Technical notes - WTO
Transcript of Technical notes - WTO
Technical notesComposition of regions and other economic groupingsRegionsnorth America Bermuda Canada* Mexico* UnitedStatesof
America*
Otherterritoriesintheregionnotelsewherespecified(n.e.s.)
south and Central America and the Caribbean AntiguaandBarbuda* Chile* ElSalvador* NetherlandsAntilles SaintVincentandthe
Grenadines*
Argentina* Colombia* Grenada* Nicaragua* Suriname*
Bahamas** CostaRica* Guatemala* Panama* TrinidadandTobago*
Barbados* Cuba* Guyana* Paraguay* Uruguay*
Belize* Dominica* Haiti* Peru* BolivarianRep.ofVenezuela*
Bolivia,PlurinationalStateof*
DominicanRepublic* Honduras* SaintKittsandNevis*
Brazil* Ecuador* Jamaica* SaintLucia*
Otherterritoriesintheregionn.e.s.
europe Andorra** Denmark* Iceland* Montenegro** Slovenia*
Austria* Estonia* Ireland* Netherlands* Spain*
Belgium* Finland* Italy* Norway* Sweden*
BosniaandHerzegovina**
France* Latvia* Poland* Switzerland*
Bulgaria* FYRMacedonia* Liechtenstein* Portugal* Turkey*
Croatia* Germany* Lithuania* Romania* UnitedKingdom*
Cyprus* Greece* Luxembourg* Serbia**
CzechRepublic* Hungary* Malta* SlovakRepublic*
Otherterritoriesintheregionn.e.s.
Commonwealth of Independent states (CIs) a Armenia* Georgiaa Moldova* Turkmenistan
Azerbaijan** Kazakhstan** RussianFederation** Ukraine*
Belarus** KyrgyzRepublic* Tajikistan** Uzbekistan**
Otherterritoriesintheregionn.e.s.
Africa Algeria** Congo* Guinea* Morocco* SouthAfrica*
Angola* Côted’Ivoire* Guinea-Bissau* Mozambique* Sudan**
Benin* Dem.Rep.oftheCongo*
Kenya* Namibia* Swaziland*
Botswana* Djibouti* Lesotho* Niger* Tanzania*
BurkinaFaso* Egypt* Liberia** Nigeria* Togo*
Burundi* EquatorialGuinea** LibyanArabJamahiriya** Rwanda* Tunisia*
Cameroon* Eritrea Madagascar* SãoToméandPríncipe** Uganda*
CapeVerde* Ethiopia** Malawi* Senegal* Zambia*
CentralAfricanRepublic* Gabon* Mali* Seychelles** Zimbabwe*
Chad* Gambia* Mauritania* SierraLeone*
Comoros** Ghana* Mauritius* Somalia
Otherterritoriesintheregionn.e.s.
middle east Bahrain* Israel* LebaneseRepublic** SaudiArabia,Kingdomof* Yemen**
Iran,IslamicRep.of** Jordan* Oman* SyrianArabRepublic
Iraq** Kuwait* Qatar* UnitedArabEmirates*
Otherterritoriesintheregionn.e.s.
Asia Afghanistan** HongKong,China* Malaysia* PapuaNewGuinea* TimorLeste
Australia* India* Maldives* Philippines* Tonga*
Bangladesh* Indonesia* Mongolia* Samoa** Tuvalu
* WTOmembers** Observergovernmentsa GeorgiaisnotamemberoftheCommonwealthofIndependentStatesbutisincludedinthisgroupforreasonsofgeographyandsimilarities
ineconomicstructure.239
teCHnICAL notes
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Composition of regions and other economic groupingsRegionsBhutan** Japan* Myanmar* Singapore* Vanuatu**
BruneiDarussalam* Kiribati Nepal* SolomonIslands* VietNam*
Cambodia* Korea,Republicof* NewZealand* SriLanka*
China* LaoPeople'sDem.Rep.**
Pakistan* Taipei,Chinese*
Fiji* Macao,China* Palau Thailand*
Otherterritoriesintheregionn.e.s.
