TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICES FORCASHEW PRODUCTION

A.R. Desai, S.P. Singh).R. Faleiro, M. Thangam,S. Priya Devi, S.A. Safeena

N.P. Singh

Technical Bulletin No. 21August 2010

All Rights Reserved©2010, ICAR Research Complex for Goa

Copies available atICAR Research Complex for GoaEla, Old Goa - 403 402, Goa, India

Desai A.R., S.P. Singh, J.R. Faleiro, M. Thangam, S. Priya Devi, S.A. Safeenaand N.P. Singh (2010). Techniques And Practices For Cashew Production.Technical Bulletin No: 21, ICAR Research Complex for Goa,Ela, Old Goa- 403402, Goa, India

Published by:Dr. N. P. SinghDirectorICAR Research Complex for GoaEla, Old Goa - 403 402, Goa, IndiaFax: 91-832 - 2285649Phone: 91-832 - 2284677 /78/79Email : director@icargoa.res.inWeb site: http://www.icargoa.res.in

Copyright©with authors: No part of this book should be reproduced in anyform without permission of the authors

FOREWORD

Indian Council of Agricultural ResearchDr. Anil Kumar Singh Karishi Anusandhan Bhavan-II,

Deputy Director General (NRM) Pusa, New Delhi 110012

Portuguese introduced cashew into India on the Arabian sea coasts of pre-independentGoa during 16th century. Presently, it is being cultivated in coastal states on both Eastern andWestern Coasts and also in non-traditional areas like plains of Karnataka, Chattisgarh, and inTripura, Meghalaya, Assam and Manipur of North Eastern Hill Region of the country. Thiscrop is earning about RS.2500 crorers of foreign exchange annually. From the time itsintroduction, cashew has become important crop of the state entwined in the traditionalfabric of Goans' life style. Now, this crop has become main commercial crop of the statecovering an area of about 55000 hectares mainly on hilly and undulated terrains in the state. Itis imperative to note that the total raw nut production coming out from this area is inadequateand unable to cater to the needs of the local processing units of the state. to only able tomeeting Though the area is steadily increasing, production is fluctuating from year to yeardue to many factors like changi ng weather, incidence of pests and disease, poor managementpractices, poor yielding trees and the like, which need vibrant research and managementaspects.

It is evident that, cashew plantations in the state of Goa are indeed a genetic treasure ofpotential genotypes, since, for a long time, seed propagation was in vogue. It is, therefore,prerogative to emphasize on collection and conservation of vital germplasm resources for theposterity. Aptly, the initial cashew research work in Goa began with this point in view,besides the introduction of HYVs from other research stations for evaluation in Goa. Threedecades' research, has culminated in the introduction of improved varieties like Vengurla-4,etc.; selection of two high yielding local varieties (Goa-1, and Tiswadi-3) and standardizingthe soft wood grafting, top-working and in situ grafting techniques for improved varieties.Studies have vividly shown that the in situ moisture conservation greatly benefit the crop forrealizing the higher nut yield. Crop management aspects, however, also need to be addressedin future research programmes that may enable to offer complete crop production technologypackage to growers. This technical bulletin, "Techniques and Practices for cashewproduction" can serve as a benchmark document for formulating future research andproduction strategies and provides the relevant information to researchers and farmers alike. Iwish, this Technical Bulletin, will be useful to all those involved in cashew industry in generaland Goa in particular. I am delighted to say that the ICAR Research Complex for Goa isreleasing few more new varieties of cashew for Goa and is evolving several farmer friendlyagro-techniques in the immediate near future which help boost the production andproductivity of cashew country. ~",L

(A. K. Sinih)iii

Dietary importance of cashew kernels owing to their unique combinations oflutrient supplements like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins and minerals,las brought cashew to the status of international trade crop. As a result of this,ndia, a monopoly till recently, is facing stiff competition in the internationalnarket. Moreover, India needs to double the production and productivity not onlyo meet the requirements of domestic processing sector but also to maintain thetatus in international scenario so as to earn foreign exchange earnings.

Cashew is the main commercial plantation crop of Goa which occupies morehan 50% of the cultivated area in the state. It is, in fact, quintessential part of socialabric and economic machinery of the state. Though, cashew was introduced overour hundred years ago, till recently, it was grown as waste land crop. Research on:ashew was initiated in Goa about three decades ago. It was the time when thereNas no information about recommended package of practices, improved varietiesmd propagation techniques available in the state and growers were unaware ofhe real economic potential of the crop. Then onwards, a lot of information onechnology development took place by virtue of concerted research efforts. Thisrechnical Bulletin is compilation of such information about the latest Techniquesmd Improved Practices for Cashew Production, which will be useful for all thosejealing with this crop, right from students to the cashew farmers and policyJlaners.

In this endeavour, we duly acknowledge with great concern the support and~ncouragement received from the present and former directors, scientistc:olleagues and all the cooperation and assistance extended by the Technical andAdministrative Staff. Authors copiously acknowledge the facilities andencouragement sought from The Indian Coucil of Agricultural Research, NewDelhi.

F0 rewo rd --..---..- - - -..- - III

Preface -- --.-..--.....................................................................................................v

1. Introd uct ion - -- -....................................................................................................1

2. CI imate and so i I - - --... 4

3. Va rieti es - -- -- - --. 5

4. Propagati on --- --.. 9

5. Preparation of land and planting 17

6. High dens ity p Ianti ng -................................................................................................20

7. Man ures an d Fe rt i I ize rs - ---.-.---.-..- --------- -------.--..- - 21

8. Inte rc roppin g ---.- ---.-.------.-.----.-..-..- -.-.---..-- --------.--...22

9. Soil and water conservation measures -.--.-- - -.... 22

1O. T rai n ing and Pru n ing -.-..-..-..-..-------.--.-.- -- --.-....................................................24

11 . PIant protecti 0n --... 25

12. H arvesti ng and Yi e Id - - --------..-..--- --..-.---..- -----..............29

13. Eco nom ic retu rns - -...................................30

14. 5uggested Read ing ..-.----.--..--- ---..-- - -..--.- - -.-.- -..--................33

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.)/ amember of Anacardiaceae family, is anative of North East Brazil in LatinAmerica. Being an evergreen tree oftropics, this is cultivated in more than 28countries in tropical region on either sideof the equator for its delightful nutritiouskernels and apple and cashew nut shellliquid (CNSL).

