmatterhowmuchdatayoutransmit.They cannolongerefficientlylearnandretain. Long-TermMemory:TimeandCapacity Ifthelearnerviewstheinformationinshorttermmemoryasimportantforstorage(usuallyanunconscious decision),thentheinformationenterslongtermmemory.Howlongislongtermmemory?Thinkofwhen youwereachildandofafriendorafavoritetoyyouhavenotthoughtaboutinyears.Canyoupicture thatfriendortoy?Yourabilitytodosoindicatesthatlongtermmemoryreallymeanslong.Dependingon howwestoreinformationinourlongtermmemorywarehouse,wemayretrieveitmanyyearslater.Ifitis notadistinct,highlyuniquememory,itmaybecomeblendedandconfusedwithothers,butwellorganized andstoredinformationcanberetrievedthroughoutyourwholelifetime. Forfun,letstestyourlongtermmemory.Fillintheblanksinthefollowingstatements.Ofcourse,youwill notrecallanyofthesethatyoudidntoriginallylearn. 1. Thefirsthumantosetfootonthemoonwas_________. 2. Thereare_________daysinSeptember. 3. Thesquareonthe_________ofaright-angledtriangleisequaltothesumofthesquaresontheother twosides. 4. 939=_________. 5. EinsteinsfamousformulaisE=_________. Thatwasafactrecallexercise.Herearethecorrectanswers: Answers: 1. NeilArmstrong 2. 30 3. hypotenuse 4. 81 5. mc2 Howwelldidyoudo?Mostofourtestsubjectsscoredfourorfiveoutoffiveeventhoughtheyhadnot
33. 33. usedthesefactsformanyyears.Theinformationwaswellretained. Withrespecttocapacity,longtermmemoryispracticallylimitless.Thehumanbrainhasthepotentialto storehugeamountsofinformation.Neverworryaboutfillingitup.Theproblemisnotinthestoragebut ratherintheretrieval. WhatDoesThisMeanfortheLearnerandtheTrainer? Learnersgenerallywanttolearn;trainerswantlearnerstolearn.Thedisconnectarisesinthewhatand the how of learning. By understanding that learners are informationtreating organisms with sensory capacities, informationprocessing constraints, and memory load limits, and by attending to their informationhandlingandstoragecapabilities,wecanfacilitatewhatbothlearnersandtrainerswant effectivelearning.Rememberthesetwokeypoints: Learningischange.Thischangebeginswithreceivinginformationfromasmanysensesaspossible inanintegrated,reinforcingmanner.Iftheinformationistransmittedinameaningful,organized,and relevantway,itwillpassthroughthelearnersfiltersandenterhisorhershort-termmemory. Informationthatischunkedandorganizedappropriatelytothelearnersabilityandexperiencelevel ismoreeasilystoredinlong-termmemoryand,mostimportant,morereadilyretrieved. Learningischangeinmental(cognitive)structures,changeinthepotentialfornewbehaviors.Thelearner istransformed.Thelearnersmindisnolongerthesameasitwasbeforethelearningtookplace.The transformationprovidesthelearnerwiththeabilitytoactinnewways. RememberThis Weclosethischapterwithabriefreviewchallenge.Selectthewordorphraseinparenthesesthatbestfits eachofthefollowingstatements: 1. In designing and delivering training, it is more important to focus on the characteristics of the (learner/trainer)thanofthe(learner/trainer). 2. Learningmeans(memorizing/change). 3. Humanshavea(small/large)capacitytolearn. 4. Ourlearningcharacteristicshavebeenprogrammedfor(todaysenvironment/anenvironmentthat nolongerexists). 5. Thepurposeofexcellenttrainingis(transformationofthelearner/transmissionofclearcontent). 6. Eachofoursenseshas(thesame/different)processingcapacities. 7. Most of the time, the environmental information we attend to and how much we focus on it are
34. 34. governedbyour(consciouswill/unconsciousbrainandnervoussystems). 8. Theshort-termmemoryofanovicelearnerfillsup(rapidly/slowly). 9. Chunkinginformationrequiredforlearning(facilitates/impedes)retentionandretrieval. 10. Themainchallengewithinformationinlong-termmemoryis(retrieval/storage). Herearetheanswersandcomments: 1. Indesigninganddeliveringtraining,itismoreimportanttofocusonthecharacteristicsofthelearner thanofthetrainer.Asanygoodsalespersonwilltellyou,startwiththecustomer.Ourlearnersare the starting point. We are merely the means for achieving success that they and the organization value. 2. Learningmeanschange.Thechangeoccursinthelearnerscognitivestructures,whichresultsinthe potentialforbehaviorchange. 