Technical GlossaryTechnical Glossary

A glossary of terms necessary for the study of the history of Islamic art and architecture.

Abbasids (749-1258 A.D.) 

This second major Muslim dynasty took their name from their ancestor, al-‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Mutallib, who was the Prophet's uncle. After succeeding the Umayyads in 749 A.D., they ruled for the next 500 years, although in reality their effective power declined after around 900 A.D. The Abbasids moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, building al-Mansur's famous round city in 762 A.D. It was during the reign of Harun al-Rashid (r. 786-809 A.D.) that the Abbasid caliphate reached its peak, a time of prosperity, peace and communal unity. After that, the decline started, with clashes between the population and troops stimulating the construction of Samarra in 865 A.D. as a city for the troops. In 945 A.D. the Buwayhids replaced Abbasid power in Iran and Iraq, although they continued to be the nominal caliphs. By the time of the Mongol occupation of Baghdad in 1258 A.D. their reign was completely reduced to being a mere figurehead. Abbasid architecture was influenced by Sassanian, Central Asian, and later twelfth and thirteenth century A.D. Saljuk prototypes. Despite the breadth of the Abbasid territories, the majority of remaining monuments are in the Abbasid homeland of Iraq. Abbasid architecture is noted for the vastness of the scale used for their cities, as well as the Samarra stucco decoration that spread and continued to be used elsewhere for a long time.  

 

Abjad  The order used in the traditional system of calculation, wherein each letter signifies a numerical value. Abjad order is derived from the same source of the Greek, Hebrew and other alphabets (alpha, beta, gamma, delta) and differs from the current order used in Arabic dictionaries. In many examples of Ottoman architecture we find the date of the building by deciphering the last verse of a poem inscribed on any of the elements of the building using the abjad values. 

 

Ablaq   A decorative technique, popular during the Mamluk period, based on alternating courses of black and white masonry. The term is derived from the Turkish iplik, meaning rope or thread.  

 

Ablution Fountain 

Fountain found in mosques and used for ritual washing before prayers.   

Abzin   Derived from Persian, it means a small basin found in hammams (baths) for washing feet.  

 

Acanthus  Derived from the Greek akanthos. A plant with serrated leaves commonly used in Greek architecture and was continued in Islamic architecture, in both natural and abstract forms. 

 

Adhan  The daily call to prayer that is carried out mostly from the tops of minarets, and sometimes from the rooftops or the doors of places of worship. 

 

Aghani   Literally means ‘songs’. In Mamluk architecture there are long corridors lined with seats and walled by mashrabiyyas. The aghani are usually galleries on upper floors overlooking the main reception areas of houses; the durqa‘a or the sahn. An alternative term is maq‘ad aghani. 

 

Aghlabids (800-909 A.D.) 

This dynasty was established in 800 A.D. by Ibrahim ibn Aghlab, who was the governor sent by the Abassid Caliph, Harun al-Rashid, to suppress the unrest caused by the Berber tribes in North Africa. Following Ibn Aghlab's success with the tribes, Harun al-Rashid rewarded him by granting him relative independence in Ifriqiyya in return for an annual tribute. Aghlabid rule centered in Qayrawan, controlled what is now eastern Algeria and Tunisia, and expanded into Sicily, Malta and Southern Italy. Their power ended at the hands of al-Mahdi and a coalition of Berber tribes in 909 A.D.

 

The Aghlabids were the most important and most powerful of the three dynasties that ruled North Africa in the ninth century. They founded Qayrawan, the city which became the nerve-center for the entire Maghrib. The contributed greatly to the infrastructure of Ifriqiyya, and built many waterways and forts. The Great Mosque of Qayrawan was enlarged and those in Susa and Tunis were repaired. The Great Mosque of Qayrawan, the oldest surviving mosque built by the Arabs in North Africa, was originally by the Arab general Uqba ibn Nafi‘. The Aghlabid Ziyadat Allah rebuilt the entire structure during the 9th century, where only the minaret and the mihrab were from previous periods. 

Ahl al-Bayt  Literally means 'family of the house' and refers to the family of the Prophet.  

 

A‘jami   Anything that is non-Arab is a‘jami. In Mamluk documents that term is used to describe non-Arab style of decoration.  

 

Ajur  Clay baked brick.   

Almohads (1130-1269 A.D.) 

Almohads, also known as al-Muwahhidun, literally means 'adherents of divine unicity'. This was a Berber dynasty founded by Mahdi ibn Tumart, who had studied in the east and then came back to claim himself the mahdi. He had a lot of followers and his dynasty was established with the eradication of Almoravid’s rule, yet the military occupation of both North Africa and Spain only took place after his death. The city of Marrakesh continued to flourish under their rule, especially the artistic and intellectual milieus. Monumental construction was at its peak during the first fifty years of their rule, as evident from the mosques at Taza, Marrakesh, Tinmallal, Seville, Rabat, Fez and the fortresses and citadels in Marrakesh and Rabat.  

 

Almoravids (1046-1157 A.D.) 

A dynasty of Berber origin that ruled North Africa and Spain. Also known as al-Murabitun, their name literally means those who lived in a ribat. In the case of Almoravids, it was those who lived in a ribat at the mouth of the Senegal River. They were instigated by Abdallah ibn Yasin, a noted Moroccan scholar, and then led by Yusuf ibn Tashfin who founded Marrakesh as his capital in 1062 A.D. Their position in North Africa weakened with the rise of a new power, that of Almohads in the early years of the twelfth century A.D. The descendants of Yusuf ibn Tashfin succeeded him to the throne one after the other until the dynasty of Almohads overruled them. Almoravids are responsible for the unification of Morocco and the rapid assimilation of the Andalusian culture through their patronage of architecture, poetry and philosophy. During their rule they spread a simple and fundamentalist form of Islam, advocating close adherence to Islamic law, and were opposed to theology and Sufism.  

 

Al-Murabitun  See Almoravids.   

Al-Muwahhidun 

See Almohads.   

Amir  Prince or dignitary.   

Amir Akhur   A Mamluk post; the prince responsible for the royal stables. The blazon for this position is symbolized by a polo stick. 

 

Amir al-Mu'minin 

Caliphal title meaning 'Commander of the Faithful.' This title was first given to 'Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634-644 A.D.), the second caliph, who was known for his strength of character, candor and incredible justice. This title was later assumed by several Muslim leaders until its use faded out in the thirteenth century A.D. following the Mongol invasion. Nevertheless, this title was used through the early nineteenth century A.D. by West African Muslim communities.  

 

Amir al-Silah  A Mamluk post; the prince responsible for arms.   

Anatolian Saljuks 

See Saljuks of Rum.   

Aqqoyunlu (1467-1502 A.D.) 