Cashew kernels are excellent nutritivesupplements owing to their uniquecombination of proteins (21 %)/ fat(4750. %)/ carbohydrates (18-20%)/minerals, vitamins and dietary fibre, andthus, find place from tasty dry nuts, sweetdishes to a range of confectionary productsallover the world. While, cashew apples,the pseudo fruits are rich in ascorbic acid(40 390 mg/100 g)/ sugars, minerals andother anti-oxidants. Theses applesalthough wasted in huge quantities in otherstates, are mainly used in Goa forpreparation a popular alcoholic beveragecalled "Feni", a GI registered product.However, apples, are used in limitedquantities for preparing concentratedjuice, syrup, ready to drink beverage, jam,nectar, frozen pulp, fruit wafers, wine,vinegar, ete. CNSL finds extensive use inpaints, textile, resin industries and shipbuilding industries and is, thus, consideredas an important by product of high tradevalue.

From the time of its introduction inIndia on the coasts of Goa in 1570 AD bythe Portuguese for soil conservation,cashew has adapted very well to Indianconditions. Cashew as on today, has

gained special status in the internationalscenario as a plantation crop ofconsiderable foreign exchange earner. Atpresent, this crop is cultivated in an area ofabout 40.97 lakh hectares with an annualestimated global production of 37.20 lakhtonnes of raw nuts (FAO, 2010). ThoughIndia is one of the major producers ofcashew nut in the world, it imports hugequantity of raw nuts. Brazil, Vietnam,Tanzania, Mozambique, Indonesia, SriLanka, Australia and Nigeria are the othercountries making significant contributionto the world's cashew production. In India,Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtraon West Coast; Tamil Nadu, AndhraPradesh, Orissa and West Bengal on Eastcoast and Tripura, Meghalaya, Assam andManipur in the North Eastern Hill Regionare the major cashew growing states.Maharashtra leads in production with 2.25lakh metric tones and productivity of1500kg/ha., while Andhra Pradesh leads inarea (1.82 lakh hectares) with productionand productivity of 1.12 lakh MT and920kg/ha respectively (DCCD, 2008-09).Indigenous cashew production, however,is far inadequate to meetthe raw nut.

Requirement (12 lakh MT annually) ofthe processing industries in the country.Situation is same in respect of Goa statealso. In Goa, cashew crop is cultivated inabout 55/000 hectares (Figure 1) with anannual raw nut production estimated at30/000 MT with the productivity level of700 kg/ha. This production is inadequateto meet the raw nut requirement ofprocessing units located in Goa state too.

Fig. 1. Area under cashew plantationsin different zones of Goa

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09STATE

A P APY A P APY A P APY A P APY A P APY A P APY

Kerala 101 95 890 102 64 900 80 67 900 80 72 900 84 78 900 70 75 90

Karnataka 94 46 500 95 43 680 100 45 700 102 52 700 103 56 710 107 60 720

Goa 55 32 690 55 26 660 55 27 690 55 29 690 55 31 700 55 30 700

Maharashtra 148 120 1100 160 174 1200 160 183 1300 164 197 1500 167 210 1500 170 225 1500

Tamil Nadu 95 51 600 105 53 610 121 56 640 123 60 670 123 65 700 131 68 710

Andhra 136 95 750 150 88 840Pradesh

170 92 880 171 99 890 171 107 900 182 112 920

Orissa 124 71 850 126 74 810 120 78 860 125 84 860 131 90 860 137 95 865

West Bengal 9 9 760 9 8 800 10 10 950 10 10 1000 10 10 1000 11 11 1000

Gujarat - - - - - - 4 4 900 4 4 900 4 4 1000 6 4 700

NE States - - - - - - 14 10 640 15 11 700 15 12 750 16 12 750

Others 18 16 790 18 14 800 3 1 400 5 2 500 5 2 500 8 3 460

TOTAL 780 535 800 820 544 810 837 573 815 854 620 820 868 665 860 893 695 900

A - Area in '000 Ha.P - Production in '000 MT.APY - Average Productivity in Kg per Hectare

•CLIMATE AND SOILAlthough an introduction from Brazil

in South America, because of its adaptiveability in wide range of agro climaticconditions, cashew is cultivated in variedclimates and soil types in different parts inIndia. Hot humid tropical conditions insummer with day temperature of 30-38 °Cand relative humidity of more than 50 percent are congenial for its cultivation. Itcomes up well up to an altitude of 700mfrom msl.

Goa receives annual rainfall of 2800-3200 mm, confined to the short period offour months from June September. Due tothis unimodal pattern of rainfall resultingin long dry spell, especially during thecritical period of flowering and fruit set,cashew suffers from severe physiologicalstress in the lateritic soils of Goa.

Cashew can be cultivated in almost alltypes of soils ranging from coastal sandyand red lateritic soils to red sandy loamsoils in plains and soils with fertility status.It is largely believed that cashew is waste-land crop and does not need much care, asa result of which it is given least attention.This mind-set needs to be changed. Itgrows well and performs better in welldrained red sandy loams with pH in the

range of 5.8 to 6.8. Acidic soils below thispH need to be ameliorated with propersoil amelioration practices. Solis withpoor drainage and water loggingproblems with excessive alkalinity andsalinity are not suitable for cultivation ofcashew and hence may be avoided forcommercial orchards.

Until recent times, cashew wasconsidered as "a waste land crop" and wasnot given due impetus in cropmanagement, ought to be given for anycommercially important crop. Even today,high yielding improved varieties arecultivated under rainfed conditions inneglected marginal land. However,studies have indicated that cashewtremendously responds to irrigation andnutrition management. In Goa, majoritycashew plantations find place in hilly,undulated topography and degraded soilswith poor water holding capacity and lowfertility.

These soils generally varyconsiderably in depth, texture andphysico-chemical properties and fertilitydue to continuous leaching and thereforeneed to be replenished with propernutrient management practices.

VARIETIESGoa-l(Balli-2): It is a clonal selection

from a high yielding plus tree located inBalli village of Quepem Zone of Goa. It isa mid season variety bearing medium nuts(7.6-7.8g) in bunches (Fig. 2). Nuts onprocessing yield more than 29-31 per centkernels of W21O-W240 grade. Yellowapples are juicy and bigger in size (> 70g).This variety yields 9-12 kg of raw nuts pertree at the age 10 years. Because of its midseason bearing nature, it escapes theattack of TMB in the early part of theseason (Desai et al., 2001).

Table-l. High yielding cashew varieties suitable for commercial cultivation in differentstates in the country.

