166 PHILIPS TECHNICAL REVIEW Vol. 5, No. 6

With this example we wished to illustrate howdifferences in technological properties of alloysteated in different ways can be reduced to dif-ferences in internal structure. In doing this we havewandered somewhat from the validity of the thesiswhich was stated at the beginning of this paper:that the diffraction method can be successfullyapplied, even without a deeper knowledge of the

crystallographic foundations of the science ofstructure. We hope, nevertheless, that it will ha veappeared from the series of applications heresummed up that the sphere in which our thesisholds is sufficiently extensive to insure diffractionanalysis an important position among the researchmethods with technical applica tion.

TECHNICAL PHOTOMETRY OF GAS-DISCHARGE LAMPS

by P. J. ORANJE.· 535.24 : 621.327.4

In order to control the manufacture of gas-discharge lamps an apparatus was designed whichmakes it possible to carry out measurements on gas-discharge Iarnps in a reliable, rapidand inexpensive manner with an accuracy of 3 per cent in the light flux. The apparatusconsists of 18 photometers whi.ch can be read from a central point. The time necessaryto heat up the gas-discharge lamp in the photometer can he used to measure lamps in

other photometers.

When it is a question of measuring large num-bers of sources of coloured light daily in the controlof the manufacture of gas-discharge lamps, in ad-dition to the problems which occur in the photom-etry of sources of coloured light in generall ),there arc also practical difficulties. After an expla-nation of these points we shall in this article discusshow the light flux of gas-discharge lamps is deter-

1) See: Physical Photometry, Philips techno Rev. 4, 260,1939; The Photometry of Metal vapour lamps. Philipstechno Rev. 1, 120, 1936.

mined in a technical way in the control laboratoryof the Philips factories.

Statement of the problem

In contrast to .a research laboratory a controlIaboratory in general carries out measurementson only a limited number of types of lamps. As arule, however, a large number of lamps of the sametype must be measurcd successively. The light fluxof these lamps must he known under conditionssuch as occur in practical use. One does not deter-

Fig. 1. Two small portable integrating spheres, photographed in different positions.

JUNE 1940 TECHNICAL PHOTOMETRY OF GAS-DISCHARGE LAMPS

mine therefore (as is often done in scientific re-search) the light flux for a definite current or for adefinite power of the lamp, but the light flux whichoccurs when the lamp is connected to a certain,accurately known apparatus in series on a main ofa certain voltage, and when it has been in eperationlong enough to have reached the state occurringin permanent operation. This heating time for gas-discharge lamps may amount to from 15 to 30 min.It is chiefly this long time for heating up which is

experienced as a difficulty in control measurementsof gas-discharge lamps. If the lamp is allowed toburn in the photometer during the whole time ofheating up, the photometer is "occupied" muchlonger for every measurement than is necessaryfor the measurement itself. If, however, the lampis not inside the photometer while heating up,then for every measurement either the lamp to bemeasured must be moved to the photometer or thephotometcr to the lamp, which involves difficultieswhich will be explained in the following.Against the moving of the lamp the following

points may be advanced:

1) Shocks, which easily occur during the trans-portation of the lamp, may cause the light flux ofsome kinds of gas-discharge lamps to change. Par-ticularly in the case of sodium lamps a displacementof the liquid sodium in the lamp may lead to apermanent change in the light flux.

2) Some ga,s-discharge lamps (especially mercurylamps) do not reignite immediately after an in-terruption ofthe supply voltage, so that the currentmay not be interrupted during the transport fromthe rack where the lamp burns to the measuringtable. This involves great complication of theinstallation with much chance of poor contacts,wear and tear, etc.

The objections to the moving of the photometerto the lamp are more serious than those to themoving of the lamp to the photometer:

1) In connection with the requirement that themeasurement must take place rapidly, it is desirablethat an objective measurement with the help of alight-sensitive element should be carried out. Thismeans, however, that the apparatus contains very"delicate components. Due to shocks or jars the

Fig. 2. Row of nine photometer chambers intended for routine measurements of gas-dis-charge lamps. The whole installation consists of two such rows.