Literally meaning 'Tribes of the White Sheep', this was a Turkish dynasty that ruled eastern Anatolia, Azerbaijan, Persia, Iraq, Afganistan and Turkestan. Originally Turkic tribes, they began raiding Syria, Mesopotamia and Byzantium c.1340 A.D., shortly taking over Diyarbakir. Their initial advances were by Qara Yuluk Uthman (1389-1435 A.D.) who was appointed by Tamerlane as governor of Diyarbakir in 1402 A.D. After 1435 A.D. they lost some territories to their rival Qaraqoyunlo. Uzun Hasan (1453-1478 A.D.) however defeated the Qaraqoyunlus in 1467 A.D., taking over their territories in 1469 A.D. Turkoman culture flourished under the rule of Hasan and his son Yaqub (1478-1490 A.D.). They were eventually defeated by the Safavids who took over Tabriz in 1501 A.D. and annihalted the Aqqoyunlu political power in 1502 A.D. The last Aqqoyunlu ruler was sacked from Mardin in 1507 A.D. 

 

Arabesque  One of the main decorative elements in Islamic art. It is basically a scroll of leaf and stems where the intertwining elements create an interlacing geometric system. This vegetal scroll appears to whirl in circles and interlope with its own indefinite blossoms.  

 

‘Ashara   A decorative motif used in illuminating Qur’ans, to tell where the end of each tenth aya is. 

 

‘Ataba   A term used for both lintel and doorstep. There are different descriptions of lintels found in the Mamluk documents, one of which is ‘atab musfan to mean joggled voussiors.  

 

Atabeg/Atabek  Young prince's guardian, who is often a governor. Can also refer to the commander in chief of an army. 

 

Atruja   Literally meaning 'citrus fruit'. This refers to a recurring motif in Islamic architecture, resembling a lemon, often adorned by a three trilobed chalice at the top. 

 

Awlad al-Nas   Literally means 'children of people' and was the term given to the children of the Mamluks who were born in Egypt. A Mamluk could only be a Turkic slave, and this title did not extend to their offspring born in Egypt.  

 

Ayyubids (1171-1250 A.D.) 

The dynasty was founded by the Kurdish general Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (d.1193 A.D.), also known as Saladin, who was celebrated for his recovery of Jerusalem. In the name of Sunni Islam, Salah al-Din established the Ayyubid dynasty (1169 A.D.) and eradicated the Shi‘i influences of the previous Fatimid rule in Egypt and Syria. Despite building the walls and enormous citadel of Cairo, he actually only spent eight years in his capital. As well as his victory in Jersualem, Salah al-Din also conquered parts of Yemen and Diyarbakir. The last Ayyubid Sultan was Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub who built a huge corpus of slave soldiers and stationed them on the island of Roda (Bahri Mamluks). Most Ayyubid building activity concentrated on two main aspects, military architecture, including walls and citadels, to combat Crusade invasions, and madrasas. 

 

Azar  In Mamluk architecture this term is used to denote the wooden band beneath the ceiling of rooms. This band is used structurally for support and is usually inscribed with Qur’anic verses and the foundation text. The script used in most cases is thuluth on an arabesque background. 

 

Azulejo  Spanish for glazed tiles. The term was derived from zilij, Maghribi Arabic for tiles. Important production centres in Spain were Paterna, Valencia and Seville.  

Bab   Gate or door.    

Bab Sirr   A small door, usually hidden, found in most medieval Cairene architecture. The bab sirr usually led to a narrow corridor within the walls of the premises, and acted as an escape route. In religious buildings it was a means for the ruler to enter and leave the building without being seen.  

 

Badhahanj   Derives from Persian, meaning 'opening for breeze'. An early form of air-conditioning, often found in medieval Cairene houses, where a directional opening allowed cooler air to circulate and admitted light into the room.  

 

Bagh  Garden.   

Bahri Mamluks (1250 – 1382 A.D.)  

The corpus of slave soldiers built by al-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub, the last Ayyubid Sultan, and stationed in barracks on the island of Roda during the 13th century A.D. They were Turks bought at a very young age from the various areas in Central Asia, converted to Islam and highly trained in all military sciences. They rose to power in 1250 A.D. when Shajar al-Durr, widow of al-Malik al-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub claimed herself sultana and married the Mamluk amir ‘Izz al-Din Aybak. Although Aybak (r. 1250-1257 A.D.) became the first Bahri Mamluk sultan, the proper Mamluk state started with Sultan al-Dhahir Baybars al-Bunduqdari (r. 1260-1277 A.D.). His rule extended for seventeen years, throughout which he protected the Mamluk territories from both the Mongols and the Crusaders. On the inner front he created an infrastructure by reconstructing roads, repairing bridges and fortifying the north coast. He was also a patron of arts and his mosque in al-Dhahir is a living proof. In general the Mamluks were great patrons of the arts and architecture. The epitome of Mamluk architecture can be seen in the buildings of Sultan Qalawun (r.1279-1290 A.D.) and his descendants; the mosque of Sultan Hasan, the complex of Qalawun and the mosque of al-Nasir Muhammad in the Citadel. Amirs, especially those of al-Nasir Muhammad, were encouraged to build. Elegant buildings of amirs include the mosques of Salar and Sanjar, Altinbugha al-Maridani, Shaykhu and the madrasa of Sarghatmish. They were also great patrons of the art of the Book. Qur’an illumination of this period was heavily influenced by the Ilkhanid style. This can be seen in the Qur’ans commissioned or bequeathed by Sultan Sha‘ban to his madrasa in al-Darb al-Ahmar. The artifacts belonging to this period in the Museum of Islamic Art of the different mediums show a great variety in techniques and creativity. Glass enameling for example reached perfection during this period.  

 

Ba’ika   An arcade; a series of opened or blind arches joined together by columns or piers.    

Ballat  Floor tiler; formerly a specialist in lime plaster waterproofing.   

Banna’i   Derives from Persian and literally means 'what pertains to the mason'. It was used by the Persians to describe a specific type of surface decoration of alternating plain and enameled bricks.  

 

Basmala  Refers to the phrase Bismillah al-Rahman al-Rahim, 'In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate', or its shortened form, Bismillah, 'In the Name of God'. This is the opening phrase of the first chapter of the Qur'an, and is generally written or orally spoken by Muslims at the start of almost all actions. It frequently marks the beginning of inscriptions on monuments and artifacts. 

 

Bayt   Arabic for house.    

Bayt al-Hilani 

Gatehouse that is usually fenestrated.   

Bayt al-Mal  Arabic term that literally means 'house of money.' It refers to the financial establishment that acted as a royal treasury, and was responsible for the adminstration of taxes and zakah.  

 

Bayt al-Myiah 

Compartment used to store water containers.   

Bazaar   Marketplace and business centre of an Islamic city.    

Bedesten  Market that is covered, and often domed.   

Beg  Leader of a tribe.   

Bey   Turkish for 'gentleman'. It is a general title of rank and is equivalent to the Arabic title amir. 