At present, more than forty highyielding cashew varieties are available inthe country for commercial cultivation indifferent cashew growing states (Table 1).

Majority cashew plantations in Goa areof seedling progeny of non- descript typeswith varied degree of nut and apple yieldperformance. But, new plantations arecoming up with improved high yieldingvarieties recommended for commercialcultivation in the state of Goa. Followingare the suitable varieties for Goa.

Goa: Goa-1, Vengurla-4, Vengurla7, Vengurla-8, Bhaskara (Goa 11/6)

Maharashtra: Vengurla-1, Vengurla-4, Vengurla-6, Vengurla-7, Vengurla-8

Kerala: Madakkathara-1, Madakkathara-2, Dhana, Kanaka, Dhana,Kanaka, Sulabha,Priyanka, Amrutha, Raghava, Damodara, Poornima and K-22-1

Karnataka: NRCC Sel-2, Ullal-1, Ullal-3, Ullal-4, UN-50, Vengurla, 1, Vengurla-4,Vengurla-6 and Vengurla-7 for coastal Karnataka and Chintamani-1 for Maidan(Plains).

West Bengal: Jhargram-1, and BPP-8

Orissa: Bhubaneshwar-1, BPP-8 and Dhana

Andhra Pradesh: BPP-4, BPP-6, BPP-8

Tamil Nadu: VRI-1,VRI-2, VRI-3

North Eastern Hill Region: Ullal-3, Ullal-4, Vengurla-1 and Vengurla-4

Fig. 2. Goa-l (Balli-2) Cashew:Clusters of fruits, nuts, apples and kernels

Fig. 3. Cashew apples, nuts and Kernels ofVengurla-4 variety

Vengurla-4: It is an early bearing hybridvariety of the cross : Midnapur Red XVetore-56. Average nut yield is about15kg per tree. It yields mediumnuts( > 7.5g) and red apples are ofmedium size.

Vengurla-7: It is a hybrid variety of thecross Vengurla-3 X M 10/4. Nuts are boldand yellow coloured apples are mediumin size.

Vengurla-8: It is hybrid variety of thecross Vengurla-4 X M10/4. Nuts aremedium bold and apples are yellow andmedium sized.

Bhaskara (Goa 11/6): It is a clonalselection from a mother tree for higher nutyield (10-12 kg/tree) and tolerance to teamosquito bug, located in Gaondongrimvillage, Cancona taluka of Goa. Nuts areof medium size (7Ag) with 30 per cent ofshelling (Fig. 4).

Studies have indicated that newselections namely Tiswadi - 3, KN 2/98and GNJ - 2 also could be promising newvarieties for Goa.

PROPAGATIONCashew is propagated by both seeds andalso by vegetative methods. Seedpropagation resu Its in enormousvariability in the seedling progeny.Therefore, high yielding cashew varietiesare commercially propagated by differentvegetative methods to produce true totype planting material, which aredescribed below.

A. Soft wood grafting: This is the mostpopular and the best method forcommercial multiplication of improvedcashew varieties and found to be suitablefor propagation almost round the year.However, higher success rate of graftingcan be achieved during June to Octoberdue to abundance of mature scion shoots,favourable temperature and higherrelative humidity conditions. Varioussteps of softwood grafting technique are:

A. 1. Raising of root stock:

• Potting mixture in the proportion of1part of red soil: 1 part of river sand: 1part of Farm yard manure/compost hasto be prepared with rock phosphate(40-50g!10kg mixture) added to it.This is filled in high density polythenebags of 25cm X 15cm size havingthickness of 250-300 gauge, withholes punched on them for properdrainage for raising the root stockseedlings.

• Healthy and fully matured uniformsized seeds should be collected from

the peak time in the season, preferablyfrom a single variety and sun-dried for2-3 days. Such selected seeds can bestored for about 6-8 months in gunnybags or plastic bags which can befurther used for raising the root stocks.Such bags should be store in dry andcool place free from rodents.

• Heavy seeds screened by removingthe seeds floating in water should beused for sowing. Such seeds, presoaked overnight have to dibbled withstalk-end upwards, 3-4 cm deep in thecentre of the polythene bags filled withpotting mixture and wateredimmediately. Seeds can be sown infortnightly batches to ensure theavailability of root stock seedlingscontinuously for grafting. Seeds, pre-germinated in moist sand bed, can alsobe used for sowing to ensure theseedling in each polythene bag filledwith growth medium.

• Watering should be done dependingon the seasonal requirements (daily insummer) to ensue the propergermination which takes about 2-3weeks. Healthy seedlings of 7-8 weeksold (50-60 days) after germination, areused for soft wood grafting. Collar rotor damping off disease during rainyseason can be controlled by sprayingBordeaux mixture (1%) or Bavistin(1%) at fortnightly interval. Sucking

9

A - Germination of seeds in sand bedB - Sowing of pre-germinated seeds in poly bagsC - Uniform growth of seedlingsD - Healthy seedlings becoming ready for root stock

pests like Tea Mosquito Bug (TMB)and Thrips can be controlled byspraying Monocrotophos orQuinolphos (1.5 ml/litre of water)during the growth of seedlings.

A. 2. Preparation and Collection of scionsticks: In the scion bank, healthy, non-flowering matured shoots of 4-5months of current growth on desiredvariety are to be selected and precuredby clipping off the leaves with part ofpetiole retained on the shoot, withhelp of a Secateur (Fig. 9). Precuringshould be done, batch wise atfortnightly interval, 10-12 days prior tografting in order to stimulate thedormant buds on the shoots wh ich wi IIensure the higher rate of graft take.Such pre-cured shoots of 15-20 cmlength (scion sticks)which will behaving bulged buds are to be collectedearly in the morning on the day ofgrafting.

A.3. Tieing the graft:

• Healthy root stock seedlings of 7- 8weeks old (50-60 days) are selected forgrafting. On the root stock seedling,very tender portion ofterminal shoot isnipped off and all the lateral leavesexcept the lower most two pairs, areremoved using the grafting knife. Atransverse downward cut is given inthe soft wood portion on thedecapitated stem (15-20cm above) tomake a cleft of 5-6 cm deep. From theinner portion of cleft lips at the top,some portion of wood has to be

removed to ensure smooth union atthe grafting joint without any deadwood.

• From the scions collected, a scion stickmatching to the c1efted root stock isselected and cut freshly at the bottomto reduce it to required length (10cm)and sharpened to wedge shape bygiving smooth inward slant cuts at onestroke longitudinally downwards (upto 5-6 cm) on opposite sides on thescion stick so that the bark portion isintact on the other sides.