OtherGroupsACP (African, Caribbean and Pacific countries)Angola Cuba Haiti Niger SouthAfrica
AntiguaandBarbuda Dem.Rep.oftheCongo
Jamaica Nigeria Sudan
Bahamas Djibouti Kenya Niue Suriname
Barbados Dominica Kiribati Palau Swaziland
Belize DominicanRepublic Lesotho PapuaNewGuinea TimorLeste
Benin EquatorialGuinea Liberia Rwanda Togo
Botswana Eritrea Madagascar SaintKittsandNevis Tonga
BurkinaFaso Ethiopia Malawi SaintLucia TrinidadandTobago
Burundi Fiji Mali SaintVincentandtheGrenadines
Tuvalu
Cameroon Gabon MarshallIslands Samoa Uganda
CentralAfricanRepublic
Gambia Mauritania SãoToméandPríncipe UnitedRepublicofTanzania
Chad Ghana Mauritius Senegal Vanuatu
Comoros Grenada Micronesia Seychelles Zambia
Congo Guinea Mozambique SierraLeone Zimbabwe
CookIslands Guinea-Bissau Namibia SolomonIslands
Côted’Ivoire Guyana Nauru Somalia
AfricaNorth Africa
Algeria Egypt LibyanArabJamahiriya Morocco Tunisia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Western Africa Benin Gambia Guinea-Bissau Mauritania Senegal
BurkinaFaso Ghana Liberia Niger SierraLeone
CapeVerde Guinea Mali Nigeria Togo
Côted’Ivoire
Central Africa
Burundi CentralAfricanRepublic
Congo EquatorialGuinea Rwanda
Cameroon Chad Dem.Rep.oftheCongo Gabon SãoToméandPríncipe
Eastern Africa
Comoros Ethiopia Mauritius Somalia UnitedRepublicofTanzania
Djibouti Kenya Seychelles Sudan Uganda
Eritrea Madagascar
Southern Africa
Angola Lesotho Mozambique SouthAfrica Zambia
Botswana Malawi Namibia Swaziland Zimbabwe
TerritoriesinAfricanotelsewherespecified
AsiaEast Asia (including Oceania)
Australia Indonesia Mongolia Samoa Tuvalu
BruneiDarussalam Japan Myanmar Singapore Vanuatu
Cambodia Kiribati NewZealand SolomonIslands VietNam
China LaoPeople’sDem.Rep. PapuaNewGuinea Taipei,Chinese
Fiji Macao,China Philippines Thailand
HongKong,China Malaysia Korea,Republicof Tonga
West Asia
Afghanistan Bhutan Maldives Pakistan SriLanka
Bangladesh India Nepal
OthercountriesandterritoriesinAsiaandthePacificnotelsewherespecified
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teCHnICAL notes
Composition of regions and other economic groupingsOtherGroupsLDCs (Least-developed countries) Afghanistan Comoros Kiribati Myanmar Sudan
Angola Congo,Dem.Rep.of LaoPeople’sDem.Rep. Nepal TimorLeste
Bangladesh Djibouti Lesotho Niger Togo
Benin EquatorialGuinea Liberia Rwanda Tuvalu
Bhutan Eritrea Madagascar Samoa Uganda
BurkinaFaso Ethiopia Malawi SãoToméandPríncipe UnitedRepublicofTanzania
Burundi Gambia Maldives Senegal Vanuatu
Cambodia Guinea Mali SierraLeone Yemen
CentralAfricanRepublic
Guinea-Bissau Mauritania SolomonIslands Zambia
Chad Haiti Mozambique Somalia
six east Asian tradersHongKong,China Korea,Republicof Singapore Taipei,Chinese Thailand
Malaysia
RegionalIntegrationAgreementsAndean Community (CAn) Bolivia,PlurinationalStateof
Colombia Ecuador Peru
AseAn (Association of south east Asian nations) / AFtA (AseAn Free trade Area) BruneiDarussalam Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Thailand
Cambodia LaoPeople'sDem.Rep. Myanmar Singapore VietNam
CACm (Central American Common market) CostaRica ElSalvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua
CARICom (Caribbean Community and Common market) AntiguaandBarbuda Belize Guyana Montserrat SaintVincentandthe
Grenadines
Bahamas Dominica Haiti SaintKittsandNevis Suriname
Barbados Grenada Jamaica SaintLucia TrinidadandTobago
CemAC (economic and monetary Community of Central Africa) Cameroon Chad Congo EquatorialGuinea Gabon
CentralAfricanRepublic
ComesA (Common market for eastern and southern Africa) Burundi Egypt LibyanArabJamahiriya Rwanda Uganda
Comoros Eritrea Madagascar Seychelles Zambia
Congo,Dem.Rep.of Ethiopia Malawi Sudan Zimbabwe
Djibouti Kenya Mauritius Swaziland
eCCAs (economic Community of Central African states) Angola CentralAfrican
RepublicDem.Rep.oftheCongo
Gabon SãoToméandPríncipe
Burundi Chad EquatorialGuinea Rwanda
Cameroon Congo
eCoWAs (economic Community of West African states) Benin Côted'Ivoire Guinea Mali Senegal
BurkinaFaso Gambia Guinea-Bissau Niger SierraLeone
CapeVerde Ghana Liberia Nigeria Togo
eFtA (european Free trade Association) Iceland Liechtenstein Norway Switzerland
european union (27) Austria Estonia Ireland Netherlands Spain
Belgium Finland Italy Poland Sweden
Bulgaria France Latvia Portugal UnitedKingdom
Cyprus Germany Lithuania Romania
CzechRepublic Greece Luxembourg SlovakRepublic
Denmark Hungary Malta Slovenia
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Composition of regions and other economic groupingsRegionalIntegrationAgreementsGCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) Bahrain,Kingdomof Oman Qatar SaudiArabia,Kingdomof UnitedArabEmirates
Kuwait
meRCosuR (southern Common market) Argentina Brazil Paraguay Uruguay
nAFtA (north American Free trade Agreement) Canada Mexico UnitedStates
sAPtA (south Asian Preferential trade Arrangement) Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan SriLanka
Bhutan Maldives
sADC (southern African Development Community) Angola Lesotho Mauritius SouthAfrica Zambia
Botswana Madagascar Mozambique Swaziland Zimbabwe
Congo,Dem.Rep.of Malawi Namibia UnitedRepublicofTanzania
WAemu (West African economic and monetary union) Benin Côted'Ivoire Mali Senegal Togo
BurkinaFaso Guinea-Bissau Niger
WTOmembersarefrequentlyreferredtoas“countries”,althoughsomemembersarenotcountriesintheusualsenseofthewordbut are officially “customs territories”. The definition ofgeographical and other groupings in this report does not implyan expression of opinion by the Secretariat concerning thestatusofanycountryorterritory,thedelimitationofitsfrontiers,northerightsandobligationsofanyWTOmemberinrespectofWTO agreements. The colours, boundaries, denominations andclassificationsinthemapsofthepublicationdonotimply,onthepartof theWTO,any judgementon the legalorotherstatusofanyterritory,oranyendorsementoracceptanceofanyboundary.