 

Bidri  A technique of metalwork developed in early 17th century India, where the zinc alloy  

vessel is inlaid with silver, brass, and sometimes gold. This is then covered with salts and mud, making the alloy black and leaving the ornamentation contrastingly bright.  

Bimarhane  Mental hospital.   

Bimaristan   Derived from Persian, meaning 'place for the sick'. A general hospital. Maristan is alternative name for bimaristan.  

 

Bint al 'usada 

Small cushion usually used as head rest.   

Birka  Pond.    

Bismillah  See Basmala.   

Blazon  A symbol used by Mamluks in both architecture and decorative arts to denote a certain position or rank. Blazons started as simple shields with a decorative symbol and eventually became more complex. Examples of blazons include the pen, denoting the court scribe; the polo stick, denoting the amir akhur; the cup, denoting the court saqi; and the napkin, denoting the master of the robes. 

 

Bukhariyya   A decorative element that is usually of a round or oval shape and filled with patterns (arabesque), with a palmette or calice decorating either end. It is used on all mediums of decoration, buildings, textiles, metalwork, woodwork, illuminated manuscripts, etc. The name is derived from that of the city of Bukhara in Uzbekistan or the quarter of Bukhariyya in Basra.  

 

Burda   Literally means 'mantle' and refers to the cloak of Prophet Muhammad. 'Burda' is the name of a famous panegyric written by al-Busiri in the 13th century A.D. for the Prophet and was used to adorn many of the Islamic monuments, especially the houses of Cairo.  

 

Burj   A tower of a fortress or of city walls.    

Burji Mamluks (1382 – 1517 A.D.) 

Also referred to as Circassian Mamluks. These were the slave soldiers who ruled Egypt from 1382 A.D. until the Ottoman invasion in 1517 A.D. Ethnically they were Turks but unlike the Bahri Mamluks who were from Central Asia, the Burji Mamluks were from the areas around the north and the west of the Caspian littoral. They were named so because they were lodged in the towers of the citadel. The first Burji Mamluk to rule was al-Dhahir Sayf al-Din Barquq (r. 1382-1399 A.D.). He protected Egypt from the danger of the Timurids by slaying all their emissaries. Their artistic patronage reached its zenith during the reign of al-Ashraf Qaytbay (r. 1468-1496 A.D.). Architectural masterpieces from his period include his funerary complex in the Northern Cemetery, his mosque in Qal‘at al-Kabsh and the mosque of Qijmas al-Ishaqi in Darb al-Ahmar. Complexity in design and technique can be seen in their woodcarvings; excellent examples are the minbar and the kursi in the funerary complex of Qaytbay, and the minbar in the mosque of Qijmas al-Ishaqi.  

 

Buwayhids  A Shi'i dynasty established by mercenary soldiers from the Caspian region of Daylum who ruled Iran and Iraq from the mid-tenth to the mid-eleventh century A.D. As Dailamites, they lived in mountainous areas north of Qazvin, and like Turks they were popular mercenaries. Up until the ninth century they managed to repel more than a dozen Muslim attacks, and as many 'Alids sought refuge in their mountains they were gradually converted into Shi‘i Islam. During the early years of the tenth century Ali ibn Buyah (Imad al-Dawla), the founder of the dynasty, began his career in the military, employed in the court of the Samanid prince Nasr ibn Ahmad and was appointed as the governor of Ray. Although they were able to wrest their territories from the 'Abassids and were essentially an independent seat of authority, they still maintained recognition of a puppet 'Abassid Caliph, ruling in his name. The Buwayhids created courts in Isfahan, Shiraz and Baghdad. They were the first to establish the use of revenue grants, iqta', to pay the soldiers, a system that was built upon and used extensively by the Seljuks. 

 

Buyyids  See Buwayhids. 

Caftan   A collarless robe open at the front from top to bottom.    

Caliph   Arabic for successor. The Qur’an (II: 30) describes Adam as the primordial norm and  

as Caliph, the representative of God on earth. Man in this sense is the vicegerent of God on earth. In a historical context however, the word Caliph referred first to the four rightly guided caliphs after the death of the Prophet Muhammad (Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman and ‘Ali) and subsequently to any Muslim ruler, in various dynasties.  

Cami  Turkish word referring to a Friday or congregational mosque. The smaller mosque is referred to as mescit. 

 

Caravanserai  Derived from the Persian karawan (company of travelers) and serai (large inn). The caravanserai provided safe accommodation for travelling merchants and their goods. They functioned as centres of commerce and artisan manufacture, though not all buildings of this type and function were called caravanserai. Other terms describing the same building were khan, wikala, funduq or ribat. The use of multiple terms was a mere reflection of regional differences.  

 

Chahar Bagh  Persian and Mughal word referring to a garden divided into four equal sections around two central axes. 

 

Chahar Taq  Square open structure covered with a dome, with an arched opening in each side.    

Chajja  A sloping stone supported on heavy corbels and placed overhanging at roof level to direct rainwater away from the walls of the building. Commonly used in Mughal architecture. 

 

Chatri  A domed kiosk built on pillars used extensively in Mughal architecture on the tops of palaces, mosques and tombs. In Mughal architecture a chatri was decorative, while in Hindu architecture, which is where it is derived from, it was used as a cenotaph.  

 

Chinoiserie  Chinese motifs used in Islamic decoration. These often include peony scrolls and lotuses. 

 

Circassian Mamluks 

See Burji Mamluks.   

Colophon  Last page of a manuscript which includes information about its date, author, provenance, etc.  

 

Crenellations  Also referred to as 'cresting' and mean battlements. They are parapets of alternating spacing of solid and open intervals, usually decorating mosques or fortresses. From its early usage in Achaemenid Iran, different styles of crenellations developed, such as the doll-like shapes associated with Ibn Tulun, and trefoils of complicated forms used by the Burji Mamluks.  

 

Cresting  See Crenellations.   

Cruciform Plan 

Four vaulted iwans facing each other and surround a court (sahn).    

Cuerda Seca  From Spanish, meaning 'dry cord'. A glazing technique for ceramics which separates the colors by using a line of manganese dioxide and grease, thus preventing the colours from running during the firing process.

Dakhma  Literally means 'tower of silence,' and refers to a tower with a flat roof that is used to expose corpses. 

 

Damascening  Technique of decorating metal with silver or gold inlay.   

Dar   A place where a lot of movement takes place. The word dar is used for a wide variety of buildings, however the most common usage of the term is to mean a house.  

 

Darabzin   An Arabized Persian word meaning a balustrade.    

Dar al-Hadith  Educational institute for the study of Islamic hadith, Prophetic traditions.   

Dar al-Harb  Refers to territories of war. This usually meant territories bordering Dar al-Islam that  

did not hold a peace treaty with Muslims. 

Dar al-Huffaz  Institute for the study of Qur'an recitation.   