3. Humanshavealargecapacitytolearn.Wehavenotyetcalculatedjusthowgreatitisandperhaps neverwill.However,wemustrespecttheinformationprocessingcapacitiesofourhumanlearners. 4. Ourlearningcharacteristicshavebeenprogrammedforanenvironmentthatnolongerexists.Humans haveevolvedovermillionsofyears.Wearebornwithanabilitytoadapttoourenvironment.The modernclassroomandworkplacearecompletelydifferentfromtheenvironmentsofourancestors. Weuseourcharacteristicsthatfavorlearning,andwemanagethosethatconflictwithit. 5. Thepurposeofexcellenttrainingistransformationofthelearner.(Enoughsaidalready!) 6. Eachofoursenseshasdifferentprocessingcapacities.Althoughtheyvaryagreatdeal,allthesenses areimportantfordifferentlearningrequirements.Taste,thelowly1percentsense,canbecriticalfor survivalindealingwithfood. 7. Most of the time, the environmental information we attend to and how much we focus on it are governed by our unconscious brain and nervous systems. These nonvoluntary mechanisms are criticaltosurvivalinahostileenvironment. 8. Theshorttermmemoryofanovicelearnerfillsuprapidly.Unfamiliaritywithnewsubjectmatteror skills produces numerous tiny chunks of information bombarding shortterm memory. The novice learnerissoonininformationoverload,andthelearningsystemfalters.Theresultisconfusionor turnoff. 9. Chunkinginformationrequiredforlearningfacilitatesretentionandretrieval.Chunkingassembles individualitemsintoasingle,comprehensibleunit.Forexample,BMW(thefamiliarnameofa carmanufactureronechunk)isalsoamnemonicfortheorderinwhichyouplaceobjectsonatable fromlefttorightwhendoingapropersetting:bread(plate),main(courseplate),water(glass): BMW. This helps a novice server set a table correctly and takes up far less space in shortterm memorythanthefullsevenwordsofthesequence. 10. Themainchallengewithinformationinlongtermmemoryisretrieval.Puttingthingsintolongterm memoryismucheasierthanfindingthingsyoustoreddays,weeks,months,orevendecadesago.As trainers,ourchallengeistoorganizeforstorage/retentionandfacilitatewithpracticeforretrieval.
35. 35. WhatYouMustKnowtoBeaBetterTrainer
36. 36. GettingLearnerstoLearn Chapterhighlights: Differencesbetweenhowexpertsandnovicesprocessinformation Differenttypesofknowledgeandhoweachisprocessed Thetroublewithsubjectmatterexperts Thekeyroleofthetrainer. Thischapterbeginswiththreecommonscenesinwhichwefindaknowledgeablepersonattemptingto teachanovicelearner.Asyoureadeachone,askyourselfthefollowingquestions: Whyisntthisworking? Isitanyonesfault? HaveIeverbeeninasimilarsituation,eitheronthegivingorthereceivingend? Whatwastheresult? Scene1:DriventoDistraction Father: Allright,Gail.Nowpressontheclutchno,notthebrake,theclutchwithyourleft,notyourright,foot. Gail: ShouldIdoitfastorslow? Father: Pushdownfast,butnottoofast.Now,movethegearshiftintofirstgear.Theneaseupontheclutchasyougiveitgas. Gail: DoImovethegearshiftfastorslowly?DoIusemyleftfootfortheclutch?AnddoIpushitfastorslowly? Father: Itdoesntmatter.Forthegearshift,Imean.Andwhatdidyouaskabouttheleftfoot?Ofcourse,theleftfoot.Anddoitnonoyouregivingittoomuchgas! Gail: Daddy,thecarisbouncing.WhatdoIdonow? Father: Hittheclutch!Stoppressingonthegas!Hitthebrake!Ohno!Nowlookwhatyouvedone! Gail: Ihatedriving!Ihateyou!Iquit! Scene2:AsEasyasCherryPie Junior: Grandma,Iloveyourcherrypie.CanyoutellmetherecipesoIcanmakeone? Grandma: Well,Illtry.Youneedlotsofflour,somesugar,eggs,andmilk. Junior: Doyouneedcherries? Grandma: Whatasillyquestion!Why,ofcourse.Youcantmakecherrypie withoutcherries. Junior: Howmuchflour?Andsugar?Andalltheotherstuff? Grandma: Well.Iguessyouneedaboutthreecupsofflourorisitfour?And thesugarletmethinkyouknow,Icantsayforsure.Isntthat strange?AndIvebeenbakingthesepiesformorethan60years. Junior: Youmeanyoucanttellmehowtomakeacherrypie,Grandma? Scene3:Electrified Experiencedcustomer Nowwecometoareallyimportantpartofyourjob agent(CA): informingcustomersofascheduledelectricalshutdown. NoviceCA: DoIcallthemallup? ExperiencedCA: Noyesno.Well,sortof.Imeannotyoupersonally.Well,sortofpersonally.Yourecordavoicemessageandsenditout.