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PHILlPS TECHNICAL REVIEW Vol. 5, No. 6

element can be slightly displaced or damaged, thecontacts mayalso suffer, etc.2) The sphere of a transportable photometer

must he small (seefig. 1). This means that the resultis no true measure of the light flux, but also dependsupon the light distribution of the lamp, so that forinstance slight deviations in the shape of the lampor socket, imperfect centering of the lamp, etc.may have considerable influence on the results ofthe measurement. Moreover during the measure-ment the small sphere becomes appreciably warm,which may have a noticeable effect upon the reflec-tive properties ofthe internal surface and upon thesensitivity of the photo-element. Experience hasshown that, due to these influences, even with dailycalibration it is practically impossible to reach agreater accuracy than about 8 per cent with aportable photometer sphere.

In order to avoid the objections mentioned, inthe installation to be described below a largenumber of photometers were set up side by side,so that the lamp can heat up in the photometersphere itself, and neither the measuring apparatus'nor the lamp need be moved. In order to facilitatethe measurement the installation was so arrangedthat the results can be read off at a central point.Before proceeding with the technical execution ofthe installation we shall first discuss how the prob-lems which are inherent in heterochromic photom-etry were solved in this special case.

Principle of the photometric method employed

As stated, the light flux of the lamp to be meas-ured is determined with the help of an integratingphotometer. In this photometer is a screen whosebrightness is measured by means of a photo-element. The ratio between this brightness and thelight flux of the lamp to be measured is determinedby calibrating the photometer with a standard lampwith known light flux.If the spectral composition of the light of the

comparison lamp deviates from that of the gas-discharge lamps to be measured, the ratio of thephotocurrents which are obtained with these twolamps is only a measure of the ratio of the lightfluxes when the spectral sen itivity curve of thelight sensitive element corresponds to the inter-national eye-sensitivity curve. Two measures aretherefore taken.

Firstly a highly sensitive element is used whosespectral sensitivity is to some extent adapted tothat of the eye 2). Secondly the deviations, whichoccur due to the fact that the correspon dencebetween the spectral sensitivity of the photo-

element and of the eye is not perfect, - togetherwith other errors which may occur in the measure-ment with a photometer sphere - are considerablyreduced by using the installation only for the com-parison of lamps of the same type. The colour adap-tation of the photo-element need therefore onlybe carried so far that the colour differences betweenindividual gas-discharge lamps of the same sort donot cause any noticeable error.

Fig. 3. An opened photometer-chamber. Through the bulb ofthe electric lamp may he seen a socket, to the left on the wall asecond socket for the gas-discharge lamp to be measured. Thelatter contains a sodium lamp. Below the chamber to the leftthe switchboard by which various apparatus may be connectedin series; in this case the apparatus for the sodium lampSO 1000. In the middle the switches for tbe electric lamp andlamp to be measured, on the right the time relay. Below thevarious series of apparatus for different types of gas-dischargelamps.

2) According to Dresler such ft photo-element can berealized by ft selenium barrier-layer cell and several filtersplaced side by side slightly overlapping in front of the cell.By changing the regions which are covered by one or morefilters, the spectral distribution of the sensitivity can begiven the desired character. See for instance A. Dresler,Das Licht 3, 41, 1933; .T. Rieck, Das Licht 7, 115, 137and 157, 1937.

.JUNE 1940 TECHNICAL PHOTOMETRY OF GAS-DISCHARGE LAMPS

Construction of the installation

The installation is composed of 18 integratingphotometers. For the sake of simplicity they arenot spherical as is common, but cubic (edge 0.9 m)and placed in two rows of 9 "back to back". Fig, 2gives a view of the installation. The part below theswitches contains a number of accurately knownapparatus to be connected in series, while the partabove the switches forms the photometer chamberproper. In fig. 3 one of the photometers may beseen open. On the upper surface of the photometerchamber there is an electric lamp which serves forcontrol of the photometer, which process will bediscussed later. Behind this lamp and on one of theside walls two lamp sockets are mounted and con-nected in parallel, so that it is possible to let thelamp to be measured burn either in a horizontal or

a vertical position. Between these lamp sockets andthe supply mains, by means of a special plug-incontact in the switchboard below the photometer,anyone of the above mentioned apparatus can beconnected in series. Upon shutting the door thecircuit in which the lamp is included is closed,while the contacts are always free of tension whenthe door is open.