Dar al-Imara  The building that houses the seat of authority. It is usually the palace of the governor.   

Dar al-Islam  Refers to Muslim lands where sovereignty of Islamic law applies.    

Dar al-Shifa  See Bimaristan.   

Darb  Arabic for alley or path.    

Darb Khayt  A term used by craftsmen for the geometric patterns they carve on wood, marble, or any other medium.  

 

Darih  Means cenotaph but can also mean the tomb as a whole.    

Darwish   Dervish. Persian for poor and means a Sufi. The Arabic equivalent is faqir.    

Dayma  Kitchen or guard house in the fields.   

Dervish  See Darwish.   

Dhikr  Literally means remembering or reminding. In general religious practice this denotes ways of reminding oneself of God, be it through prayer, praise, supplication, etc. It can also refer to the actual litanies and prayers of remembering, as well as the regular activity of remembrance, particularly in a Sufi context. 

 

Dhimmi   People of the book; Christians, Jews, Sabaeans, Zoroastrians, Hindus and Buddhists. The term was used to describe those who had to pay the jizya (poll tax) and who were not forced to convert because they were adherents of other religions, unlike idolators.

 

Dihliz   An Arabized Persian word meaning corridor.    

Dikka   An elevated small structure with a flat top on which a person would be seated. Some are found in religious buildings for those reciting the Qur’an or some in markets for sellers to display their goods. They are made of wood, stone or marble. In religious buildings it can be referred to as dikkat al-mubaligh.  

 

Divan  See Diwan.   

Divani  Arabic script, primarily used in the administrative documents of the Ottoman Sultan's chancery. 

 

Diwan  Originating from Persian, this term refers to a reception chamber, particularly in a palace or residence. It later came to mean ministry or government office. It can also mean anthology of poems placed in alphabetical order.  

 

Diwan al-'Amm 

Public reception hall for public audiences.    

Diwan al-Khass 

Private reception hall for private audiences.   

Doublure  Inside lining of book cover; usually ornamental.   

Durka  A Persian composite word; dur meaning door and ka meaning place. A vestibule which is found in all kinds of buildings especially houses to ensure privacy.  

 

Durqa‘a   A covered small court (sahn) which interspaces two iwans or more. It is an essential element of a qa‘a, and thus an important feature of Burji Mamluk architecture.  

 

Duwaira  Mausoleum or shrine.   

Duwar   A colloquial word derived from dar used in the Mamluk documents to mean court or garden.  

 

Duwira  Small courtyard.

Faqih  Expert in Islamic law. Until the twentieth century A.D., a faqih could function as a qadi, judge, and mufti, juriconsultant. As a judge he would be responsible for supervision of charitable trusts, acting as a trustee of orphans' property, and other similar tasks in addition to regular court duties. The faqihs represented an important and powerful segment of the community, and were considered protectors of the community and religion. With the advent of modern legal forms, the role of the faqih has been decreased in power and importance, where his duties have been taken over by modern judges, jurists and lawyers. A faqih is now restricted to the function of juriconsultant.  

 

Faqir  Arabic for poor and means a Sufi. The Persian equivalent is Dervish, also spelled Darwish. 

 

Farshakhana A composite word meaning the warehouse of furniture and tents.    

Fatimids (969-1171 A.D.) 

One of the most important Shi‘i dynasties that ruled in the Muslim world. They were prominent patrons of festivities, art and architecture. Their history can be divided into two periods. First the Ifriqiyya period, when they ruled between 908-973 A.D. from Tunisia. Despite the ambiguity of their origin we do know that their founder started in Salamiyya in Syria, where he alleged descent from 'Ali and Fatima and claimed to be the only rightful ruler of Islam. He had many followers, all Isma‘ilis (Seven-Imam Shi‘i), and helped build a strong military base from which he overruled the Aghlabids in Tunisia. In 910 A.D. a descendant of his, named himself ‘Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi, made Raqqada his capital until al-Mahdiyya was built. During his 25 year reign ‘Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi sent two expeditions to Egypt, in 914 A.D. and 919 A.D., but both failed. Another attack in 935 A.D. also failed. Egypt was finally conquered by al-Mu‘iz li-Din illah in February 969 A.D. when the commander of the armies Jawhar al-Siqilli marched into the country removing the Ikhshidids with very little effort. This marks the second period of the Fatimid history, which ended in 1171 A.D. After marching into Egypt Jawhar al-Siqilli built the city of al-Qahira and from there they ruled Greater Syria and were the guardians of the Holy Places in Hijaz. Fatimid caliphs claimed themselves the true caliphs as opposed to the Abbasids in Baghdad. Their da‘is for Isma‘ili ideology were sent by the Fatimids as far as Yemen and Sind. Despite all their efforts the people directly under their rule remained Sunni. The economy of Egypt witnessed a boost with Fatimid administration and trade links were well maintained and supported with the main centers in the world. Some of the finest examples of Islamic art were a product of Fatimid workshops. The Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo has a vast collection of Fatimid woodwork and luster, at which they excelled. Their architecture was greatly influenced by the style of North Africa, mainly that of the Aghlabids. Mosques usually followed the riwāq style with the protruding entrances and the tower-like minarets. Muqarnas first appeared in Egypt during their rule. They mastered stucco carving and all the extant Fatimid mihrābs are a proof to that. Their style was influenced by the Samarra style of carving and then Persian influence took the lead, as can seen from the mihrāb in al-Juhyūshi.  

 

Finial  A ornamental part usually placed at the top of an architectural structure such as a minaret or canopy. It can also refer to an ornamental piece ending at the top of a post or a piece of furniture. 

 

Fiqh  The scienc of Islamic law; jurisprudence.   

Fisqiyya   In architecture the word has several meanings. It means either a basin for ablutions, a fountain or a small grave.  

 

Fleur de Lis  French royal lily. Frequently used in Mamluk crenellations.   

Folio  From the Latin 'folium'; it means a sheet in a manuscript. Sheets are numbered consecutively while the front and back are given letters a and b or r and v (recto and verso).  

 

Fritware  A hard, whitish, kind of pottery made of quartz, white clay and frit. Frit itself is made of quartz with soda flux. 

 

Frontispiece The first page of a manuscript. Also means the pediment over doors and the gable on  

top of the middle part of a building.  

Funduq  A North African complex used by merchants for lodging or storage. It is usually a multi-story building contructed around a central courtyard. Such complexes are also known as caravanserais, wikalas, ribats, or khans according to regional differences. 

 

Furn   Arabic for oven or bakery.    

Fusayfisa’  Mosaic. In Egypt the use of mosaic began during the Roman era in Alexandria, especially in baths. The design employed then influenced to a great degree Coptic textile designs.  

 

Futuwwa  Chivalry order, usually associated craft guilds or Sufi orders.

Ghazi  Conqueror or warrior, often referring to Turkomans on the frontiers of Islam.    

