Technical Research Bulletin - British Museum 2 Middleton.pdf29 Th e manufacture and decoration of...

VOLUME 2 2008

Technical Research Bulletin

Technical Research BulletinVO

LUME 2

2008

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Th e manufacture and decoration of Parthian glazed ‘slipper coffi ns’ from WarkaAndrew Middleton, St John Simpson and Antony P. Simpson

Summary Th e fi rst examples of ‘slipper coffi ns’ were discovered by William Kennett Loft us (1820–1858) at the site of Warka in southern Iraq in 1850. Th ey attracted much popular attention and are one of the hallmarks of Parthian funerary practice in Mesopotamia. Similar coffi ns have since been excavated at other sites in this region and are displayed in several major museums. Th ere has been previous discussion of their date and/or contents but here the fi rst detailed discussion of the processes of their manufacture is presented. Th e coffi ns were built from a series of slabs of chaff -tempered clay, using established ceramic-forming techniques, and glazed using alkaline glazes, long used in Mesopotamia. Th e observations provide an indication of the skills and confi dence required to manufacture, decorate and fi re these spectacularly large objects.

INTRODUCTION

One of the hallmarks of Parthian funerary practices in Mesopotamia was the manufacture of full-size glazed ‘slipper coffi ns’, so-called because of their resemblance to giant slippers. Th e fi rst examples were discovered by William Kennett Loft us (1820–1858) at the site of Warka (Figure 1) in southern Iraq in 1850, and attracted much popular atten-tion. Similar coffi ns have since been excavated at other sites in this region and are displayed in several major museums. However, this is the fi rst detailed discussion of their proc-esses of manufacture, as previous studies of these remark-able objects have tended to dwell exclusively on their date and/or contents.

THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF DISCOVERY

Loft us’ discoveries at Warka

Loft us fi rst visited Warka at the beginning of January 1850, at which time he noted examples of ‘slipper coffi ns’. He returned to the site later that month, in the company of the artist Henry A. Churchill, and excavated there for a month. He later conducted a fi nal season from January to April 1854, during which time he was accompanied by the artist William Boutcher. His principal discoveries have been summarized elsewhere [1, 2], but it is useful to recap on

these before discussing the results of the new technological study of these coffi ns.

Loft us investigated most of the prominent mounds at Warka and found glazed slipper coffi ns in several areas of the site. Many appear to have simply been interred in the earth but others were placed inside brick vaults [3; p. 206]. In one case the glazed lid (1851,0101.5: ME 92008a) had been broken in antiquity and was covered with a second lid “puff ed out in the centre and pierced by a small hole like the crust of a meat pie”. Most, if not all, of the coffi ns had been disturbed, probably owing to the later popular belief that they contained gold; this was a problem that Loft us encoun-tered throughout his investigations. Moreover the skeletal remains “usually fell to powder on exposure to the air”, although in a number of cases the arms were observed “bent across the body” [3; p. 210]. Objects found within or next to the coffi ns included bronze bowls, pottery lamps, small glass bottles, stylized bone dolls, gold earrings and beads, gold and silver fi nger rings, silver and bronze armlets and toe rings, and the highly fragmentary remains of what were probably gold face-masks. Coins were found in the general excavation area, but these appear to have been surface fi nds or recovered from surrounding deposits rather than being part of the grave-goods.

Owing to the particular interest aroused by the discovery of glazed slipper coffi ns during his fi rst visit, the purpose of Loft us’ excavation season in January to February 1850 was “to endeavour to obtain a specimen of these extraordinary coffi ns, in order that it might be forwarded to the British

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ANDREW MIDDLETON, ST JOHN SIMPSON & ANTONY P. SIMPSON

Museum” [3; p. 207]. Several trenches were excavated and “perhaps a hundred” coffi ns discovered, but each, to Loft us’ great irritation, “invariably fell to pieces in the attempt to stir them … [as] … those near the surface were considerably weathered, while those below were saturated with moisture, and frequently crushed by the superincumbent weight”.

Finally, three coffi ns were successfully lift ed by applying layers of papier maché to the interior and exterior, Figures 2–4. Th ese were lift ed on tent-poles inserted beneath each, placing them on improvised litters made up of boards lashed onto handles formed of spades and spears, and carrying them on the shoulders of “a strong party of Arabs” for a distance of some nine miles to the Euphrates whence they were shipped back to England, Figure 5. A small number of fragments were also brought back, including a glazed lid, two other fragmentary decorated lids and a coffi n fragment with diff erent decoration.