• The wedge shaped scion stick isinserted in to the cleft of the root stockand the cleft is closed in such a waythat the cambial portion of both thescion stick and root stock comes inexact contact and the union portion isfastened firmly with polythene tape(100 gauge). The scion portion on thestock is covered with polythene bag toensure the humid condition also toovercome the desiccation of the scion.Alternatively, all the grafted plants canbe kept under poly house with mistfacility to ensure the hot humidconditions required for faster callusgrowth in the joint region. The plantsare maintained under nursery shed for20-30 days to encourage the sproutingof the potential buds on the scionportion after which the polythene bagsare removed and the grafts are shiftedto shade-net house (50%) and then toopen condition for hardening.Depending on the season, about 70-

-~ I

I

(

J

I

90 per cent graft success can beachieved by this method.

A. 4. After care: Polythene strip should beremoved after five months to avoidgirdling on graft union. The sideshoots arising from the root stockregion should be removedperiodically. Striking of the tap root into the nursery ground can beprevented by stacking the successfulgrafts on polythene sheet spread onthe nursery ground. This also helps insorting of the week grafts for specialcare. Grafts shou Id be wateredregularly depending on the season.Fungal diseases on young leaves canbe controlled by spraying the Graftsshould be sprayed with Bavistin (1%)

to mangage fungal diseases on youngleaves and with monocrotophos(1.5ml/litre of water) against 'suckingpests and leaf minor, at 15-20 daysinterval. Flowering, if any, in the graftsin the nursery should also be removed.

B. In Situ Grafting: In this method ofpropagation also, softwood graftingtechnique is employed, but he theentire exercise is carried out in themain field itself instead of the nurserypractice. Various steps involved are:

• Layout the main field and dig-openthe pits for curing during May. Fill thepits with top soil mixed Farm yardmanure (FYM).

• Plant 2-3 selected seeds in the firstweek of June, in the centre of each pitfilled with soil and FYM to raise the

root stocks in the main field.

• Graft the desired pre-cured scion asdescribed in 'soft wood'grafting' on 3-4 months old, healthy root stockseedlings during September-Octoberperiod and coverthe scion with plasticcover. Other seedlings can be used ifgraft take is fai led in the first attempt.

• Once the buds are sprouted, removethe plastic bag and remove the plasticstrip January or February to avoidgi rd ling. Remove the side shoot on theroot stock below the grafting union.

Advantages: Tap root system is intactunlike in field planted grafts,therefore, supports the extensivegrowth of lateral roots and withstandsthe onslaught of uprooting by stormywinds.

In situ grafting may induce precocity,because, minimum size of canopyrequired for first harvesting isachieved in advance of one year.

If root stocks are standardized, thismethod offers scope for takingadvantage of positive stionic effect forspecific varieties.

In situ grafting is cost effective.

C. Top working: This is a techniqueexclusively for rejuvenating /converting the unproductive cashewtrees into trees of high yieldingvarieties. Poor yielding young trees of5-20 years age can be top workedwith desired high yielding variety.This technique involves the followingsteps:

Fig. 11 . In Situ grafting:A - Germinating seeds in pit in the main fieldB - Seedlings ready for in situ grafting after 4 - 5 monthsC - Healthy in situ soft wood graftD - Canopy growth of in situ graft

• Selection of trees. Poor yielding treesfrom existing plantations have to beidentified for top worki ng.

• Beheading: The selected tree have tobeheaded to a height of 0.75-1.0mfrom the ground level with the help ofsaw to overcome the cracking orsplitting at the cut ends. Beheadinghas to done during may-August.

• Spray the cut ends with Chlorpyriphos(0.5%) and apply BordeauxPaste(10%) immediately to overcomethe attack of cashew stem and rootborer.

• Lateral buds from the sides thebeheaded branches start sproutingwithin a month resulting in lot of newshoots which need to be protectedfrom the attack of tea mosquito bugand other insects.

• Grafting: Scions of the desired highyielding varieties have to be wedge-grafted on the soft wood region of theyoung shoots sprouted from the sidesof the cut branches. Grafting has to bedone on 10-15 healthy shoots of 30-

45 days growth during August-October. Other shoots should bethinned out to encourage the grafttake.

• Side shoots arising from the portionbelow the graft union should beregularly removed.

In successfu lIy top-worked trees,growth of canopy would be very fastbecause of the advantage of its wellestablished root system and the treesstart yielding right from second yearitself.

D. Air layering: This is the earlier methodwhich was being followed before thesoft wood grafti ng was standard ized incashew. In this method, the matureshoots on the tree are girdled and thegirdled region is fastened with moistgrowth medium to facilitate therooting at the girdled region. Oncesufficient rooting is observed afterthree months, the shoots with roots arecut from the tree for using as true totype planting material. This methodhas become obsolete now for cashew.

•PREPARATION OF LAND AND PLANTINGFor establishing new orchards, the landhas to be cleared off thorny bushes,shrubs and other weeds well before thepre-monsoon showers (April May).

5.1 Planting Systems for layout: Selectionof appropriate planting system based onthe topography of the land, fertility andtype of soil is very important forestablishing cashew plantations indifferent locations. Generally, Square,Rectangular and Triangular System ofplanting are recommended for cashewplantations.

1.Square system: Spacing between rowsand columns of trees is same. Spacing ofeach tree in all the four directions is same.Recommended spacing s are: 8m X 8m forhighly fertile soils, 7m X 7m for mediumand light soils and 5m X 5m (high densityplanting) for sandy or poor or very lightsoilsType of soil Spacing No. trees/ha.Fertile soils 8m X 8m 156Medium and light soils, Red 7m X 7m 204laterite soilsPoor/ sandy/ lighter soils 5m X 5m (High 400

Density)

Sketch of square system2. Rectangular System: Spacing betweenrows and columns of trees is differentdepending on the purpose andtopography of the land.

Type of soil Spacing No. trees/ha.Ferti Ie soi Is 9m X 7m 158Medium and light soils, Red 8m X 6m 208laterite soilsPoor/ sandy/ lighter soils 5.5m X4.5m 404

(H igh Density)

Sketch of rectangular system

3.Triangular System: In this system, thespacing of all the trees will be equidistantin six directions and three trees arearranged in triangular manner. Thisaccommodates 15 % more populationcompared to square or rectangular system.