Ghaznavids (962-1187 A.D.) 

A Turkish dynasty that ruled Khurasan, Afghanistan and northern India from its base in Ghazna. Their founder Nasir al-Dawla Sebuktigin ruled this area on behalf of the Samanid court and eventually ruled the province for himself. It was his son Mahmud of Ghazna (r. 998-1030 A.D.) who became fully independent and became known as the 'hammer of the infidels' because of his victories in the Indian subcontinent. Towards the end of his life he overruled the Buwayhids and occupied Ray and Hamadan. As a dynasty that proclaimed affinity to Persianate culture through claiming Persian rather than Turkish lineage, Mahmud insisted on maintaining a Persian administration and cultural legacy. Under his son Mas‘ud the empire disintegrated in the west and Khurasan and Khawarizm were lost to the Saljuks. With the rise of the Ghurids in central Afghanistan the power of the Ghaznavids was reduced dramatically. Architecture flourished during their rule in the cities of Bust, Balkh, Herat and Nishapur. Unfortunately most of the sites of the Ghaznavid capitals are now in ruins. In Bust, remains of the palace of Lashkhari Bazaar in the suburbs, the arch of Bust, and the Giyath al-Din Mausoleum exist, while in Ghazni, the Palace of Mas'ud III, and the Bahram Shah minaret have survived. 

 

Ghiordes Knot 

'Turkish' or symmetrical now used in carpets and rugs.   

Ghurab   Literally means a crow but in Mamluk architecture it means door hooks and latches.    

Ghurfa   Arabic for room.    

Ghurids (1150-1212 A.D.) 

Sunni Eastern Persian dynasty that ruled from the central region of Afghanistan, which was called Ghur, lasting from the mid-twelfth to early thirteenth century A.D. They were originally chiefs of mountain tribes who had defeated the Khwarazmis in Iran and the Ghaznavids in Afghanistan and India, where their first known ruler was Izz al-Din Husayn who paid tribute to the Saljuk Sultan Sanjar. Once the Saljuks fell in Khurasan the Ghurids then established an empire stretching from the Caspian Sea to northern India. The empire ended when internal squabbles arose. Artistically the Ghurids are best exemplified by the madrasa at Shah-i Mashhad, which is remarkable for its brick and terracotta decoration and best shows the style of the period.  

 

Girikh  Knotted geometric ornament.   

Gul  Rose.   

Gunbad   Persian for dome. It denotes free-standing domed mausolea.    

Gur   Persian for wild donkey, but also means tomb. This is why we have Gur-i Mir, or Tomb of the Amir, in Samarkand where Timur Lang is buried.

Hadith   The sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. Any hadith is of two parts the matn (subject) and the isnad (chain of transmission).  

 

Hadra  Literally means presence and is used by Sufis to denote an act of devotion. In a hadra different prayers, verses from the Qur’an and zikr (remembrance of God) are recited/chanted. 

 

Hafsids (1229-1574 A.D.) 

This was the dynasty ruling Tunisia, eastern Algeria and Tripoli from their main capital Tunis. They were originally the Berber tribes of Banu Hafs Umar, named after one of the primary supporters of Ibn Tumart, the Almohad founder. Abu Hafs Umar's son, Abu Zakariya Yaha (r. 1229-1249 A.D.) became the Almohad governor of Tunisia, and established independence in 1229 A.D. creating the largest dynasty succeeding the Almohads. Zakariya's son, Muhammad I al-Muntasir (r.1249-1277 A.D.) repelled the Seventh Crusade in 1270 A.D., taking on the title of caliph. Following his death bloody feuds errupted, but prosperity was recovered under Abu-l Abbas Ahmad (1370-1394 A.D.) and continued until 1494 A.D. when many sub-regions gained independence. The Hafsids were dominated by Ottomans in 1505 A.D. and forced to accept the Spanish Emperor Charles V's occupation in 1535 A.D. They struggled between Ottoman authority and Spanish attacks until they were eventually deposed by the Ottomans in 1574 A.D. 

 

Haft rang  Persian for seven colours. It describes overglaze painted tiles in Iran.    

Hajib   Derived from the Arabic root hajab or to veil. A hajib is a chamberlain who controlled the access to the ruler.  

 

Hajj   The Pilgrimage to Mecca. It can also be used as a title for someone who has gone on pilgrimage. In the latter context, Hajj refers to a man and Hajjah is used for women.  

 

Halabi  A special type of a staircase mentioned frequently in the Mamluk documents, however examples of which are no longer extant. The name is derived from Halab (Aleppo), because the style was inspired from there.  

 

Hamam/Hammam  

Refers to bath houses, both private and public. Public hammams were an important feature of Islamic cities. 

 

Hanafi   One of the four Sunni legal schools. The originator of this school was Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man ibn Thabit ibn Zuta (699-767 A.D.), a Persian who studied with Ja‘far al-Sadiq in Madina.  

 

Hanbali  One of the four Sunni legal schools. The originator of this school was Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780-855 A.D.). His school of law was the strictest amongst the four.  

 

Haniyya   A squinch. An architectural element in the form of a niche used to carry domes on square or rectangular bases. Some other uses are purely decorative as the one used on the Raqqa gate built by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur in the 8th century A.D. In a sense it was the basis for the evolution of muqarnas.  

 

Hanut   Rooms beneath religious buildings used as shops, warehouses, or stand-alone stores. This can be seen in the shops beneath the Mosque of Salih Tala’i‘ (1160 A.D.), the Madrasa of Sarghatmish (1356 A.D.) and the Mosque of Qijmas al-Ishaqi (1481 A.D.). The hanuts were rented and the revenue generated as a result was used for the upkeep of the building.  

 

Haram  Arabic word generally referring to a sort of sanctuary. It is usually used to denote sanctuary of the mosque, specifically with reference to the Holy Mosques of Mecca and Medina. 

 

Haramayn  Arabic term referring to the Holy Mosques of Mecca and Medina. It derives from the word haram, meaning sanctuary. 

 

Haramlik  Derived from Turkish. The space in a house or palace allocated for the women.    

Hasht Bihisht  Literally means 'Eight Paradises,' and is a term used to refer to octagonal pavilions. 

 

Hasil   A storage place. They were rooms found in wikalas or beneath religious buildings, the function of which were the same as the hanut.  

 

Hawd   Water basin.    

Hawsh   A large open area that could be a courtyard of a house or a cemetery attached to a large religious structure.  

 

Hayat  Ground floor hall in Anatolian Ottoman houses used to receive male guests.   

Hayr  Walled enclosure, sometimes used to contain game for hunting, and usually associated with early Islamic palaces. Examples are found in Qasr al-Hayr West (724-7 A.D.)and Qasr al-Hayr East (728-9 A.D.) in Palmyra, Syria, although these enclosures may have been more utilitarian in nature.  