Throughout this report, South and Central America and theCaribbean is referred to as South and Central America. TheBolivarian Republic of Venezuela; Hong Kong SpecialAdministrativeRegionofChina; theRepublicofKorea; and theSeparate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen andMatsu are referenced as Bolivarian Rep. of Venezuela; HongKong,China;Korea,Republicof;andTaipei,Chineserespectively.
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abbreviations and symbolsACP African,CaribbeanandPacificGroupofStatesADB AsianDevelopmentBankAFAS ASEANFrameworkAgreementonServicesAFTA ASEANFreeTradeAreaAGOA AfricanGrowthandOpportunityActALADI LatinAmericanIntegrationAssociationALALC LatinAmericanAssociationofFreeCommerceAMU ArabMaghrebUnionAPEC AsiaPacificEconomicCooperationAPTA AsiaPacificTradeAgreementASEAN AssociationofSoutheastAsianNationsATC AgreementonTextilesandClothingAVE ad valoremequivalentBEC broadeconomiccategoriesBITs bilateralinvestmenttreatiesBOP balanceofpaymentCACM CentralAmericanCommonMarketCAFTA CentralAmericanFreeTradeAreaCAN ANDEANCommunityCARICOM CaribbeanCommunityandCommonMarketCBTPA CaribbeanBasinTradePartnershipActCBERA CaribbeanBasinEconomicRecoveryActCEFTA CentralEuropeanFreeTradeAreaCEPA CloserEconomicPartnershipArrangementsCER CloserEconomicRelationsCGE computablegeneralequilibriumCIS CommonwealthofIndependentStatesCOMECON CouncilforMutualEconomicAssistanceCOMESA CommonMarketforEasternandSouthernAfricaCRTA CommitteeonRegionalTradeAgreementsCTC changeintariffclassificationCUs customsunionsCUSFTA Canada-UnitedStatesFreeTradeAgreementDDA DohaDevelopmentAgendaDR-CAFTA DominicanRepublic-CentralAmericanFreeTradeAgreementDSU DisputeSettlementUnderstandingEAC EastAfricanCommunityECA EconomicCommissionforAfricaECCAS EconomicCommunityofCentralAfricanStatesECO EconomicCo-operationOrganizationECOWAS EconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStatesECSC EuropeanCoalandSteelCommunityEEA EuropeanEconomicAreaEEC EuropeanEconomicCommunityEFTA EuropeanFreeTradeAgreementEIA EconomicIntegrationAgreementEPA EconomicPartnershipAgreementEU EuropeanUnionFDI foreigndirectinvestmentf.o.b. freeonboardFTAA FreeTradeAreaoftheAmericasFTAs freetradeagreementsGATS GeneralAgreementonTradeinServicesGATT GeneralAgreementonTariffsandTradeGCC GulfCooperationCouncilGDP grossdomesticproductGPA GovernmentProcurementAgreementGSP GeneralizedSystemofPreferencesGSTP GlobalSystemofTradePreferencesHS HarmonizedSystemIDB Inter-AmericanDevelopmentBankIMF InternationalMonetaryFundIPRs intellectualpropertyrightsITA InformationTechnologyAgreementITC InternationalTradeCentreITO InternationalTradeOrganizationJETRO JapanExternalTradeOrganization
ABBRevIAtIons AnD symBoLs
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LAIA LatinAmericanIntegrationAgreementLDCs least-developedcountriesLPA LagosPlanofActionMERCOSUR SouthernCommonMarketMFN most-favourednationMNC multi-nationalcorporationMTS multilateraltradingsystemNAFTA NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreementNT nationaltreatmentOAU OrganizationofAfricanUnityPAFTA Pan-ArabFreeTradeAreaPECS Pan-EuropeanCumulationSystemPM preferencemarginPSA partialscopeagreementPTAs preferentialtradeagreementsPUR preferenceutilizationrateRCA revealedcomparativeadvantageREC regionaleconomiccommunityRIA regionalintegrationarrangementRoOs rulesoforiginRoW restoftheworldRPM relativepreferencemarginRTAA ReciprocalTradeAgreementActSACU SouthernAfricaCustomsUnionSADC SouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunitySAFTA SouthAsianFreeTradeAreaSAPP SouthernAfricanPowerPoolSITC StandardInternationalTradeClassificationSMEs smallandmedium-sizedenterprisesSPS sanitaryandphytosanitaryTBTs technicalbarrierstotradeTPP Trans-PacificStrategicEconomicPartnershipTRIMs trade-relatedinvestmentmeasuresTRIPS trade-relatedaspectsofintellectualpropertyrightsUNCTAD UnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopmentUS UnitedStatesVC valuecontentVCLT ViennaConventionontheLawoftheTreatiesWITS WorldIntegratedTradeSystem
Thefollowingsymbolsareusedinthispublication:… notavailable0 figureiszeroorbecamezeroduetorounding- notapplicableUS$ UnitedStatesdollars€ euro£ UKpound