Type of soil Spacing No. trees/ha.Fertile soils 8m X 8m 180Medium and light soils, Red 7m X 7m 234laterite soilsPoor/ sandy/ lighter soils 5.25m X525m 416

(High Density)

Layout the field in appropriate systemwith peg marking at recommendedspacing to faci Iitate digging of pits.5.2 Opening of pits: Pits of the size of 60cm X 60 cm X 60 cm at the requiredspacing depending on the planting systemcan be opened manually. Circular pits of60cm (24") diameter with 60 cm depthcan be opened mechanically also bytractor mounted post hole digger. Leavethe pits open for about 15-20 days forcunng.5.3 Planting material and method ofplanting:Healthy, 10-12 months old soft woodgrafts of improved high yielding varietiesshould be used for planting. After pre-curing, fill pits completely with top soilmixed thoroughly with one basket (15-20kg) of compost or Farm Yard Manure, 300-400 g massoriephos or rock phosphate

and 100 g of anti termite pesticide. Forplanting, scoop out a spadeful of top soilfrom the centre of the pit. Graft has to beplaced in the pit in such a way that graftjoint is 5 cm. above the ground level.Support the graft with appropriate stakingby tieing loosely with gunny thread.5.4 Time of planting: Immediately afterthe onset of monsoon, plant the graft in thecenter of each pit and support it withappropriate staking. Mulching the basinwith green leaves helps establishment ofthe grafts. The most ideal time for plantingof cashew grafts is second fortnight of JunetoJuly. Planting during this period ensuresbetter establishment of grafts in the field.In case of in situ grafting, planting ofselected seed nuts has to be done in thecentre of pits, as described earlier, in thefirst week of June just after the on-set ofmonsoon.

Graft with intact earth ballplaced in centre of the pit

•HIGH DENSITY PLANTINGIn order to use the land intensively for

realising higher productivity per unit area,especially in the early phase of theplantation and also to achieve the highereconomic returns in the early phase, highdesity planting techniques can be adopted(Salam, 1997). This also can be followedwhere the soil fertility is poor for whichthe canopy expansion will not fast. Thismethod involves planting of more numberof grafts per unit area as compared to thatof normal density of 200 number of graftsat 7m X 7m spacing. In order to achievehigher density, grafts are planted at4mx4m, 5mx5m or 8mx4m for theplanting density of 625, 400 or 312 perhectare, considering the suitability,purpose and need. Depending on thetype land, higher density population isretained for the initial period 7-10 years.This actually is based on the rate at whichthe canopy is expanding in orchardconditions. In poor soils, rate of growthwill rather slow and hence populationdensity can be maintained for longerperiod till the cnopies of the adjoiningtrees touch with one another. On theother hand, in fertile soils canopyexpansion will be faster indicating theearly thinning of population to overcomecompetition among the trees for soilmoisture, nutrients and light. Finally, at

full growth stage, population is reduced tonormal density of 200 trees by thinningdown the population periodically.

This is a specialized technique, whichneeds intensive management of nutrientsupply, canopy pruning and irrigationpractices with view to maintainsustainability in the long run. Studieshave indicated that cashew yield can beincrease to three to four folds in the initialphase up to 6-7 years which would furtherdecline gradually up to two fold at 12'hyear in a plantation with density of 312 to625 trees per hectare as compared toplantation of normal density of 200 treesper hectare (Venkattakumar et al,2003Jose Mathew and Mini, 2008). This systemalso overcomes exposure of ground to thesunlight, especially in the peak summerand thereby decreasing the soil moistureevaporation. Heavy deposit of leafbiomass on the ground also conservesmoisture and also adds in situ-recyclednutrients to the soil. There will also bereduced under canopy weed growth. Dueto pruning and thinning , substantialquantities of fire wood can be obtained.One should be careful regarding theincidence of cashew stem and root borerand its integrated management whileresorting to the pruning or thinning oftrees.

••MANURES AND FERTILIZERSMost of the cashew growing areas in the observed, particularly in Goa, can be

country including that Goa state are poor ameliorated by application of 5-10 kg ofsoil fertility and water holding capacity. But, lime or dolomite per tree once in two tothe studies have indicated that Cashew three years. This practice facilitates therespondswell to application of manuresand availabi lity and uptake of nutrientsfertilizers. The standard recommended dose especially phosphorous, calcium,and schedule of application for cashew magnesium and micronutrients liketrees of different age groups are as given in molybdenum by the trees.table 2. Of late, customized speciality fertilizers

7.1. Method of Applying: Entire quantity are coming into the markets in a big way.of manure or compost and half of the Theseare specific to the crops and location.recommended dose can be applied in the Such speciality fertilizers for cashew cropfirst fortnight of June and remaining half in would be of utmost importance fromAugust-September. Fertilizer has to be precision farming point of view in order toapplied in a circular ring within a radius of avoid underorover-useoffertilizers. These22.5 m around the tree trunk at adepth of 15 are also taking care of the requirement ofcm and covered with green leavesand soil. cashew trees for micronutrients, whichIn hill plantations to avoid leaching, entire otherwise, are hardly given attention indose can be applied once in August. commercial cultivation of cashew crop.Problematic soils (reclaimed mine rejects of Organic cashew : SupplementingGoa) need to be tested. Special care needs nutrients through organic sources like oilto be given while recommending for High cakes, green leaf compost, vermicompost,density plantations to avoid excess fish meal, bone meal, FYM and Poultry / pigapplication per unit area. manure, spray of EMO, etc is a common

7.2 Management of soil pH: Most of practice for production of cashewcashew growing coastal areas being high organically. One should be careful whilerainfall areas,generally soils are lateritic and using oil cakes like neem cakes, as suchacidic in nature. Since very low pH cakeswill causethe increase in soil acidityconditions are not conducive for better asa result of which multiple problems cropperformance of cashew, such soi Is, up in cashew plantations.

Table. 2. Recommended dose of manures and fertilizersAge Nutrients (g Itree/year) Fertilizers (g Itree/year)

Compost N P2Q; K20 Urea Rock MuriateIFYM phosphate of

(kg) potash

1 15 250 50 50 250 175 852 30 500 100 100 500 350 1653 40 750 200 200 1000 750 330

4,nyr & 50 kg 1000 300 400 2000 1500 660onwards

+INTERCROPPING

During the initial period of cashewplantations, several intercrops can betaken up in the inter-space up to firstthree-four years. Considering the terrain of theland under agro-c1imatic conditions ofGoa, high value crops such as turmeric,ginger, groundnut, vegetables likebhendi, cucurbits, chillies and fruit cropslike pine-apple, papaya can be taken up.This practice not only providesconsiderable income from intercrops,even will have complementary beneficialeffects on cashew grafts during the initialperiod of growth and development,besides providing employmentopportunities, duringthe gestation period.