37. 37. NoviceCA: HowdoIknowwhomtocall? ExperiencedCA: Byaccessingthecustomerdatabaseandmatchingtheaffectedtransmissionlineswiththeappropriatecustomerelectricaladdress. NoviceCA: AndhowdoIknowwhichtransmissionlinesareaffected?Also,wheresthedatabase? ExperiencedCA: (losingpatience)Fromtheworkorders.Andthedatabaseisinthecomputer. NoviceCA: WillIfindtheirstreetaddressesandphonenumbersthere? ExperiencedCA: (exasperated)No.Onlytheirelectricaladdresses.Youknow,thealphanumericcoderelatedtoatransformerorcut-offpoint! NoviceCA: Huh? Letsanalyzewhathappenedinthosethreescenes.Youcancompareyouranswerstothequestionswe askedyouupfrontwithouranswers. Whyisntthisworking?Inallofthescenes,itisobviousthatlearningisntadvancingveryquickly.In eachcase,wehadatruesubjectmatterexpert(commonlyknownasanSME)andanovicelearner.You wouldthinkthatiftheseSMEsknowsomuch,theyshouldhavenotroublemakingtheotherpersonlearn. Butitsnothappeningbecauseexpertsandnovicesdonotprocessinformationinthesameway.Infact, thegreatertheexpertise,thelesstheexpertthinkslikeanovicelearner. Surely,youhavehadsomeonegiveyoudirectionsinatownorlocationthatyouvenevervisitedbefore. Thedialoguegoessomethinglikethis: Direction giver: YougetonMillCreekHighwayandheadwestforafewmilesuntilyouseeSchoolRoad.Getoffandtakeitnorthfor,oh,acoupleofmilestotheFairlanestripmall.Justablockbefore,youllturnintoasmalllaneitsabithardtosee becauseofthetrees,buttheresaJohnnysPizzajustbehindit. Direction taker: (headswimming)WheresMillCreekHighway? Direction giver: YoureonMillCreekHighway. Direction taker: ButitsaysHighway10. Direction giver: Yep.ThatsMillCreekHighwayallright.Justfollowmydirections,andyoucantmissit. Andhaveyoumissedit?Youcanseethathowtheexpertdirectiongiverviewshisworlddiffersfromthe waythenovicedirectiontakerseesit.Standbytheproblemsintensifybeforewefinallynavigateour waythroughthem. Isitanyonesfault?Thesuccinctanswerisno.Ineachscene,includingthislastone,bothparties desire a successful outcome. Both are fully motivated and actively engaged in the teachinglearning process,butsomehowthingsfallapart. Whatwastheresult?Learningbreakdown.Wehaveyettomeetsomeonewhohasnotparticipatedinone ofthesefrustratingepisodes.Thereisaprevalentbeliefthatthebestwaytolearnsomethingistoaskan expert,despitethefactthatresearchdemonstrates,timeandagain,howdifferentlyexpertsandnovices viewtheworldand,morespecifically,howsomethingshouldbelearned.1 Heresagoodexample:Inaclassicresearchstudy,noviceandexpertchessplayerswereshownchess gamesinprogress,withpiecesspreadallovertheboard.Theboardandpieceswerethenhiddenafter severalseconds,andboththeexpertsandthenoviceswereaskedtosetupthechesspiecestoreproduce exactlywhattheyhadseen.Whodoyouimaginemoreaccuratelyplacedthechesspieces? expertchessplayers novices. The experts did far better. They perceived patterns, chunked the information, and didnt clutter their
38. 38. shorttermmemorieswithdetail.Novices,focusingonindividualpieces,faredpoorly.Thetwogroups viewedtheworldinmarkedlydifferentways.2 DifferentTypesofKnowledge:DeclarativeandProcedural Heresachallengeforyou.Youmostlikelyliveinanapartmentorhouse.Yourethereeveryday,orat leastfrequently.Toacertainextent,youareanexpertonyourhome.Intheboxbelow,writethenumberof windowsinyourhome.Ifyouareathome,dontgoaroundphysicallycounting.Accessthisinformation fromyourmemory.Accuracyisimportant,sotakeyourtime. Unlessyourecentlyreplacedorboughtcoveringsforallofyourwindows,youprobablydidnthavethe answerinstantaneously.Inourexperimentswefindthatpeoplecomeupwiththeanswerthesameway youprobablydid.First,youpicturedyourhome.Thenyouwanderedthroughitmentally.Iftherewere levels,youwentfloorbyfloor.Ifwewerewatchingyou,weprobablywouldhaveseenyoureyesgoout