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LIst oF FIGuRes, tABLes, Boxes AnD mAPs
list of figures, tables, boxes and mapsI Worldtradein2010
Figures
Figure1 GrowthinvolumeofworldmerchandisetradeandGDP,2000-10 20
Figure2 Volumeofworldmerchandisetrade,1990-2010 21
Figure3 RatioofworldexportsofgoodsandcommercialservicestoGDP,1980-2010 25
Figure4 Worldexportsofmanufacturedgoodsbyproduct,2007-10 27
Figure5 Nominaldollarexchangerates,January2000-February2011 29
Tables
Table1 GDPandmerchandisetradebyregion,2007-10 22
Table2 Exportpricesofselectedprimaryproducts,2000-10 23
Table3 Worldexportsofmerchandiseandcommercialservices,2005-10 24
Table4 Exportsofautomotiveproductsbymajorexportingregions,2008-10 27
Appendix figure
App.Fig.1 Monthlymerchandiseexportsandimportsofselectedeconomies,January2006-January2011 37
Appendix tables
App.Table1 Worldmerchandisetradebyregionandselectedeconomies,2010 31
App.Table2 Worldexportsofcommercialservicesbyregionandselectedcountry,2010 32
App.Table3 Merchandisetrade:leadingexportersandimporters,2010 33
App.Table4 Merchandisetrade:leadingexportersandimporters(excludingintra-EU(27)trade),2010 34
App.Table5 Leadingexportersandimportersinworldtradeincommercialservices,2010 35
App.Table6 Leadingexportersandimportersofcommercialservicesexcludingintra-EU(27)trade,2010 36
II TheWTOandPreferentialTradeAgreements:Fromco-existencetocoherence
B. Historicalbackgroundandcurrenttrends
Figures
FigureB.1 CumulativenumberofPTAsinforce,1950-2010,notifiedandnon-notifiedPTAs, bycountrygroup 55
FigureB.1a AveragenumberofPTAsinforcepercountry,1950-2010,notifiedandnon-notifiedPTAs, bycountrygroup 55
FigureB1b AveragenumberofPTAparticipantsperWTOmember,1950-2010,notifiedPTAs 56
FigureB.2 Cumulativenumberofintra-andcross-regionalPTAsinforce,1950-2010, notifiedandnon-notifiedPTAs 58
FigureB.3 CumulativenumberofbilateralPTAsandtypesofplurilateralPTAsinforce,1950-2010, notifiedandnon-notifiedPTAs 60
FigureB.4 TypeofPTAsinforce,2010,notifiedandnon-notifiedPTAs 62
FigureB.5 CumulativenumberofPTAs,1950-2010,notifiedandnon-notifiedPTAs,byscopeofcoverage 62
FigureB.6 Shareofintra-PTAtradeinworldmerchandiseexports,1990-2008 64
FigureB.7 SharesofselectedPTAsintotalworldexportsbetweenPTAmembers,2008 68
FigureB.8 Intra-regionaltradesharesinworldbymanufacturingsector,1990-2009 71
FigureB.9 Sharesofintra-regionaltradeintotalimportsbyregion,1965-2005 72
FigureB.10 Preferentialtradebyimporter,2008,sharesbypreferencemarginsandMFNrates 74
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FigureB.11 Preferentialtradebyexporter(30largestexporters),2008, sharesbypreferencemarginsandMFNrates 75
FigureB.12 Preferentialtradebyexporter(25exporterswithhighesttrade-weighted preferentialmargin),2008,preferencemargins 76
FigureB.13 Preferenceutilizationrate(PUR)ofUSpreferentialregimes (sortedbyeligibleexports),2008 80
FigureB.14 Preferenceutilizationrate(PUR)ofEUpreferentialregimes (sortedbyeligibleexports),2008 81
Tables
TableB.1 TotalandaveragenumberofPTAsinforce,2010,notifiedandnon-notifiedPTAs, byregion,regionaltypeandcountrygroup 57
TableB.2 “Network”ofPTAsinforce,2010,notifiedandnon-notifiedPTAs,byregion 59
TableB.3 Intra-andcross-regionalPTAsinforce,2010,notifiedandnon-notifiedPTAs, byregionandtimeperiod 59
TableB.4 NumberofbilateralPTAsandtypesofplurilateralPTAsinforce,2010, notifiedandnon-notifiedPTAs,bycountrygroupandregionaltype 61
TableB.5 NumberofgoodsandservicesPTAsinforce,2010,notifiedandnon-notifiedPTAs, bycountrygroup,levelofparticipationandregionaltype 63
TableB.6 WorldmerchandisetradebetweenPTAs,1990 65
TableB.7 WorldmerchandisetradebetweenPTAs,2008 66
TableB.8 Preferentialtradebyagreement/typeofregime,2008,selectedregimes 77
TableB.9 Preferentialtradebycountrygroup,2008 78
TableB.10 Preferentialtradebyproductgroup,2008 79
TableB.11 Preferenceutilizationrate(PUR)byproductgroup,2008 82
TableB.12 Firms’utilizationofPTApreferences 83
Box
BoxB.1 RulesoforigininPTAs:transactioncostsandthespaghetti-bowlphenomenon 84
Maps
MapB.1 MembershipinPTAsinforce,2010,notifiedandnon-notifiedPTAs,bycountry 58
MapB.2 Intra-regionalandextra-regionalmerchandiseexportsofWTOregions,1990-2009 69