Later excavations at Warka

Since Loft us’ pioneering investigations, excavations by the Deutsches-Orient Gesellschaft have added considerable information on the layout of the Parthian graves in one of the areas where Loft us had previously found these coffi ns. It now appears that many of the coffi ns were clustered below the fl oors within, or close to, small rectangular mudbrick structures [4; Plates 233–234]. In addition, four types of slipper coffi n were distinguished, of which the most distinc-

tive and numerous were decorated with repeated stamp impressions depicting a standing warrior and described in greater detail below.

Warka in context: discoveries at other sites in Mesopotamia and Susiana

Th e largest number of Parthian slipper coffi ns has been exca-vated at Warka. Nevertheless, they have also been discov-ered at a number of other sites in central and southern Mesopotamia. Th ese include Tell Amran and the Southern Palace area at Babylon [5, 6; p. 249 (vol. I); Plate 87d (vol. II), 7], Mashkan-shapir [8], Tell el-Meda’in [9; p. 32], the ‘Scribal Quarter’ and ‘Parthian cemetery’ in Sounding E at Nippur [10; pp. 214–216; pp. 226–230 and Plates opposite pp. 214 and 230, 11, 12], and Seleucia [13; p. 36, 14, 15; p. 246]. Th is distribution suggests that this type of coffi n was most popular within urban centres, although survey reports from four rural sites suggest that they may also have been transported, presumably by canal, for use at smaller settle-ments in the vicinity of these towns [16].1

Detailed discussion of these fi nds from sites other than Warka is beyond the scope of this contribution, but this brief review shows that although there is a gradually growing body of archaeological data on the location and organization of Parthian tombs and the range of associated grave-goods, there has been no scientifi c analysis of the remarkable coffi ns themselves.

figure 1. Plan of Warka; aft er Loft us (opposite p. 160 in [3])

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THE MANUFACTURE AND DECORATION OF PARTHIAN GLAZED ‘SLIPPER COFFINS’ FROM WARKA

figure 2. Parthian glazed slipper coffi n from Warka (1851,0101.1: ME 92006): length 1.96 m



figure 5. Lift ing a coffi n at Warka; aft er Loft us (frontispiece in [3])

TECHNICAL EXAMINATION OF THE WARKA COFFINS IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM

In 1997 three complete Parthian glazed slipper coffi ns from the collections of the British Museum – registration numbers 1851,0101.1 (ME 92006), 1851,0101.2 (ME 92005) and 1851,0101.3 (ME 92004) – were placed on temporary display in a special exhibition entitled Pottery in the Making. Th is provided the opportunity to undertake a technical study of these objects. Most of the observations reported here are based upon a close visual examination but, in addition, the opportunity was taken to remove a small fragment from ME 92006 for preparation as a thin section, allowing detailed examination of the clay fabric using a petrographic micro-scope. Th e thin section was also examined in a scanning electron microscope (SEM), permitting observation of the degree of vitrifi cation of the fabric. An energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyser attached to the SEM was used to deter-mine the chemical composition of the clay body and also to analyse a small fragment of the glaze from ME 92006 that had been mounted in resin and prepared as a polished section.

Th e clay fabric

In his published excavation account Loft us commented that the coffi ns were made of “yellow clay, mixed with straw, and half-baked” [3; p. 205]. Examination of the coffi ns and of a small detached fragment from ME 92006 under a binoc-ular microscope confi rmed the pale yellow colour (Munsell 5Y 8/3), and the presence of a fair proportion of burnt-out organic temper, Figure 6. Examination of the thin section under the petrographic microscope revealed a relatively fi ne fabric, with an optically isotropic matrix containing

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[18]. Th e composition of the clays (Table 1) is comparable to those published for ceramics produced from Mesopota-mian alluvial clays – see, for example [19, 20]. Abundant chaff temper was added to the clay used for the coffi ns. Th is would have had the eff ect of opening the clay body of the coffi n, leading to more even drying and fi ring, and would have reduced shrinkage as the clay dried; it would prob-ably also have enhanced the wet strength of this exception-ally large object. Th e addition of chaff temper to alluvial clays from Mesopotamia has been reported elsewhere, for example by Matson in his discussion of the manufacture of glazed bricks at Babylon [19].