offocusandthenactuallymoveasyoulookedinwardandwalkedthroughyourhome.Wemighteven haveseenyourlipsmovingasyoucountedwindows.Thatisverynormal.Butwhycouldntyousimply statethenumberofwindowsinstantaneously?Afterall,youreanexpertonyourhome.Theanswertothat questionaddressesthecoreofthemajorproblemineachoftheearlierscenes.Keepreadingtodiscover why. Becomefamiliarwiththesetwoterms:declarativeknowledgeandproceduralknowledge.They arekeytounlockingmanylearningmysteries.3 Thehumanbrainisamazing.Itisanintricatesystemofmillionsofindividualelements,eachdoingits ownthing.Yet,somehowitallworks.Thebrainisnotacoherentlydesignedandengineeredorgan.We arebornwithabrainthatcarriesoutmyriadsimultaneousandindependentactivities.Mostpartsofthe brainaretotallyobliviousoftheactivitiesgoingoninotherparts.Amongtheactivitiesthebrainconducts istheprocessingofinformationforlearning.Thatinformation,whichcomesfromtheoutsideworld,is takeninandtransformedintoknowledge.Theknowledgewepossessthatallowsustoname,explain,and talkaboutmattersiscalleddeclarativeknowledge.Nootherspeciesonearthevenvaguelycomesclose tohumansinourabilitytolearnandusedeclarativeknowledge. Look at these four items and put a checkmark beside the actions you imagine require declarative knowledge: 1.NamethecapitalofFrance. 2.Rideabicycle. 3.ExplainthecausesofWorldWarII. 4.Navigateadatabase. Items1and3areexamplesofdeclarativeknowledge(name,explain,and/ortalkabout).Items2and4are examplesofanotherimportantcategory:proceduralknowledge.Thattypeofknowledgeenablesustoact
39. 39. anddothings,toperformtasks.Unlikedeclarativeknowledge,whichisalmostexclusivelyrestrictedto humansinanysophisticatedform,proceduralknowledgeisreadilyavailabletoallanimals. So,howrelatedaredeclarativeandproceduralknowledge?Letsfigurethisoutforourselves.Naming thenumberofwindowsinyourhomerequireddeclarativeknowledge.Althoughyouareanexpertabout yourhome,youdidnthavethenumberreadilyavailableindeclarativeform.Instead,yourexpertiseisin walkingthroughyourvariousroomsandlocatingwindowsproceduralknowledge.Youcando,but notreadilysay.Thisisbecausehumansprocessdeclarativeknowledgeandproceduralknowledgevery differently. Canyourideabicycle?Canyoumaintainyourbalanceonthebicycle?Mostpeopleansweryestoboth questions.Nowexplainexactlywhatyourbodydoestokeepthebicyclefromfallingdown.Youmight mentionpedaling,movingfromsidetoside,holdingontothehandlebars,andsoforth.Whenweprobe bicycleridersaboutexactlywhattheydotokeepthebikesteady,however,theyendupsaying,Icant explainit.Ijustdoit. Mostexpertisedevelopsthatway.Themajorityofwhatwehavelearnedtodohasbeenacquiredwithout words.Bytrialanderrorovertime,wesimplyhavebuiltupthecapabilitytodoit.Andhereswherethat presents a problem in training: Organizations commonly approach someone who knows how to do something(aninformaldefinitionofanexpert)andaskhimorhertoteachnoviceshowtodoit. Nowforaparadox:Theseexpertshaveacquiredtheircapabilityovertimeandwithpractice.Inother words,theypossessmostoftheirexpertiseintheformof (selectone): declarativeknowledge proceduralknowledge. Inalmostallcases,theirexpertiseisintheformofproceduralknowledge.Butwhenaskedtotrainothers, usuallyinashortamountoftime,theyareexpectedtotransmittheirknowledgebyexplaining,giving examples,andprovidingcontextsandcases.Inotherwords,theyteach(selectone): declaratively procedurally. The experts deliver declaratively. Then the learners have to convert the declarative knowledge from trainingbackintoproceduralknowledgetomeettheexpectationofbeingabletodothingsinanew way.Simpleandvividexamplesofthisarewhenagolfprotellsyouhowtohitagolfballstraightora skatingcoachtellsyouhowtomakeaquickstopwhenrollerblading.Mucheasiersaid(declarative)than done(procedural)! Research on learning tells us that what we learn declaratively cannot be readily transformed into proceduralknowledgeunlesswealreadypossesssimilarproceduralknowledge.Thereverseisalsotrue. Proceduralknowledgedoesnoteasilyconverttodeclarativeknowledge.Therefore,althoughyouknow