 

Hazar Baf  Persian, literally meaning 'thousand weavings'. In architecture it is a surface decoration where the wall is patterned in relief with bricks that create a play of light and shadow.  

 

Hazira  Funerary enclosure that is unroofed and often includes a mosque, found particularly in the Iranian regions.  

 

Hilal   Crescent.    

Hijra  The migration of Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Madina (Yathrib) in 622 A.D., which is the first year in the Hijri calendar.  

 

Hira  Camp for short-term usage.   

Hiraqlah  A square terrace-like structure with four corner towers that is surrounded by a circular moat and circular walls. 

 

Hisba  Prefecture of civil life during the medieval period. The post was held by the muhtasib.  

 

Hisn   A fortress.    

Hizam  With reference to the kiswa of the Ka'ba this is an embroidered or woven textile band composed of eight sections used to cover the upper part of the kiswa. 

 

Hujra  Room, chamber or cell.   

Husayn  Al-Husayn was the second son of ‘Ali and Fatima, and the grandson of the Prophet. He was born in 642 A.D. and was murdered in 680 A.D. Being a venerated saint, many structures were built in different parts of the Muslim world commemorating him. The Fatimids had brought his head from Karbala’ and buried it next to the Eastern Palace. The 19th century mosque of al-Husayn now occupies this spot.  

 

Hypostyle  A structure composed of supporting columns beneath a flat roof. This was very popular in mosque construction, particularly in the early periods.

Idrisids (789-985 A.D.) 

This dynasty ruling from North Africa during the ninth century. A.D., was founded by Moulay Idris ibn Abdallah, a descendant of the Prophet. The Berbers in Morocco recognized him as their leader and he founded Fez in 789 A.D., thus creating the first independent Islamic dynasty in Morocco, which continued until 985 A.D. when their last ruler was killed. Moulay Idris's son, Idris II, created the first central government, stressing the Islamic-Arab character of the state, founded Qayrawan and Andalus mosques, and Qayrawan university. The Idrisids were Shi'i, and were thus at odds with all their eastern neighbors. 

 

Ijaza  Licence or authorization. This is usually in the form of a certificate awarded to a student after successful completion of the study of Islamic law, hadith and Qur'an. It is also awarded to students of calligraphy once they master a certain writing style. The ijaza functioned as a certified qualification.  

 

Ikat  Textile technique where threads are tie-dyed before weaving.   

Il-Khanids (1256-1353 A.D.) 

The first Mongol dynasty to rule Iran. In January 1256 A.D. Hulagu the grandson of Jinghis Khan crossed the Oxus River coming from Transoxiana (bilad ma wara’ al-nahr) to Iranian lands to consolidate the victories of his grandfather. The empire founded by Hulagu in Iran was one of the four Mongol empires established by Jinghis Khan’s descendants. The first Il-Khanid to rule after Hulagu was his son Abaqa

 

followed by his grandson Arghun who at a certain stage converted from Shamanism to Buddhism. Ghazan, Arghun’s son, converted to Islam in 1295 A.D. and in so doing the ruling class of Iran were once again Muslims. Ghazan was followed by his brother Uljaytu who made twelver Shi‘i Islam the court religion in 1310 A.D. The Il-Khanids thence became very important patrons of Islamic art and architecture. Many grand examples from the period can still be seen in Iran. The mosque of ‘Ali Shah in Tabriz (the Arg), the Friday Mosque at Kirman, the Friday Mosque at Varamin and the stucco mihrab added to the Masjid-i Jami‘ at Isfahan are some examples of their excellent patronage in the field of architecture. It was during the Il-Khanid period that tile mosaic gradually became the main form of decoration. The Qur’ans commissioned by both Ghazan and Uljaytu are among the summits of illumination and calligraphy.  

Ikhshidids  A dynasty that ruled Egypt right before the Fatimid conquest. The founder was the general Muhammad ibn Tughdj al-Ikhshid. However the figure that played an important role in shaping the empire was Kafur, a black eunuch who impressed ibn Tughdj greatly and was thence promoted. After the death of Ali al-Ikhshid in 966 A.D. Kafur declared himself as the sole ruler of Egypt. He was able to delay the Fatimid expansion in Egypt until his death. He is known to have sponsored scholars and writers, the most important of which was al-Mutanabbi. It is also known from the sources that he constructed a number of sumptuous palaces, two mosques, a hospital and the Kafuriyya gardens. Unfortunately none of his establishments are extant. 

 

Imam   A religious leader; the preacher of the Friday ceremony or leader of the Muslim community.  

 

Imamis  See Ithna 'Asharis.   

Imaret  Soup kitchen; a main unit found in Ottoman religious complexes.   

‘Iqd   Arabic for arch. Some of the different kinds of arches are: ‘iqd mada’ini: trilobed arch; ‘iqd mudabab: pointed arch; ‘iqd qawsi: horseshoe arch.  

 

Iqta‘  A grant of land given for military officials and is not hereditary. The iqta' system was created by the Buwayhids and was developed extensively by the Saljuks. 

 

Isma'ilis  An important Shi'i community whose ideology is based on recognizing the esoteric, batin, and exoteric, zahir, aspect of scripture. Named after the eldest son of Ja'far al-Sadiq (d.765 A.D.), Isma'il, decendents of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Ismailis made significant contributions to Islamic civilization, particularly during the flourishing period when they established the Fatimid caliphate. Over time, the Isma'ilis have been divided into several main branches and minor sects, where currently the two major branches are the Nizaris and the Daudis. The Nizaris recognize the Agha Khan as their imam, while the Daudis belong to the Mustali-Tayyibi branch who recognize a line of da'is in their imam's absence.  

 

Istabl   Stable.    

Ithna 'Asharis 

They constitute the largest division of Shi'i Muslims, and are named after their recognition of the twelve imams. They are also known as Imamis or Twelvers.  

 

Iwan  A vaulted open hall with a rectangular or arched facade. The iwan is a Persian invention and its origins can be traced back to the palaces of Achaemenid Iran. The ceremonial purpose of the structure is epitomized by its use in Ctesiphon, where we find the magnificent remains of the 6th century palace of Kisra or Taq-i Kisra. The iwan worked well as an entrance of a mosque, an entrance to the prayer hall or the prayer hall itself. The combination of four iwans arranged axially around a courtyard became one of the most important plans of religious buildings in the Muslim world. The qibla iwan (sanctuary iwan) was always the largest and the deepest. The opposite one was next in size and the other two were the smallest. 

 

Izar   A decorative frieze.

Jalayrids (1336-1432 A.D.) 