Techniques of construction

Before proceeding to review the present observations, it is appropriate next to consider observations on construc-tional techniques made by Aviam and Stern, who examined a series of 250 Roman pottery coffi ns recovered from exca-vations of second to fourth century ad tombs in western Galilee [21]. Th ey noted that these coffi ns had straight walls and fl at bases, and were assembled from fl at slabs of clay joined together when leather-hard. Th ey also suggested that the clay slabs were made in rectangular moulds, and that assembly of the sarcophagi was facilitated by the use of some sort of coffi n-shaped frame. While there are some superfi cial similarities between these Roman examples and the present group of coffi ns, it is immediately noticeable that the walls of the Parthian coffi ns are not straight and that these coffi ns have a generally less geometric and more rounded shape than the Roman examples. Th ese general diff erences extend to other aspects of construction and decoration, and refl ect fundamentally diff erent workshop traditions in the construction of the two groups of coffi ns.

Th e observations recorded here are based upon detailed examination of coffi n ME 92006, supported by comparative observations of the other specimens. Visual examination revealed evidence for numerous joins between the diff erent clay elements from which it was constructed. In some instances the joins are clearly defi ned, but others are more obscure and in some cases the observations are complicated by earlier conservation work. However, a tentative recon-struction of the overall approach adopted in the construc-tion of the coffi n has been attempted, Figure 7.

Th e bases of the coffi ns are essentially fl at and exami-nation suggests that in each case, the base was formed by laying down a series of large slabs, joining them edge-to-edge by squeezing together the soft clay, a technique whose origin extends back to some of the earliest pottery from west Asia [22]. Th e interior surfaces of the bases are fairly undulating. Loft us observed the “impressions of the reed-matting upon which it rested during the process of manufac-ture” [3; p. 205], but these are no longer visible as, in order to give them greater strength, the coffi ns were mounted on slate supports aft er they entered the Museum in the mid-nineteenth century.

figure 6. Photomicrograph of thin section of a fragment of coffi n ME 92006, showing abundant organic temper and inclusions of fi ne sand: plane polarized light, width of fi eld: c.4.5 mm

table 1. Composition of the glaze and body from coffi n ME 92006 and some comparative analyses

OxideGlaze analyses Body analyses

A B C D E F GSiO2 62.4 64.5 66.5 66 52 50* 55TiO2 0.2 n.a. 0.1 n.a. 1 n.a. 1Al2O3 2.8 2.6 2.6 4 12 16 12FeO 1.4 3.3 1.8 2 6 7 6MnO n.d. n.a. 0.03 n.a. n.a. n.a. <1MgO 4.5 2.8 4.0 4 6 6 6CaO 8.7 7.8 7.8 7 17 17 16Na2O 13.0 14.0 10.5 11 2 1.6 2K2O 4.1 5.1 4.7 4 1 1 1CuO 1.9 n.a. 1.4 <1 n.a. n.a. <0.1PbO n.d. n.d. 0.2 n.a. n.a. n.a. <0.1P2O5 0.3 n.a. 0.4 trace n.d. n.a. <0.1Cl 0.4 n.a. n.a. 1 n.d. n.a. n.a.SO2 0.4 n.a. n.a. 1 1 n.a. n.a.NotesAll data are given in weight percent oxide, normalized to 100%.n.a. = not analysed; n.d. = not detected* = silica by diff erenceSources of dataA: Present study, mean of four analysesB: Mason and Tite [38], mean of three pre-Islamic glazes C: Stapleton and Freestone [18], mean of 15 unpublished analyses of

Partho-Sasanian glazes from AksumD: Bartel et al. [39], mean of Parthian glazes from Assur E: Present study, mean of two analysesF: Hedges and Moorey [28], representative Parthian glaze composition G: Freestone and Stapleton [18], mean of three unpublished analyses of

Partho-Sasanian bodies from Aksum

common, angular silt to fi ne sand-sized particles (mainly quartz, with some feldspar and, occasionally, another mineral that may be pyroxene). Dark red-brown, almost opaque grains are also common in the silt/fi ne sand frac-tion. Voids left aft er the burning out of the vegetal temper, noticed in the hand specimen, were again observed under the microscope and, in some cases, seen to contain phyto-liths; the morphology of the phytoliths suggests that grass or cereal straw had been used as the organic temper [17].