40. 40. yourhomewellandyoumentallywalkedthroughittocountthewindows,youstillmayhavemisseda few. Thisconversiondifficultyalsoaccountsfortheproblemsinourearlierscenes: Daddy cant convert his cardriving knowledge (acquired procedurally) to the right declarative language.Evenifhecould,Gailcantreadilyabsorbhisdeclarativeexplanationsandconvertthem intoproceduralcapabilities. Grandmaknowshowtobakeacherrypie,butcantrecitetherecipe. Theexperiencedcustomeragentcaninformcustomersofelectricalshutdowns,buthasobviously confusedhisnovicelearner. Thelocalresidentcantreadilyspeakthecleardirectionsthatwillhelpthetouristfindhiswayfrom MillCreekHighway. Heresafunexercisethatdemonstrateshowexpertisethatletsusdothings(proceduralknowledge) simplydoesnotprovideallthedeclarativedetails.Infact,weoftendontevenhavea(declarative) explanationforhowtodoitright(procedurally). Correctthegrammarinthesetwosentences: WhenIwereinParis,Iateacroissantwitheverymeal. _________________________________________________ IfIwasinParis,Iwouldeatacroissantwitheverymeal. _________________________________________________ Youmostlikelychangedeachonecorrectly.(WhenIwasinParis,Iateacroissantwitheverymeal.IfI wereinParis,Iwouldeatacroissantwitheverymeal.)Unlessyouareagrammarspecialistandhavethe declarativeknowledge,itisunlikelythatyoucanexplain(declaratively)whyyoucorrectedeachofthe above(procedurally). Here is the declarative explanation: When I was in Paris states a fact. This requires use of the indicativemoodin English grammar. The form was is the correct first person singular past perfect indicative form. Yay! However, If I were states a possibility, which in formal English grammar requires use of the subjunctive mood and I were is the correct first person form. You did it (procedurally)!Didyouknowallofthis(declaratively)?Ahwell,bethatasitmay,youprobablygetthe point.4 Inourtestingofthisexercise,veryfewpeopleknewwhyeachformwasright.Severalknewaboutthe subjunctiveorspokeaboutconditionalsituations,butnooneabsolutelynaileditdespitethehighrateof proceduralsuccess.(Incidentally,intheUnitedStatessaying,IfIwasisinformallyacceptableinthe spokenformmoredeclarativeinformation.) Withanawarenessofthekindofknowledgewewantourlearnerstoacquiredeclarativeorprocedural wecanadjustthewaywepresentlearningmaterialtothem.Ifitstalkaboutknowledge(forexample, what or why information, fact recall, or names), we can create activities that provide what must be learnedandhaveourlearnerspracticedeclaratively.Ifwewantthemtoacquiredoandusetypesof
41. 41. knowledge, our strategy changes to a more handson approach. The bottom line is to match what our learnershavetolearnwiththemodeoftraining/instruction/educationweemploy.(Wellcoverthisina moreplannedandorganizedfashioninchapter6.) Onefinalnoteonthesetwotypesofknowledge.Gainingproceduralknowledgeeventuallyallowsusto gainfluencyindoingthingswithouthavingtothinkaboutwhatweareengagedin.Runningaphotocopier orprocessinganinsuranceclaimareproceduraltasksthatwecanexpertlydealwiththroughpractice. However,whatifwechangethemodelofphotocopiertoamorecomputerizedversion,withbuttonsand viewingpanelsindifferentplaces,orwhatiftheinsuranceclaimformschangeandtherulesgoverning howtheyaretobehandledalter? Methodstoproduceefficientproceduralknowledgeresultinrapidfluency,solongastheconditions remain the