C. CausesandeffectsofPTAs:isitallaboutpreferences?
Figures
FigureC.1 ThePTAdiagram’stradepattern 100
FigureC.2 HomePTAwithPartner1:tradecreation 101
FigureC.3 HomePTAwithPartner2:tradediversion 102
FigureC.4 EffectsofPTAsinservices 104
Table
TableC.1 Shallowversusdeepintegration 110
Boxes
BoxC.1 PTAcasestudies 98
BoxC.2 Tradecreationandtradediversioneffects 101
BoxC.3 TheeffectsofPTAsinservices 103
BoxC.4 LessonsfromtheEUexperienceinrelaxingrulesoforigin(RoOs) 109
BoxC.5 Determinantsoftheregionalizationofproductionnetworks 112
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Appendix figures
App.Fig.C.1 OpentradeandMFNtariffs 118
App.Fig.C.2 PTApriceandquantityeffects 118
App.Fig.C.3 Welfareeffectsofpreferentialliberalization 119
Appendix table
AppTableC.1 Empiricalfindingsontradecreationandtradediversion 120
D. Anatomyofpreferentialtradeagreements
Figures
FigureD.1 MFNtarifftrendsindevelopingcountriesbyregion 124
FigureD.2 WorldMFNappliedtarifftrends 125
FigureD.3 Preferentialreductionsoftariffratesabove15percent,2007 125
FigureD.4 Relativepreferencemarginsbyregion,2000and2007 128
FigureD.5 CoveredandenforceableWTO+provisionsovertime 131
FigureD.6 CoveredandenforceableWTO-Xprovisionsovertime 131
FigureD.7 NumberofagreementscoveringWTO+provisions 132
FigureD.8 NumberofagreementscoveringWTO-Xprovisions 132
FigureD.9 NumberofWTO+andWTO-Xprovisions 133
FigureD.10 SectorcoverageinPTAsincomparisonwithGATScommitmentsandDDAoffers 134
FigureD.11 ProportionofservicessubsectorssubjecttoneworimprovedcommitmentsinPTAs, comparedtoGATS(bymember) 135
FigureD.12 GATS+commitmentsinPTAsbysector,modes1and3 137
FigureD.13 ProportionofPTAswithselectedprovisionsininvestmentchapter 139
FigureD.14 Totalnumberofprovisionsininvestmentchapterovertime 139
FigureD.15 PercentageofPTAsbyTBTprovision 141
FigureD.16 AveragedegreeofTBTintegrationbylevelofdevelopment 141
FigureD.17 Sector-specificcompetitionprovisionsinPTAs 143
FigureD.18 CompetitiondisciplinesinPTAsovertime 144
FigureD.19 Shareofpartsandcomponentsinintra-regionaltrade 147
FigureD.20 FDIflowstoASEAN-5andasshareofFDItodevelopingcountries,1970-92 148
FigureD.21 CostaRica’sshareofUSFDIflowstoCentralAmerica,1982-2008 150
Tables
TableD.1 Shareoftarifflinesandtradebylevelofcompetition-adjustedpreferencemargin, 2000and2007 127
TableD.2 WTO+andWTO-XpolicyareasinPTAs 129
TableD.3 PatternsofTBTintegrationacrossregions(percentageofPTAsbyprovisionandregion) 142
TableD.4 ASEAN-5exports,1967-92 147
TableD.5 CostaRica’spreferentialtradeagreements 149
TableD.6 CostaRica’stwo-waytradewiththeUnitedStates,1995-2008 150
TableD.7 CostaRica’stwo-waytradewithChina,1995-2008 150
Boxes
BoxD.1 Measurementofthevalueofpreferences 126
BoxD.2 Legalenforceability 129
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Appendix figure
App.Fig.D.1 VariationsinthelevelofcommitmentsofferedindifferentPTAs:Australia,Chile, RepublicofKorea,SingaporeandUnitedStates 163
Appendix tables
App.TableD.1 ListofPTAsandresultsofHMSmapping 157
App.TableD.2 Acronymsandmembers 160
App.TableD.3 Listofservicesagreementsinthedatabaseusedforthisreport 161
App.TableD.4 Theeffectsofdeepintegrationonproductionnetworks 162
App.TableD.5 Theeffectsoftradeinpartsandcomponentsondeepintegration 162
E. ThemultilateraltradingsystemandPTAs
Figures
FigureE.1 PTAsinforceatthetimeoftherequestforconsultations,1995-2010 176
FigureE.2 Intra-PTAanti-dumpinginitiations 180
Tables
TableE.1 Frequencyofrequestsforconsultations,bydevelopmentlevelandexistenceofPTAs inforcebetweentheparties,1995-2010 176