Mongul dynasty ruling Iraq, western Iran and Azerbaijan from their main capital in Baghdad and also Tabriz (1358-188 A.D.). They were originally a major Mongul tribe that rose to high positions under the Ilkhanids. Sheikh Hasan Buzurg (r. 1336-1356 A.D.) seized power of Baghdad in 1336 A.D. after the Ilkhanid downfall in 1335 A.D. and his son, sheikh Uwais (r. 1356-1374 A.D.) took over northwest Iran in 1358 A.D.,

 

Azerbaijan in 1360 A.D., Mosul and Diyarbakir in 1365 A.D. The Jalayrids later fought against the Muzaffarids in Iran, the Qaraqoyunlu in Diyarbakir and Tamerlane in Baghdad. Tamerlane expelled the Jalayrid ruler from Baghdad in 1393 A.D., but the latter returned in 1395 A.D. The battles continued where Tamerlane detsroyed Baghdad in 1401 A.D., but the Jalayrids returned again in 1406 A.D. The Qaraqoyunlu however ousted the Jalayrids from Baghdad in 1411 A.D. and deposed the last Jalayrid ruler from Basra and Khuzistan in 1432 A.D. Artistic patrimony by the Jalayrids was not as glamorous as other Turkish dynasties, although Shaikh Uwais was a great patron of the arts. They nevertheless developed their own distinct style in miniature painting. 

Jali  Pierced marble or stone screen used in India.   

Jamalun   A term used to describe a gabled roof.    

Jami‘   From the Arabic root jam', which means to 'gather things' and literally means mosque. This is why it is used to denote the mosque where the Friday noon prayer is celebrated. It is the principal religious building of Islam. The simplest and earliest form it took was the riwaq-mosque; opened arcades overlooking a squarish or rectangular open courtyard.  

 

Janissaries  Derived from the Turkish yeni ceri or 'new troop'. These were the infantry troops of the Ottoman army brought at a very young age from the Balkans, converted to Islam and highly trained. They were directly answerable to the Sultan.  

 

Jaran   A basin usually found in Mamluk baths. The different types encountered in the Mamluk documents are the 'marble jaran' and the 'stone jaran'.  

 

Jarokha  This is a feature used extensively in Mughal architecture derived from Hindu architecture. It is a protruding balcony supported on corbels, with a hood placed on columns.  

 

Jashankir  Persian for 'taster'. A prominent Mamluk post occupied by one of the amirs.    

Jawsaq   Derived from Persian meaning kiosk, pavilion or fortress. In Burji Mamluk architecture the gallery beneath the finial of the minaret was referred to as a jawsaq.  

 

Jihad   'Holy war' to extend Islam in the non-Muslim provinces. Those who die in jihad are considered martyrs. However this is the limited meaning of jihad. The other meaning is the greater war against one’s self; jihad al-nafs.  

 

Jizya   A tax that used to be levied on non-Muslim adult males, specifically the people of the book, although the infirm and poor were exempted from this tax. In return for exemption from military service, this money was used for maintaining the army. If a Muslim ruler could not provide the needed security for his subjects, he was required to refund this money; which is what Salah al-Din did when he was forced to withdraw from Syria. 

 

Joggled Voussoirs 

Construction method where the stones of an arch or lintel are placed interlocking. Joggled voussoirs were typically used in alternating colors in Ayyubid architecture, becoming more complex in design under the Mamluks where they became a major architectural decorative feature. In Mamluk documents they are referred to as 'atab musfan. 

 

Jukha   Woolen blanket.    

Juz’  Arabic and literally means 'part'. Its common usage is for one of the thirty volumes of the Qur’an. The plural is ajza’

Ka‘ba   The house of God which is located in Mecca. Muslims face the Ka‘ba when they pray and this is the direction to which mihrabs point. It was Ibrahim (Abraham) and his son Isma‘il who rebuilt the Ka‘ba as ordered by God. The Qur’an tells us that God ordered Ibrahim to build a sanctuary at a specific spot in Bacca (XXII:26), another name for Mecca. Ibrahim and Isma‘il were told that it should be a cube and around a celestial stone, which was preserved nearby a hill in Mecca and then given to Ibrahim by an Angel. This black stone was kept at the eastern corner of the Ka‘ba. God then informed Ibrahim to institute the rite of pilgrimage to Mecca.  

 

Kalip  Stencil used in calligraphy.   

Kapi  Turkish for portal or gateway.    

Karalama  Practice sheet used by calligrapher.   

Karkhana   A term used in the literature written on Indian art and means the princely workshop of the Mughal court.  

 

Katib  Scribe, clerk or secretary. The root of this word katab means to write.    

Katib al-Shari‘a 

A secretary of an Islamic court. It literally it means 'scribe of the religious law'.    

Katkhuda  Mamluk rank of executive offficer of the janissaries.   

Khan   Derived from Persian meaning a 'house with full amenities'. In Islamic architecture khan is used to describe the caravansaries found in Iran, Syria and Anatolia. An alternative name for khan is wikala or ribat. The basic plan consisted of an open court with a well and surrounded by rooms for storing and displaying merchants’ goods. Annexed there is usually an area that would function like a stable for housing the animals of the merchants, mostly horses. The upper floors of a khan are the accommodation areas, with single rooms, duplexes or triplexes for the travellers. The details of the plan differed from one province to the other. Khan can also refer to Turkish nobility, a term commonly used during the reign of the Saljuk and Mongol rulers.  

 

Khanqa  Persian for Sufi monastery. The idea behind a Sufi hospice started when Zayd ibn Sawkhan constructed during the caliphate of ‘Uthman ibn ‘Afan a house for ascetics. The first time the word khanqa is encountered was in the 10th century A.D. in Khurasan.  

 

Kharaba/Khirba  

Ground with ruins; ruined building.    

Kharaza  Above-ground opening of the well of the sahrij, water tank.    

Khart   Small carved wooden pieces used in the construction of geometrical window grilles.  

Khartum  A wind-catcher on the roof of a building.    

Khatt  Literally it means a line and is used in Egypt to mean street as well.    

Khatta  Literally means 'marked out.' It was used in the early Islamic period with reference to marking out new settlements such as Kufa, Basra and Fustat. It also indicates the sense of one marking out a piece of land to claim its possession. 

 

Khawarnaq   An Arabized Persian word meaning a small wooden niche. It literally means the place where a king eats or drinks.  

 

Khazana   Small room or chamber.    

Khazindar   The one responsible for the treasury of the Sultan.    

Khazna  Treasury.    

Khedive   The title given to the sovereign ruling Egypt from 1867 until 1914 A.D. under the command of the Ottoman Sultan. The first Khedive was Isma‘il, son of Muhammad Ali.  

 

Khilwa   A small cell for meditation. The word root in Arabic khuluw means to become isolated, destitute or unoccupied.  

 

Khukha   A wicket. A small door set in a larger one.    

Khurda  In architectural terms it means a small piece of colored marble used for marble mosaic panels.  

 

Khuristan   A small cabinet or room for the storage of prepared food.    