Studies have indicated that turmericvarieties such as Sudarshan, Prabha,Pratibha, Kedaram, Alleppey and RCT-1,and ginger variety- Varada can besuccessfully cultivated as intercrops in

cashew plantations during gestationperiod with rhizome yield of 10 12.5tonnes per hectare to realize a net profitof Rs 50,000 from one hectare area.Similarly, Confectionary type ofgroundnut varieties like Asha and TPG-40can also be successfully cultivated asintercrop in cashew plantations forconsiderable income.

For planting of Pineapple trenches of1m width and convenient length shouldbe opened across the slope in theinterspace. Pineapple suckers are plantedin paired rows, 60cm apart with 30cmspacing between plants , in zig zagmanner. Improved varieties like Queen,Gaint Kew and Mauritius can be taken up.About 15 tonnes/ha of fruit yield can beharvested from the interspace. Drumstick(which can serve as trap crop against TMB)with proper pruning can also be taken upalong the contours.

~SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION MEASURESContinuous contour trenches

(CCT) of field length or 2m longStaggered contour trenches of 45cmtop width X 30 cm bottom width X 45cm depth (SCT) are recommended forin situ moisture and soil conservationmeasures (Manivannan, 2003). Thispractice will greatly support theestablishment of grafts in the main field

22

and also the grown up trees especiallyduring dry period coinciding withflowering and fruit setting period. Studieson young cashew trees of 7 years oldplantations at our institute indicated thatsuch practices would enhancephysiological efficiency of the trees andthereby increase the yield by more than50 per cent (Desai, 2008).

~

TRAINING AND PRUNINGDuring the initial stage of orchard

establishment, shoots arising on therootstock have to be regularly removed topromote better scion growth, particularlyin the first year after planting, whichotherwise could result in scion rejectionthereby leading to the field mortality ofgrafts. Since cashew trees tend to spreadtheir canopies and lodge easily, properstaking is also essential. Training of youngtrees during the first three years is essentialto develop uniform canopies. Training inthe juvenile phase basically comprises ofremoving basal branches and watershoots. The plants are trained to a singlestem and branches are allowed to growabout 0.75-1 m from ground level.Deformed branches are also removedduring the first few years. Trees are keptunder check by topping off the main stemat a height of 4-5m from ground level.Orchard operations such as terracing,weeding, fertilizer application, nutcollection and stem/root borer infestationcontrol can be easily achieved if trees areproperly trai ned.

Pruning should be carried out inAugust-September at least once in threeyears in order to remove the crisscrossingbranches and unwanted growth forproviding the incidence of adequatesunlight into the canopy. Since fruiting isonly encouraged from the third year, de-blossoming has to be carried out as flowerclusters appear during the initial phase ofgrowth. Dead branches and branches withdie-back symptoms should also be pruned

periodically. Depending on the growthhabit of the trees of different cashewvarieties, the canopies of the neighbouringtrees wi II start touch ing each other after 7-10 years of age. Regular, light pruning ofthe branches all around the canopy willfacilitate the exposure of canopy tosunlight. Studies at Directorate of cashewResearch, Puttur, have indicated thatpruning enhances flowering and yield invarieties with extensive branching habit,while it will have adverse effect onvarieties with intensive branching habit.Yield stabilization can be achieved after 7-8 years of planting. Therefore, pruningshould be selective, variety specific and inold trees which have tendency fordeclined yield (Nayak, 2007).

Limb pruning technique can be usedas a good tool to rejuvenate unproductiveplantations of improved varieties /hybridsof cashew Trees of more 15years,whichcover entire inter and intra space andshow decline in yield or fail to give yield(Rajanna and Nayak, 2007). Thistechnique involves cutting of the primarybranches at 2112-3 feet from the main trunkduring August-September so that, newsprouts commence in the next monthwhich subsequently flower and fruit inJanuary-February. Pruning has to be doneby using a saw to achieve a perfect cut endwithout any cracks or damage to the barkof the branch. This technique has givensuccessful results for cashew treescultivated in fertile soils of planes inKarnataka.

41 _PLANT PROTECTION

On cashew, major insect pests are Teamosquito bug (He/opeltis antonii S.) andCashew stem and root borer (Plocaederusferruginneus L.), besides which otherinsects like leaf and flower webber, thrips,leaf minor and mealy bugs, considered asminor pests, are also causing economicloss in cashew crop of late.

11.1. Tea mosquito bug (TMB) :Incidence of Tea mosquito bug on cashewoccurs at new flushing, flowering andfruiting stages during September to Apriland causes crop losses ranging from 20-60per cent. The damage is caused by adultbugs as well as by immature stages(nymphs) which suck the plant sap from thetender flushes and succulent shoots, flowerpanicles, growing nuts and apples.

Symptoms: Closer observation reveals:he occurrence of dark brown patches on~reen tender stem of young shoots andnflorescence rachis. Severe incidenceeads to flower blight and drying of young;hoots and flower panicles. Attack onender nuts and apples causes shriveling ofJeveloping nuts leading to immature fruitJrop. The affected trees will conspicuouslylave the dried leaves on dead tender shootsmd dried inflorescences on tree canopyvhich can be prominently seen from alistance. Severely affected branches mayead to the secondary infection by fungusBotrydiplodia theobromae) causing 'dielack' disease, i.e drying of branches fromip and extending downwards. Suchtranches will have the brownliscolouration in the sap wood extending)wards lower portion.

Integrated Management: This pest canbe effectively managed by spraying thetrees in three critical stages.1. Establish the cashew plantation by

planting 2-3 high yielding varieties withvaried degrees of tolerance or escapemechanism so that the impact of pestincidence will be reduced due to varieddegree of pest host reaction.

2. Spray the tree canopy at flushing stagewith monocrotophos at the rate of 1.5mil litre of water (0.05%) or withLambda-cyhalothrin at the rate of (0.003%)

3. Spray carbaryl (50% WP) at the rate of2g/Iitre of water (0.1 %) or chlorpyriphos(0.05%) at flowering stage

4. Repeat the 'first spray' at initial fruitingstage.

5. Cut the 'die back' affected branches upto the healthy region and apply the cutend with Bordeaux paste (10%) andspray the tree with 1 per cent Bordeauxmixture solution.