TableE.2 Requestsforconsultations,byyearandsubsequentprocedures,1995-2010 177
TableE.3 WTOAgreementscitedintherequestsforconsultations,1995-2010 178
TableE.4 Anti-dumpinginitiationsbyPTAstatus 180
Boxes
BoxE.1 Investmentprovisionsininternationalagreements:isthereapotentialforthird-party discrimination? 170
BoxE.2 Makingrulesoforiginmorecompatiblewiththemultilateraltradingsystem 172
BoxE.3 Methodology 179
Statisticalappendix
App.Table1 Merchandiseexportsandimportsofplurilateralpreferentialtradeagreements,2008 199
App.Table2.A MerchandiseexportsofASEANcountries,1992-2009 201
App.Table2.B MerchandiseimportsofASEANcountries,1992-2009 203
App.Table3.A MerchandiseexportsofCIScountries,2000-2009 205
App.Table3.B MerchandiseimportsofCIScountries,2000-2009 207
App.Table4.A MerchandiseexportsofEuropeanUnion(15)countries,1990-2009 209
App.Table4.B MerchandiseimportsofEuropeanUnion(15)countries,1990-2009 211
App.Table5.A MerchandiseexportsofMERCOSURcountries,1990-2009 213
App.Table5.B MerchandiseimportsofMERCOSURcountries,1990-2009 214
App.Table6.A MerchandiseexportsofNAFTAcountries,1990-2009 215
App.Table6.B MerchandiseimportsofNAFTAcountries,1990-2009 216
App.Table7 Worldmerchandiseexportsbyproductandregion,1990-2009 217
App.Table8 Preferentialtradebyimporter,preferentialmarginandMFNrate 224
App.Table9 Preferentialtradebyimporter,dutiesandaveragepreferencemargin 225
App.Table10 Preferentialtradebyexporter,30largestexporters 226
App.Table11 Sharesofpreferentialtradeanddutyreductionsfromreciprocalpreferenceschemesbyimporter 227
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Wto memBeRs
WTO members (AsofendMay2011)
AlbaniaAngolaAntiguaandBarbudaArgentinaArmeniaAustraliaAustriaBahrain,KingdomofBangladeshBarbadosBelgiumBelizeBeninBolivia,PlurinationalStateofBotswanaBrazilBruneiDarussalamBulgariaBurkinaFasoBurundiCambodiaCameroonCanadaCapeVerdeCentralAfricanRepublicChadChileChinaColombiaCongoCostaRicaCôted’IvoireCroatiaCubaCyprusCzechRepublicDemocraticRepublicoftheCongoDenmarkDjiboutiDominicaDominicanRepublicEcuadorEgyptElSalvadorEstoniaEuropeanUnionFijiFinlandFormerYugoslavRepublicofMacedonia (FYROM)FranceGabonTheGambiaGeorgiaGermanyGhanaGreeceGrenadaGuatemalaGuineaGuineaBissauGuyanaHaitiHondurasHongKong,China
HungaryIcelandIndiaIndonesiaIrelandIsraelItalyJamaicaJapanJordanKenyaKorea,RepublicofKuwaitKyrgyzRepublicLatviaLesothoLiechtensteinLithuaniaLuxembourgMacao,ChinaMadagascarMalawiMalaysiaMaldivesMaliMaltaMauritaniaMauritiusMexicoMoldovaMongoliaMoroccoMozambiqueMyanmarNamibiaNepalNetherlandsNewZealandNicaraguaNigerNigeriaNorwayOmanPakistanPanamaPapuaNewGuineaParaguayPeruPhilippinesPolandPortugalQatarRomaniaRwandaSaintKittsandNevisSaintLuciaSaintVincentandtheGrenadinesSaudiArabia,KingdomofSenegalSierraLeoneSingaporeSlovakRepublicSloveniaSolomonIslandsSouthAfrica
SpainSriLankaSurinameSwazilandSwedenSwitzerlandChineseTaipeiTanzaniaThailandTogoTongaTrinidadandTobagoTunisiaTurkeyUgandaUkraineUnitedArabEmiratesUnitedKingdomUnitedStatesofAmericaUruguayVenezuela,BolivarianRepublicofVietNamZambiaZimbabwe
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previous World Trade reportstrade in natural resources
2010
9 789287 037084
World Trade Report
The World Trade Report 2010 focuses on trade in natural resources, such as fuels, forestry, mining and fisheries. The Report examines the characteristics of trade in natural resources, the policy choices available to governments and the role of international cooperation, particularly of the WTO, in the proper management of trade in this sector.