same. Declarative knowledge allows us to generalize to new circumstances through explanations.Itmayslowdowntheperformance,butitpermitsadaptationtonewrequirements.Wemay wantoursoldierstoassembleanddisassembleacertainmodeloffirearmtheyregularlyusetothepoint ofautomaticity(actperfectlywithoutthinkingaboutit).Whatiftheysuddenlyfindthemselvesonthe battlefieldwithadifferentfirearm?Withoutsomeformofdeclarative,mentalrulesabouthowavarietyof modelswork,theymaygetlosttryingtomakesureitworks,flounderaboutinconfusion,andexpose themselvestoincreasedrisk. Thebottomlineisthatwhileeachtypeofknowledgerequiresaspecificformofinstructionfordesired performance,oftenacombinationofbothexplanationandpracticeworkstoproduceamoreeffective result.5
42. 42. KeyIngredientsforLearning Cognitivepsychologyresearchsuggeststhatthreemajorfactorsinfluencehowmuchandhowwellwe learn:ability,priorknowledge,andmotivation.Letsexamineeachoftheseindetail.6 Ability Thecapacitywithwhichwewerebornthatenablesustoacquirenewskillsandknowledgevariesamong individuals.Justlikeheightormusculature,wearriveonthescenewithacertainmental(orlearning) potential.Itmaybeunfairbutsomeofusareborntaller,slimmer,morephysicallyattractive,orableto learnmorequicklythanothers. This general learning ability is the intellectual capacity with which we are genetically endowed. It strongly influences our overall capability to learn. Note the word general. Those who have greater generalabilitygraspmorequickly,comprehendmoreeasily,andrecallmoreefficientlythanothersdo. Theyseemtogetitfasterandplayitbackorevenenhanceitbetterthanthosenotasintellectuallyable. Recently, many nuances have been added to the construct ability and its almost synonymous cousin, intelligence(usuallydefinedastheabilitytothinkaboutideas,analyzesituations,andsolveproblems, whichismeasuredthroughvarioustypesofintelligencetests).Whilegeneralabilityisusuallybroken downintononverbalability,concretereasoningability,andabstractreasoningability,researchershave stretched further into multiple intelligences.7 Educational psychologists now view individuals as multifacetedandhavecreatedteststomeasureverballinguistic,mathematicallogical,musical,visual spatial,bodilykinesthetic,interpersonal,naturalistic,andevenexistentialintelligences.Inallcases, theseappeartobeconsideredinherentcharacteristics. Obviously,likemusculature,thewayinwhichabilityisfosteredandtrainedcanseriouslyaffecthow wellonescerebral(andother)capabilitiesgrowanddevelop.Astrainers,itisimportantforustonote that learners vary in their ability to learn. We have to be aware of the differences in ability and compensateforthosewhodonotlearnasrapidlyasothers.Wealsohavetokeepthemoregenerallyable learnersconstantlystimulatedandchallengedtomaintaintheirfocus. Althoughweallpossessgeneralintellectualability,wealsoareendowedwithspecificabilitiesatbirth. An ear for music, a golden voice, athletic agility, and artistic talent are extremely valuable specific learning abilities that are more important than general intellectual capability in certain instances. The innate,specificabilitiesofMichaelJordaninbasketball,BarbraStreisandinmusic,andPabloPicassoin arthaveplayedenormousrolesinallowingthoselearnerstoachievefarbeyondotherswhomayhave receivedthesametraining.8 PriorKnowledge Generalandspecificabilitiesgreatlyinfluencelearning,buthowmuchapersonalreadyknowsabout whatheorsheisbeingtaughtalsostronglyaffectslearning.9 Abrilliantphilosopherormathematician may not learn as well as a less intellectually gifted carpenter when receiving some new piece of instruction about carpentry. Prior knowledge helps the learner acquire additional knowledge or skills morerapidly.