6. Arrest the build- up of the pestpopulation by maintaining the hygienityin plantation and also care should betaken for controlling the populationeven on the alternate host trees (drumstick, guava, neem, etc ., if any, in thesurroundings.11.2. Cashew stem and root borer

(CSRB): This is the most dreaded pest ofcashew trees, the immature stages (grubs)of which feed on the bark of trunk and rootsand out rightly kill the tree within few days.Due its concealed nature of damage, it isdifficult to make out the status or level ofdamage to the tree and therefore, unlike

TMB, is a threat to the life of the tree. This isa dark brown beetle with long antennaewhich lays eggs in the crevices of the barkon the collar region.

Symptoms: Incidence of the pest can bemade out by the presence of extruded frass(like coarse saw dust powder) on the groundsurface at the base of cashew tree trunk. Oncloser examination, one can see small holeson the collar region through which the frassis pushed out by the insect. After hatching ofeggs, the grubs immediately start boringinto bark of collar portion and root forfeeding on the inner portion of the barktissues. Further, they bore irregular tunnelsthroughout. As a result of severe injury tothe vascular bundles, gum like substanceoozes out and gets deposited on hardeningto form dark brown clumps on the affectedregion. In case of severe infestation, due tocontinuous feeding on vascular tissues, thetrunk becomes internally girdled. At thisstage, leaves show yellowing symptoms,start shedding immaturely andsubsequently the entire tree dries up withina few days. Affected trees also tilt on oneside due to loss of anchorage, if the injury issevere on anchoring roots. Infestationoccurs round the year.

Integrated management:1. Monitor regularly for the presence of

the frass near the baseof the trunk.2. Mechanically remove the grubs from

infected trees in the initial stage ofinfestation.

3. inject 0.36 per cent monocrotophosby the padding method.

. Soak / drench the bark of the infestedtrees with O.SL of 0.1 per centchlorpyriphos, one meter above the groundand also by drenching the soil/ root zone ina radius of O.Sm around the stem with SL ofthe same insecticide to kill the grubs/ pupae

in the root zone.5. Repeat the Injection of all infested

trees with monocrotophos after 15 -20 days.6.lt is very important to adopt the

phytosanitory measures like removal ofdead trees infested with CSRB and bury orburn the same to avoid further spread ofinfestation.

11.3. Minor pests:Leaf and blossom webber (Lamida

moncusalis L.): As indicated by its name,this pest attacks the young leaves of newflush and inflorescences. The caterpillarsform the web of young leaves and flowerpanicles and feed on these from inside as aresult of which, the webbed shoots totallydry up.

Leaf miner (Acrocercops syngrammaM.): Larvae of this insect mine through theyoung leaves of new flushes. In the minedlaminal areas the epidermal layer getsseparated from the leaf tissues in patchesgiving white blistered patches.

Apple and nut borer (Thylocoptila sp.):The larvae of this pest bore the region ofjuncture where the nut is attached to appleand start feeding on tissues. The incidencecan be conspicuously seen by the presenceof frass and excreta of the larvae at thetunneled place.

Mealy bug (Ferrisia virgata ): Nymphsand adults of mealy bugs suck large amountof sap from the growi ng shoots,inflorescence and developing fruits. Theseinsects also excrete sugary substance(honeydew) on which sooty moulddevelops which impairs photosyntheticactivity rendering 16-30% losses in nutyield under severe out break conditions.

All these minor pestscan be taken care ofby the prophylactic sprays adopted for themanagement of tea mosquito bug.

Fig. 14. Tea Mosquito Bug: a seriouspest on cashew

A - Adult bugB - Immature stage (Nymph)C - Shoot damage

Fig. 15. Damage bycashew stem androot borerA - Dried tree

affected bycashew stemand root borer

B - Immature stage(Grub) of cashew stem and root borerAdult of cashew stem and root borerFrass near the affected trunkDrenching of chlorpyriphos on base on the trunkRecovered turnk

•HARVESTING AND YIELDIt is advisable to take crop from fourth

year onwards, before which flowers, ifany, may be removed to encourage propervegetative growth. The harvesting,depending on the varieties, commencesfrom February and continues till May end.In Goa, the dropped fruits with nuts arecollected and nuts are separated from theapples. General yield trend of improvedvarieties is presented below.

About 10 15 kg per tree (2.5 - 3tonnes/ha) of raw nut yield and about 80100 kg per tree (1520 tonnes/ ha.) ofcashew apple yield may be expected at10th year and onwards, with adoption ofall the production practices on time. Nutsseparated from apples are thoroughly sun-dried for 3-4 days and stored in gunny bagsfor further processing.

Age of tree Nut yield Apple yield Yield per ha*. (tonnes)(Kg /tree) (Kg/tree) .

applenut4th year 0.7 5.0 0.15 1.05th

/I1.5 10.0 0.3 2.0

6th/I 3.0 20.0 0.6 4.0

ih /I 6.0 40.0 1.2 8.08th /I 8.0 60.0 1.6 10.09th /I 10.0 70.0 2.0 15.010th 12-15 85.0 - 100.0 2.5-3.0 17.0 -20.0/I

~

ECONOMIC RETURNS

For establishing cashew plantation inone hectare area, it requires about Rs27100.0 for initial investment. But,cashew has a juvenile phase for the initialperiod 3-4 years. During this period,considering the need and suitability, highvalue annual crops can be cultivated asintercrops for deriving the income duringthe juvenile period. Economic yield canbe harvested from fourth year after

planting and the breakeven point startsfrom 6th

- th year. Details of cost ofcultivation and economic returns fromcashew plantation of one hectare area forfirst ten years are presented in Table 4.With all the improved productionpractices and stabilized yield at 9-10years, a net return of more than Rs 80 000may be expected annually from onehectare area under cashew plantation.