A key question is to what extent countries gain from open trade in natural resources. Some of the issues examined in the Report include the role of trade in providing access to natural resources, the effects of international trade on the sustainability of natural resources, the environmental impact of resources trade, the so-called natural resources curse, and resource price volatility.
The Report examines a range of key measures employed in natural resource sectors, such as export taxes, tariffs and subsidies, and provides information on their current use. It analyses in detail the effects of these policy tools on an economy and on its trading partners.
Finally, the Report provides an overview of how natural resources fit within the legal framework of the WTO and discusses other international agreements that regulate trade in natural resources. A number of challenges are addressed, including the regulation of export policy, the treatment of subsidies, trade facilitation, and the relationship between WTO rules and other international agreements.
“I believe not only that there is room for mutually beneficial negotiating trade-offs that encompass
natural resources trade, but also that a failure to address these issues could be a recipe for
growing tension in international trade relations. Well designed trade rules are key to ensuring
that trade is advantageous, but they are also necessary for the attainment of objectives such as
environmental protection and the proper management of natural resources in a domestic setting.”
Pascal Lamy, WTO Director-General
World
Trad
e Rep
ort 2010 T
rade in natural resources
World Trade Report 2010Trade in natural resources
TheWorldTradeReport2010focusesontradeinnaturalresources,suchasfuels,forestry,miningand fisheries. The Report examines the characteristics of trade in natural resources, the policychoicesavailabletogovernmentsandtheroleofinternationalcooperation,particularlyoftheWTO,inthepropermanagementoftradeinthissector
trade Policy Commitments and Contingency measures
2009
WORLD TRADE REPORT 2009
World Trade Report The World Trade Report is an annual publication that aims to deepen understanding about trends in trade, trade policy issues and the multilateral trading system. The theme of this year’s Report is “Trade policy commitments and contingency measures”. The Report examines the range of contingency measures available in trade agreements and the role that these measures play. Also referred to as escape clauses or safety valves, these measures allow governments a certain degree of flexibility within their trade commitments and can be used to address circumstances that could not have been foreseen when a trade commitment was made. Contingency measures seek to strike a balance between commitments and flexibility. Too much flexibility may undermine the value of commitments, but too little may render the rules unsustainable. The tension between credible commitments and flexibility is often close to the surface during trade negotiations. For example, in the July 2008 mini-ministerial meeting, which sought to agree negotiating modalities – or a final blueprint – for agriculture and non-agricultural market access (NAMA), the question of a “special safeguard mechanism” (the extent to which developing countries would be allowed to protect farmers from import surges) was crucial to the discussions. One of the main objectives of this Report is to analyze whether WTO provisions provide a balance between supplying governments with necessary flexibility to face difficult economic situations and adequately defining them in a way that limits their use for protectionist purposes. In analyzing this question, the Report focuses primarily on contingency measures available to WTO members when importing and exporting goods. These measures include the use of safeguards, such as tariffs and quotas, in specified circumstances, anti-dumping duties on goods that are deemed to be “dumped”, and countervailing duties imposed to offset subsidies. The Report also discusses alternative policy options, including the renegotiation of tariff commitments, the use of export taxes, and increases in tariffs up to their legal maximum ceiling or binding. The analysis includes consideration of legal, economic and political economy factors that influence the use of these measures and their associated benefits and costs.
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ISBN 978-92-870-3513-4
WORLD TRADE REPORT 2009 - Trade Policy Com
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Trade Policy Commitments and Contingency Measures
Cover photos (from left to right): Image copyright Quayside, 2009; Image copyright Christian Lagerek, 2009; Image copyright Guido Vrola, 2009;
The 2009 Report examines the range and role of contingency measures available in tradeagreements.Oneof theReport’smainobjectives is toanalysewhetherWTOprovisionsprovideabalance between supplying governments with the necessary flexibility to face difficult economicsituationsandadequatelydefiningtheseinawaythatlimitstheiruseforprotectionistpurposes.
trade in a Globalizing World
2008
Trade in a Globalizing World
WORLD TRADE REPORT 2008
World Trade Report The World Trade Report is an annual publication that aims to deepen understanding about trends in trade, trade policy issues and the multilateral trading system.
International trade is integral to the process of globalization. Over many years, governments in most countries have increasingly opened their economies to inter-national trade, whether through the multilateral trading system, increased regional cooperation or as part of domestic reform programmes. Trade and globalization more generally have brought enormous benefits to many countries and citizens. Trade has allowed nations to benefit from specialization and to produce more efficiently. It has raised productivity, supported the spread of knowledge and new technologies, and enriched the range of choices available to consumers. But deeper integration into the world economy has not always proved to be popular, nor have the benefits of trade and globalization necessarily reached all sections of society. As a result, trade scepticism is on the rise in certain quarters.
The purpose of this year’s Report, whose main theme is “Trade in a Globalizing World”, is to remind ourselves of what we know about the gains from international trade and the challenges arising from higher levels of integration. The Report addresses a range of interlinking questions, starting with a consideration of what constitutes globalization, what drives it, what benefits does it bring, what challenges does it pose and what role does trade play in this world of ever-growing inter-dependency. The Report asks why some countries have managed to take advantage of falling trade costs and greater policy-driven trading opportunities while others have remained largely outside international commercial relations. It also considers who the winners and losers are from trade and what complementary action is needed from policy-makers to secure the benefits of trade for society at large. In examining these complex and multi-faceted questions, the Report reviews both the theoretical gains from trade and empirical evidence that can help to answer these questions.