43. 43. Letstestthatassertion.BelowaretwoFrenchverbsonearegularverb,theotherirregular.Whichone istheirregularverb? danser tenir. Inchapter2,youlearnedthatFrenchregularverbsendiner.Ifyoupickedthatupthen,youprobably correctlyselectedtenirastheirregularverbabove.Yourpriorknowledgehelpedhere.Ifyoumissedit, thatsOK.Youdidntpossessthepriorknowledge,andyouhadtoworkharder.So,themoreyouknow aboutsomething,theeasieritistoacquireadditionalknowledgeandskillsinthatsubject. Motivation Weallhaveseenthepowerofhighmotivationthedesiretoachievesomething.Wealsohaveseenthe reverse: Those who dont care, have no drive, or seem to lack interest in learning rarely achieve proficiencyinnewknowledgeandskills.Weoftentalkaboutmotivationanditsimportance,butwhatis it?Motivationappearstobeaffectedbythreemajorfactors:value,confidence,andmood. Value.Themorewevaluesomething,themoremotivatedweareaboutit.Infigure41,wehaveplaced motivationontheverticalaxisandvalueonthehorizontal.Noticethatasthelearnerattributesagreater valuetowhatistobelearned,motivationincreases.Ifyouvaluebeingseenassomeonewhoknows operaorfootball,youwillbecomemoreinspired(thatis,motivated)tolearnaboutit.Thehigherthe valueattributedtowhatistobelearned,thegreaterthemotivation. Confidence.Ifyoufeeltotallyineptinyourabilitytolearnsomething,howmotivatedareyoutotry? highlymotivated unmotivated.
44. 44. The answer, of course, is unmotivated. Low confidence in learning is strongly correlated with low motivation.Astheconfidenceofthelearnerincreases,sodoesthemotivation,asillustratedinfigure4-2. Overconfidence,however,leadstoadeclineinmotivation.Ifthelearnerfeelsthatthisissoeasy,Idont evenneedtotry,motivationplummets,asshowninfigure4-3. Theoptimalpointofmotivationiswherethelearnerhasenoughconfidencetofeelsheorhecansucceed, butnotsomuchthatthedesiretolearndeclines.This highpointofmotivationisoneofchallenge(Ihavetoworkatittosucceed)andsecurity(ifIdowork atit,IknowIcansucceed). Mood.Weallknowthatifwerenotinthemood,ourmotivationtolearngoesdown.Personalfeelings affect our mood as does the atmosphere of the learning and working environment. A positive learningworking environment tends to improve a persons mood and, hence, his or her motivation as illustratedinfigure44.Butafrivolousormanicmoodmighthavebizarreandunpredictableeffectson motivation. A positive mood is one in which you are open and optimistic without being flighty or euphoric.10
45. 45. To summarize this section on the three key factors that affect learningability, prior knowledge, and motivationtrainersaregenerallycontentpeopleplacedintheroleofhelpingpeopleacquiresufficient knowledgeandskillstoperformsomethingtheydontknowhowtodo.Askingthemtostepoutsideof theirareaof expertise and become totally customer focused, that is, learner centered, is a challenge. However, trainerscanderiveenormoussatisfactionwhentheyseethattheirchargesgetit.Bywatchinglearners andsizinguphowwelltheycanabsorbwhatthetrainerprovides,byacknowledgingandshoringupprior knowledge,andbyexemplifyinghowworthwhileitistoachievewhatthetrainerishelpingthemtoattain heorshewillexperiencethehighthatcomesfromtheirsuccesses.Iftrainingwerejustatellingtask, everyonewouldexcelateverything.11 AdaptingforDifferencesinAbility,PriorKnowledge,andMotivation Ability, prior knowledge, and motivation strongly affect learning. Can we, as trainers, instructors, educators,ormanagersoflearninginfluenceallofthese?Fortunately,theanswerisyes. Ability Althoughwecantalterapersonsability,wecanobserveanddetecthisorherstrengthsandweaknesses. Asaresult,wecanadaptthelearningsystembytakingthefollowingmeasures: adjustingtheamountoftimeforlearning providingmorepracticeforthosewhorequireit simplifying and breaking learning into smaller chunks for those who are experiencing learning difficulties providingadditionalsupportforthosewhoneedit includingactivitieswithgreaterchallengeforthosewholearnmorequickly providingalternativelearningpaths.