In the upper and lower planes of the photometerstrips of perforated metal have been set in. At theback of the chamber is the photo-element, whichis shielded in the usual way from direct light.

By means of two rotating switches all the con-nections of every photometer can be switched overto the central measuring table which is shown infig. 4. One exception is the connection for the currentof the photo-element. In order to avoid disturbanceswhich may easily occur at the very low voltages

Fig. 4-, Measuring table of the installation. The vertically placed instrurnents measurethe mains voltage anel the current (when a transformer is used, primary and secondaryseparately). The instruments placed obliquely on the table measure the tot.al power. Theleft-hand horizontal meter measures the photo-current, the right-hand one the voltageon the contacts of the lamp. To the right on the table may be seen the handles of the ro-tating switches, each of which serves part of the photometer cabinets. To the left on thetable a series of switches for the photo-elements of the different photometer chambers.Above the meters are the neon lamps which glow when the heating time of the corre-sponding lamp. has ended ..

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170 PHILlPS TECHNICAL REVIEW Vol. 5, No. 6

of barrier-layer' photo-elements, this connectionis by mea~s of a separate cable to a separate switch-board on the measuring table.

When the door ofthe photometer is shutu timerelay (see fig. 3, to the right below the photometer)is switched on, and .after a previously chosen lengthof time it lights a numbered neon lamp on themeasuring table. This is the sign to the operatorthat the lamp has burned long enough for the meas-urements to begin. On the other hand the operatorat the measuring table can signal back to the 'personworking at the .photometer that the lamp has beenmeasured.

A measurement proceeds as f~llows. A calibratedlamp of the type to be tested is first placed in ithephotometér. The time relay is set at the necessaryheating time, and the door is shut. As soon as the 'neon lamp of the' photometer chamber in questionignites at the measuring table, the operator theredetermines the photo-current, then switches off thegas~discharge lamp and switches on the electriclamp and again determines the photo-current. Fromthe' -relation between these. two photo-currents theapparent light flux of the electric lamp can be cal-.culated. ..After this calibration" of the photometer chamber

th~ calib~ated gas-discharge lamp' is replacedby the similar gas-discharge Ianip which is to bemeasured, and this :is measu~ed with the electriclamp as standard lamp. The installation is bestoperated by two persons: one éhanges the lamps andthe other does the measure~ent.'The light flux of the electric lamp found will in'

general differ slightly from the tr'll:e light flux, be-

cause the colour adaptation of the photocell is notperfect. This is, however, of no importance sincethe error is exactly compensated when the electriclamp' is subsequently used as standard lamp forthe measurement of a series of gas-discharge lampsof the same type. In principle the electriclamp couldbe omitted and the gas-diecharge lamp compareddirectly with the calibrated model. The introduetionofthe electric lamp, however, has the advantage thatthis light source" which is permanently available,'very constant and rapidly put 'into action, makes iteasy by means of occasional checks, to take intoaccount any 'change in the sensitivity .of the.photometer, so that the calibration of the photom-eter need not be repeated for several weeks at a time.As already stated, thanks to the fact that com-

parative measurements are carried out exclusivelyon a single type of lamp, the influence of numeroussources of error (selective reflection of the innerwall, irregular distribution of the light radiationin different directions, difference between die sen-sitivity curve of photo-element and the eye, castingof shadows by the lamp, etc.) is reduced to a min-imum. The accuracy attained, which may be esti-mated to be within 3 per cent, may indeed be con-sidered high for routine measurements .The capacity of the installation depends' upon

the nature of the lamps to' be measured and isdetermined chiefly by the time for heating.v-Forexample about 75 HP-lamps (small air-cooledmercury lamps) can be measured per hour, whilefor.sodiu'm lamps the number is much smaller, sincesodium- lamps must cool in the photometer afterthe measurement until the sodium has solidified.

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VIEW OF A PART OF THE INDUSTRIAL PLANT OF N.V. PHILIPS' GLOEI.LAMPENFABRIEKEN, EINDHOVEN