Th e clay of the coffi n is rather similar to that used for some sherds of Sasanian pottery found at Aksum which were examined in thin section by Freestone and Stapleton

33


Observations suggest that the next stage in the construc-tion process would have been to form the walls along both sides and at the curved head of the coffi n. Th e fl atter foot of the coffi ns may also have been closed at this stage, thus giving additional support to the sides. Like the bases, the sides appear to have been formed from a series of slabs of clay, although in this instance they were more regu-larly shaped, being roughly square, with an edge length of c.15 cm, Figure 7a. Th ere is, however, no evidence to suggest that these slabs of clay were formed in moulds. Th e joins between the slabs were fi lled and strengthened using soft clay, and the seams between the bases and the sides were heavily reinforced by squeezing roughly sausage-shaped lumps of soft clay into the angle of the joins along the inte-rior. Finger impressions in this luting clay imply that this was carefully pressed in along the length of the coffi n, Figure 7b. It appears that the sides were raised to the level at which the walls were to curve over to form the top of the coffi n, and a clear join-line can be seen running along the length

of each of the coffi ns at this height. Th is perhaps indicates that the sides were left to dry partially and to acquire some rigidity before the next stage in construction, namely the closing of the ‘slipper’ along the top.

Th e top of the coffi n was again built up from slabs of clay, but these slabs were much smaller than those used for the base and sides. Th e interior surface of the top of the coffi n is rather irregular and undulating and was probably free-formed, rather than being shaped and supported by some sort of rigid former. Soft clay was again used to strengthen the joins between the slabs and the potter’s fi ngerprints can again sometimes be seen preserved in the soft luting clay. As construction of the top proceeded, access to the inte-rior would have become progressively more diffi cult. It is presumed that the D-shaped hole in the foot of the coffi n – measuring 7.5 × 12 cm – was cut at this stage, permit-ting access to the interior, for instance to reinforce the join between the foot and the top of the coffi n, Figure 7c. It is noticeable that the roughly horizontal join between the

figure 7. Schematic reconstruction showing details of: (a) slabs in the side wall; (b) a wall/base junction, showing luting; (c) the interior of the foot of the coffi n, showing luting; (d) applied fi gures, see Figure 8 for detail; (e) applied decoration around the opening at the head; and (f) glaze dribbles on interior of coffi n

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sides and the top of the coffi n was not heavily reinforced on the interior, probably because of the diffi culty of access.

Th e principal decoration was confi ned to the upper surface and was impressed into a layer of soft clay, up to 1 cm thick, which was applied along the top of the coffi n, Figure 7d. Th e main body of decoration was formed by the repeated application of a single rectangular die, measuring c.7.5 cm across and c.14.5 cm in length, to the panel of soft clay to form a repeating pattern, three across and fi ve deep. Th e face of this die was carved with a cut design which, when impressed into the wet clay of the coffi n, created a low-relief decoration showing a standing male fi gure wearing a short tunic and baggy trousers with a sword slung at his left side, his hands on his hips and his hair bunched at the sides and back, Figure 8. Th e same die appears to have been used on the lid and a second coffi n in the British Museum; a die of this type was recovered from the German excavations in this area of the site, although the details vary [23; Plate 42d]. Th is was the most common design on coffi ns from Warka (compare, for example, with [9; p. 32 and Plate 22, 24–26, 27; p. 195]), although Peters described fi nding two examples “ornamented in arabesques ... instead of human fi gures” [10; pp. 304–305]. Th e fi gural iconography on these stamps falls within the known repertoire of Parthian art, both monumental and miniature.

Secondary bands of clay were applied along the two long edges of the decorated panel and around the opening at the head of the coffi n, presumably with the ancillary purpose of reinforcing these areas. Th ese bands were decorated with crescent stamps and oblique impressions (each c.2.3 cm long) around the rim, Figure 7e. A low raised panel imme-diately below the open end of the coffi n was decorated with a lightly incised repeating feather or branch pattern. Details diff er on a second large coffi n (ME 92005): for instance,

this has criss-cross incised lines around the edge of the opening, the head is decorated with small circular impres-sions c.0.5 cm across and has a low raised and pinched band running along the lower walls immediately below the impressed panels.