Table 4. Cost of cultivation for establishment of 1 ha of cashew plantation with density of200 tree/ha ( 7m X 7m spacing) and economic returns:

Particulars I yr II yr III yr IVyr Vyr VI yr VII yr VIII yr IX yr X yr Total

Land clearing 6000 1000 7000

30 man days X Rs 200

Digging of 200 pits @ 25 5000 5000

Pit filling, planting, staking & mulchin 1000 200 1200@ Rs.5

Cost of grafts (210 no) @ Rs2.'D0 5000 250 5250

Organic manure @ Rs. O.~ 15kg X 20C 1500 3000 4000 5000 5000 5000 6000 6000 6000 6000 47500

Chemical fertilzer 600 1200 2000 3000 4000 6000 10500 12000 12000 15000 66300

Plant protection 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 2000 2250 2500 2500 14500

Labour for fertilizer application 500 750 1200 1600 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 16050

Labour for Plant protection 250 480 900 1200 1200 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 11530

Implements 1800 2000 3800

Intercrops (Rs/ha) 4000 4000 3000 2000 13000

Labour(Harvesting) 200 400 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 15600

@Rs 2/kg

Miscellaneous(Rs/ha) 1200 1200 1200 1200 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 13800

Total Expenditure 27100 12580 13050 15200 15350 20500 25500 28250 29500 33500 22ffi30

Cash Flow

From intercrops 15000 12000 12000 6000 - - - - - - 45000

Nut yield( kg/ha) - - - 150 300 600 1200 1600 1800 2000

Income from nuts(@Rs SO/kg nuts) 7500 15000 30000 60000 80000 90000 100000 490000

Apple yield (kg/ha) - - - 1000 1400 3500 7000 10000 15000 17000

income from apple 1000 2000 4000 8000 10000 15000 17000 55600

@Rs l/kg apple)

Total gross returns 15000 12000 12000 14500 17000 34000 68000 90000 105000 117000 362600

Net Total Returns (Rs) -12100 -580 -1050 -700 1650 13500 42500 61750 75500 83500 159270

Net return per tree(Rs) 6.75 67.5 2120 308.75 377.5 417.0

._~------SUGGESTED READING

Bhaskara Rao, EVV., 1998, Cashew crop improvement programmes in India.Proceedings of the Int. Cashew and Coconut Conference, Oar es Salam,Tanzania, 108 115.

Bhaskara Rao, E.V.V and Swamy, K. R. M., 1994, Genetic resources of cashew.ln:Advances in Horticulture Vol. 9. Plantation and Spice Crops, Part-I (Eds. K. L.Chadha and P Rethinam). Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, pp 79-97.

Bhaskara Rao, E.V.V., Swamy, K. R. M., and Bhat, M. G., 1998, Status of cashew breedingand future priorities. J. Plantation Crops, 26 (2) : 103-114.

Bhat, M. G., 2007, Cashew Research in India - A Lead Paper. Extended Summary andAbstracts, National Seminar on Research, Marketing and Development ofCashew, Nov.20-21, 2007, ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Old Goa. pp. 1-6.

DCCD, 2008-09. Statistics on cashew , Directorate of Cashewnut and CocoaDevelopment, Koch i, Kerala, Ind ia. http//dacnet.nic. in/cashewcocoa/stat. htm

Desai A R, 2008. Molecular diversity and phenotyping of selected cashew genotypes ofGoa, and physiological response of cv.Goa-1 to in situ moisture conservation.Thesisi submitted to the Univ. of Agril Sciences Dharwad, Karnataka, India.

Desai, A. R. and Dhandar, D. G., 1998, Performance of promising local cashewaccessions of Goa. National Seminar on Cashew Development in IndiaChallenges and Opportunities, held at Goa, 1-2 May 1998.

Desai A R, Dhandar 0 G, Mathew, P A and Leeb Babu, 2001. Goa-1 (balli-2): A newcashew variety for Goa. Journal of Plantaion Crops 23 (1): 59 61.

Desai, A. R., Dhandar, D. G., Leebu Babu and Dalvi, R. B., 2000, Classificatory analysisof some cashew germplasm accessions of Goa. PLACROSYM XIV, Hyderabad,12-15 December, 2000.

Faleiro J R and Desai A R, 2007. Chemical control of cashew stem and root borerPlocaederus ferrugineus L: A case study. FAa, 2010 Area and Production Reporton Cashew. http://faostatfao.org

Jose Mathew and Mini C, 2008. Manipulation of tree densities for yield and incomemaximization in cashew. Proc. 3'dIndian Horticulture Congress, Nov.6-9, 2008,Bhubaneshwar, India. pp203.

Kumar D p/ 2002. Recent techniques and strategies for improving productivity of senilecashew plantations. In: Singh, H p/ BalasubramanianP P and Venkatesh NHubballi (Edts), 2002. Indian Cashew Industry, Directorate of cashewnut andCocoa Development, Kochi -11 / India. pp.196.

Manivannan, S./ Desai, A.R., Manjunath, B. Land Korikanthimath, V. S/ 2003/ Soil andwater conservation measures for better growth performance of cashew.Proceedings of National Conference on Integrated Sustainable Water ResourcesPlanning and Management, Pilani, October 11-12/ 2003. pp. 282-287

Nayak M. G/ Swamy KRM and Yadukumar N, 2007. Effect of Pruning on growth andyield.

Rajanna K M and Nayak M G/ 2007. Limb pruning to rejuvenate unproductive cashewtrees of improved varieties/hybrids.

Salam M A, 1997. High density planting in cashew - principles and practices. TheCashew 11(4):12-20

Salam M A, 2002.Strategies for improved productivity through soil and nutrient forcashew. In: Singh, H p/ BalasubramanianP P and Venkatesh N Hubballi (Edts),2002. Indian Cashew Industry, Directorate of cashewnut and CocoaDevelopment, Kochi -11 / India. pp.196.

Singh, H p/ BalasubramanianP P and Venkatesh N Hubballi (Edts), 2002. Indian CashewIndustry, Directorate of cashewnut and Cocoa Development, Kochi -11/ India.pp.196.

Swamy K R M, Nayak M. G/ Bhaskara Rao, E.V.V, 2002. Clonal propagation and nurserymanagement of cashew. In: In: Singh, H p/ BalasubramanianP P and VenkateshN Hubballi (Edts), 2002. Indian Cashew Industry, Directorate of cashewnut andCocoa Development, Kochi -11 / India. pp.196.

Venkattakumar R, Yadukumar N, Bhat P Sand Bhat M G/ 2003. Cashew ProductionTechnology, PP36. National Research Centre for Cashew, Puttur, India.

Yadukumar, N., 1988/ Effect of irrigation on cashew. Annu. Rep., National ResearchCentre for Cashew (lCAR). pp. 77-82.

Yadukumar, N., 2003/ Strategies for improved productivity through efficient watermanagement. The Cashew, 17 (3) : 25.

Yadukumar, N. and Balsimha, D., 2006/ Effect of drip irrigation and fertilizer levels onphotosynthesis in cashew. Indian J. Hortie. 63 (3) : 310-315.