ISBN 978-92-870-3454-0
WORLD TRADE REPORT 2008 - Trade in a Globalizing W
orld
The2008Reportprovidesareminderofwhatweknowaboutthegainsfrominternationaltradeandhighlightsthechallengesarisingfromhigherlevelsofintegration.Itaddressesthequestionofwhatconstitutesglobalization,whatdrivesit,whatbenefits itbrings,whatchallengesitposesandwhatroletradeplaysinthisworldofever-growinginter-dependency.
sixty years of the multilateral trading system : Achievements and Challenges
2007
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2007WORLD TRADE REPORT
On1January2008themultilateraltradingsystemcelebratedits60thanniversary.TheWorldTradeReport2007celebratesthislandmarkanniversarywithanin-depthlookattheGeneralAgreementon Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and its successor the World Trade Organization — their origins,achievements,thechallengestheyhavefacedandwhatthefutureholds.
exploring the Links between subsidies, trade and the Wto
2006
2006WORLD TRADE REPORT
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TheWorldTradeReport2006focusesonhowsubsidiesaredefined,whateconomictheorycantellusaboutsubsidies,whygovernmentsusesubsidies,themostprominentsectorsinwhichsubsidiesareappliedand theroleof theWTOAgreement in regulatingsubsidies in international trade.TheReportalsoprovidesbriefanalyticalcommentariesoncertaintopicaltradeissues.
trade, standards and the Wto
2005
2005WORLD TRADE REPORT
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TheWorldTradeReport2005seeks toshed lighton thevarious functionsandconsequencesofstandards,focusingontheeconomicsofstandardsininternationaltrade,theinstitutionalsettingforstandard-setting and conformity assessment, and the role of WTO agreements in reconciling thelegitimatepolicyusesofstandardswithanopen,non-discriminatorytradingsystem.
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Coherence
2004
2004WORLD TRADE REPORT
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TheWorldTradeReport2004focusesonthenotionofcoherenceintheanalysisofinterdependentpolicies:theinteractionbetweentradeandmacroeconomicpolicy,theroleofinfrastructureintradeandeconomicdevelopment,domesticmarketstructures,governanceandinstitutions,andtheroleofinternationalcooperationinpromotingpolicycoherence.
trade and Development
2003
2003WORLD TRADE REPORT
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TheWorldTradeReport2003focusesondevelopment.Itexplainstheoriginofthisissueandoffersaframeworkwithinwhichtoaddressthequestionoftherelationshipbetweentradeanddevelopment,therebycontributingtomoreinformeddiscussion.
This report is also available inFrench and Spanish.
To order, please contact:WTO Publications
World Trade Organization154, rue de Lausanne
CH-1211 Geneva 21Tel: (41 22) 739 52 08Fax: (41 22) 739 54 58
Email: [email protected] WTO bookshop:
http://onlinebookshop.wto.org
ISBN 978-92-870-3764-0Printed in Switzerland
Cover designed by triptik Report designed by Services Concept
© World Trade Organization 2011
Image credits (cover):Cover top left – Brian Jackson – iStockphoto
Cover left centre – Hande Guleryuz Yuce – iStockphotoCover bottom left – geopaul – iStockphoto
Cover bottom centre – Christian Lagereek – iStockphotoCover bottom right – René Mansi – iStockphoto
Cover image top right – Heather Sapey-Pertin
The World Trade Report is an annual publication that aims to deepen understanding about trends in trade, trade policy issues and the multilateral trading system.
The 2011 World Trade Report is split into two main parts. The first is a brief summary of the trade situation in 2010. The second part focuses on the special theme of preferential trade agreements.
Website: www.wto.orgGeneral enquiries: [email protected]: +41 (0)22 739 51 11
What is the World Trade Report?
Using this report
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World Trade Report 2011
The WTO and preferential trade agreements: From co-existence to coherence
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World Trade Report
The ever-growing number of preferential trade agreements (PTAs) is a prominent feature of international trade. The World Trade Report 2011 describes the historical development of PTAs and the current landscape of agreements. It examines why PTAs are established, their economic effects, and the contents of the agreements themselves. Finally it considers the interaction between PTAs and the multilateral trading system.
Accumulated trade opening – at the multilateral, regional and unilateral level – has reduced the scope for offering preferential tariffs under PTAs. As a result, only a small fraction of global merchandise trade receives preferences and preferential tariffs are becoming less important in PTAs.
The report reveals that more and more PTAs are going beyond preferential tariffs, with numerous non-tariff areas of a regulatory nature being included in the agreements.
Global production networks may be prompting the emergence of these “deep” PTAs as good governance on a range of regulatory areas is far more important to these networks than further reductions in already low tariffs. Econometric evidence and case studies support this link between production networks and deep PTAs.
The report ends by examining the challenge that deep PTAs present to the multilateral trading system and proposes a number of options for increasing coherence between these agreements and the trading system regulated by the WTO.
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