Once these decorative elements had been completed, the coffi n was presumably left to dry to the leather-hard stage before the application of glaze and its transfer to the kiln for fi ring. Even aft er the coffi n had dried to the leather-hard stage and acquired some strength, this must have been a diffi cult and potentially hazardous operation.

Glazing the coffi n

Loft us commented on the fact that the “whole visible surface of the coffi n is covered with a thick glazing of rich green enamel on the exterior, and of blue within the aper-ture, the former colour probably arising from chemical decomposition and long exposure” [3; p. 203]. Glaze was applied to the upper surfaces, presumably as a liquid slurry rather than as a dry powder; there is also some glaze on the exterior of the side walls but this is incomplete. Glaze was applied to the interior, but only in the area immediately visible through the opening via which the body would have been introduced into the coffi n. Observation of this area is particularly informative as numerous runs of glaze can be seen extending towards the foot of the coffi n (Figure 7f); this feature recurs on the other coffi ns examined and carries signifi cant implications for the fi ring of the coffi ns.

Th e eff ects of weathering on the glaze were observed in the polished thin section of glaze examined in the SEM, but suffi cient well-preserved glaze remained in the sample to permit a quantitative estimate of its composition to be made

figure 8. Detail of the stamp impression on coffi n ME 92006

35


using EDX analysis in the SEM (Table 1 column A). Th ese analyses showed that the glaze on coffi n ME 92006 is of a soda-lime-silica composition, with copper as the colorant. Th ere are relatively few published analyses of Parthian glaze materials, but the glaze from this coffi n falls clearly within the Partho-Sasanian tradition of unleaded alkaline glazes [28, 29]; see also Table 1, columns B to D, in which some published and unpublished comparative analyses are listed. Th e relatively high levels of potash and magnesia in these glazes suggest that plant ash was used as the fl ux.

Firing the coffi n

Th e type of kiln used in the production of these glazed coffi ns remains uncertain. Th e slipper-coffi n shape of an eroded kiln found at Mashkan-shapir was interpreted as evidence that coffi ns of this type at this site were fi red hori-zontally and presumably one at a time [8; p. 65 and Figure 32]. Certainly, simple updraught kilns are thought to have been used to fi re plain and glazed ceramic vessels during this period and it is likely that a similar type of kiln was

employed in the manufacture of these coffi ns. However, close examination of the glazed areas on the coffi ns under discussion shows pooling of the glaze on the upper interior beneath the overhanging rim and runs of glaze down the interior, Figure 7f. Similar traces can be seen on illustrations of coffi ns in other collections [27; p. 195]. Th is evidence clearly indicates that at least some of these coffi ns were fi red in a vertical position.

Th e isotropic nature of the fi ne matrix, observed under the petrographic microscope, suggests that the fi ring temperature was suffi ciently high to vitrify the fabric. Th is inference was confi rmed by SEM examination, which showed that the matrix is very fragmented, but contains regions of glassy, bloated material, Figure 9. EDX analysis showed that the clay fabric is calcium-rich (Table 1, column E), and typical of other Partho-Sasanian glazed ceramics (Table 1, columns F and G). Th ese textural observations, coupled with the compositional information, suggest that the coffi n was fi red at a temperature in the range 850 to 1050°C [30]; in addition, Matson recorded that rather similar calcareous clays from the banks of the Euphrates fi red to a yellow body colour at temperatures in excess of 900°C [31]. Th e rather fragmented texture seen in the SEM, and the friable nature of the fabric are probably attributable to the eff ects of weathering during burial.

Despite the large size of the coffi ns, the fi ring appears to have been fairly even and the fabric is fully oxidized, with the abundant chaff temper being totally burned out. It is possible that this was due, at least in part, to the placement of the coffi ns in a vertical position. In this orientation the hollow coffi n, with an orifi ce at each end, may have acted rather like a chimney, channelling some of the heated air through the interior, leading to a more thorough and even fi ring. It seems likely that coffi ns would have been fi red in batches in order to minimize the use of fuel.

Usage of the coffi ns

Th e coffi ns were now fi nished and ready for use but, because of their overall size and shape, they would still have been diffi cult to handle and easily broken. Th is perhaps suggests that these Parthian coffi ns were made locally to where they were to be used. In contrast, petrographic analyses of some Roman coffi ns found in Galilee that were reported as having ‘strongly vitrifi ed’ bodies suggest that these coffi ns were suffi ciently robust to have been shipped to this region from Cyprus or Turkey [32].

CONCLUSIONS

Th is examination of several glazed ‘slipper coffi ns’ from Warka has revealed some of the techniques used by the Parthian ceramic coffi n-makers. Th e particular skills (and confi dence) required to manufacture, decorate and fi re

figure 9. SEM photomicrographs (back-scattered electron images) of a polished section of the clay fabric of coffi n ME 92006: (a) the burned-out remains of the vegetal temper are clearly visible (elongated and dark grey), together with silty grains of quartz and feldspar (mid-grey): width of fi eld: c.8 mm; (b) the rather fragmented matrix includes vitrifi ed and bloated regions: width of fi eld: c.500 μm

aa

bb

36


these spectacularly large objects appear to have been devel-oped by potters who were familiar with the use of chaff -tempered clays and the production of slab-built vessels. Th ey were also aware of the use of alkaline glazes, long used in Mesopotamia. Equipped with these technical skills they were able to form, glaze and fi re the coffi ns. Th e weight of these particular coffi ns is not known but it is instructive to note that Roman clay coffi ns found in northern Israel were reported to weigh on average 100 kg [21]. Handling such objects, particularly in the unfi red state, must have required considerable care.

Th ese are not, however, the earliest pottery coffi ns. Other versions were manufactured in Mesopotamia, Syro-Palestine and southern Anatolia at various periods from the second half of the second millennium bc to the third century ad. Th e form and decoration of these included ‘Egyptianized’ anthropoid sarcophagi that were favoured in southern Palestine during the Late Bronze Age and recurred in southern Mesopotamia and south west Iran during the Achaemenid or Seleucid period [6; pp. 251–252 (vol. I); Plate 87c (vol. II)]. Deep ‘bath-tub’ coffi ns, oft en decorated with simple rope cordons around the exterior and fi tted with handles at either end, were popular in Mesopotamia from the Late Assyrian to the Achaemenid periods, and are found also in Palestine, Jordan and the Persian Gulf. Th ese coffi ns were originally fi tted with wooden lids, but sheet-metal versions are also known [33]. During the Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid periods, shallower ‘trough’ coffi ns were also manufactured [34]; this type continued as late as the early Sasanian period judging by single exam-ples excavated at Tell Nebi Ismail and Nuzi [35; p. 177, 36; p. 548]. During the second and fi rst centuries bc, versions of these coffi ns were decorated in low relief and sometimes covered in blue glaze; similar coffi ns continued to be manu-factured and used in south west Iran during the fi rst and second centuries ad [37; pp. 189–190].

Th e innovation of the Parthian potters of lower Mesopo-tamia was to modify the shape of these coffi ns in order to make the distinctive ‘slipper’ form. Despite the absence of relevant written sources or direct workshop evidence, it is likely that specialized potters were responsible at diff erent periods for the manufacture of fi red clay coffi ns. Familiarity with the properties and strength of clay, and the necessary methods of building, handling and fi ring gained through experience of building large storage jars, probably contrib-uted towards the successful production and long-term conservatism of making clay coffi ns. As such, these remark-able objects are a testimony to the skill of these potters.

AUTHORS

Andrew Middleton ([email protected]) is an emer-itus researcher and Antony Simpson ([email protected]) a scientist, both in the Department of Conservation and Scientifi c Research. St John Simpson ([email protected]) is a curator in the Department of the Middle East at the British Museum.

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and land use on the central fl oodplain of the Euphrates, University of Chicago Press, Chicago (1981) 257, 273, 280, 292.

17. Rosen, A., ‘Phytolith evidence for early cereal exploitation in the Levant. Current research in phytolith analysis: applications in archaeology and paleoecology’, in MASCA Research Papers in Science and Archaeology 10, ed. D.M. Pearsall and D.R. Piperno, University Museum of Archaeology an Anthropology, Philadel-phia (1993) 161–170.

18. Freestone, I.C. and Stapleton, C., Report on the scientifi c exami-nation of glazed pottery from Aksum, Department of Scien-tifi c Research File No. 6870, British Museum 25 March 1997 (unpublished).

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NOTE

1. Th e four pages in reference 16 correspond to Nippur Survey sites 667, 1115, 1306 and 1628 respectively.

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