Khushkhasha   An Arabized Persian term meaning a small kiosk. In Mamluk architecture it means a small shallow stucco dome with perforations in the form of geometric patterns. It was always used as a ceiling technique for toilets. A typical example is the one still found in the toilet in the house of Muhib al-Din al-Muwaqqa‘ in Bayt al-Qadi known as the waqf of Uthman Katkhuda.  

 

Khutba  Literally means 'speech' or 'sermon', but generally refers to the Friday sermon.   

Kilim  Rug of flatweave without knots.   

Kiosk  Turkish term referring to a small pavilion used for temporary residence.   

Kiswa  The black silk that covers the Ka‘ba, which used to be donated by Egypt.    

Kit'a  See Qit'a.   

Kitab  Book.   

Kufi (Kufic)   One of the oldest types of Arabic calligraphy and the first calligraphic perfection of Islam. Its name derives from the Iraqi town Kufa, which was one of the earliest centeres of Islamic learning. Kufic has many derivatives; al-kufi al-farisi or al-kufi al-baghdadi and al-kufi al-maghribi. It is also the direct ancestor of all the calligraphic styles of Andalusia and of North-West Africa.  

 

Kulliye  Turkish for madrasa or a religious school where students reside as well as study. This term was used in Ottoman Turkey where this institution flourished. See madrasa.  

 

Kumbet  Turkish for free-standing mausoleum.    

Kundal  Multicolored painting on a relief case.    

Kunna  Narrow canopy above window, usually wooden.   

Kurdi   A decorative element (decorative brackets) that appeared in Egypt during the Burji Mamluk period. Usually made out of carved wood, it was used to decorate the springing of the arch into the area proper of an iwan. During the Ottoman period they became narrower and more elongated.  

 

Kursi  The word means chair and in architecture it had several meanings. The most popular meaning is the chair that carries the mushaf (Qur’an) in a religious building. Qur’ans endowed to religious buildings were very big in size and were always kept on the kursi where the reader sits and recites from it. The lower part of the kursi is a closet to keep the Qur’an or its volumes (ajza’). A kursi was as lavishly decorated as any other part of the building. Exquisite geometric designs executed on wood can be seen on kursis. Another usage for the term is to mean toilet and in this context it is called kursi raha, kursi khala’, kursi mirhad. It also means the base of a minaret.  

 

Kuttab  A primary school where children learn how to read, write and recite the Qur’an, and is usually a charitable foundation. 

 

Kutubiyya  A wooden cupboard for the storage of books found in houses and religious buildings as well. Usually it is in the form of a recess in one of the walls that is covered by wooden doors.

Lala  The tutor of the sultan's sons during Mamluk times.   

Lajvardina  Enamelled pottery with a cobalt blue glaze.   

Laqabi  Pottery decoration where colored glazes are placed within carved ridges.   

Latif   Literally means gentle and gracious. In Mamluk documents it was used to describe any element that was small in size.  

 

Lazurd  Lapis lazuli.    

Levha  Large calligraphic panel.   

Libn  Sun-dried earth bricks.   

Libna  Area unit, c. 44m2   

Lintel  The horizontal stone or beam over an opening. This is usually found above doors and windows and was often decorated.  

 

Luster  A technique for decorating glass that developed in Egypt and Iraq through the 7th and 8th centuries. Later it was adopted for the decoration of pottery. Lusterware was made by the addition of metal alloys on the glaze and then firing the item at a low temperature.

Mabayn  Cloisters or corridor.   

Mabkhara   Literally means incense burner. The term was used to describe a specific shape of minaret finial that flourished in Egypt during the Ayyubid period and the early Bahri Mamluk. Examples of this finial can be found in the Madrasa Salihiyya, Zawiyat al-Hinud, minarets installed by Baybars al-Jashankir in the mosque of al-Hakim and those in the mosque of Salar and Sanjar.  

 

Machicolation/Machicoulis  Openings looking downward used for defense; usually found in forts, citadels, city gates and walls. These could be used to throw stones or pour boiling liquids on unwanted intruders.  

 

Mada’ini   In Mamluk architecture it describes a trilobed arch. The word itself could be derived from the city of Mada’in (Ctesiphon).  

 

Madfan   Grave.    

Madhhab  School of Islamic law. There are four schools in Sunni Islam, Maliki, Hanafi, Hanbali and Shafi'i. 

 

Madina  City. If the name of the city however is al-Madina, then it is referring to Medina, the Prophet's city.  

 

Madrasa   An institute for higher education, in which religious sciences were taught. The madrasa usually consisted of the teaching halls and the dorms. Students there studied Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), traditional system of mathematics (abjad), literature, history, higher grammar, etc. The earliest madrasas we know of are those built in the tenth century A.D. in eastern Iran. Modern historians working on the pre-Saljuq period in eastern Iran suggest that madrasas existed one and a half centuries before the official Saljuq adoption of the institution. These however had not been open to the public during that period. The Ghaznavids also used madrasas in order to spread Islam in the areas of Ghur. Medieval documents prove the existence of about 38 madrasas in Nishapur alone, all predating the great madrasa of Nizam al-Mulk (1068 A.D.). The formal history of the madrasa as a public institution starts with the Saljuk wazir Nizam al-Mulk who inaugurated his madrasa in Baghdad in 1068 A.D. Following this inauguration, several madrasas were disseminated throughout the Saljuk territories and many were found in cities including Merv, Balkh and Herat. Some of these madrasas were annexed to already existing mosques. Some of the madrasas were built by teachers who taught in them, by Sufis or by wealthy notables. Many madrasas were built next to the houses of the founders or in other

 

cases the houses became the madrasas. Architectural origins of the madrasa are traced back to eastern Iran where the institution originated. Bartol’d linked the madrasa to the Buddhist vihara, which flourished in eastern Iran and Central Asia right before the Muslim conquest of the area. The structure was a communal one combining worship, education and burial. The vihara constituted of several elements and the ones discovered are of a four-iwan plan overlooking a courtyard. André Godard argues that the Khurasani house plan is the origin of the madrasa plan, with its four iwans overlooking a courtyard. In the beginning each madrasa was dedicated to the teaching of one of the four schools of law (madhhab); Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i. The tutor in the madrasa sits, probably with his back against a pillar, and expounds to a group of students sitting in a circle around him in what is known as a halaqa. Since Egypt was Shi‘i during the dissemination of madrasas all around the Islamic world, there are no madrasas to be found in it before the twelfth century A.D. Madrasas were introduced in Egypt with the advent of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi, who used the institution to eliminate all the traces of Shi‘i presence in Egypt. Five years after his arrival there were five madrasas in Cairo. The most important of the Ayyubid madrasas was the last, the Salihiyya built in 1242 A.D., which was intended for all the four rites. Under the rule of the Mamluks the building of madrasas flourished tremendously; the first of which was that of Baybars al-Bunduqdari built in 1266 A.D. in the form of a cruciform plan or four iwan plan overlooking a courtyard. In 1356 A.D. we get the first mosque-madrasa in Cairo, that of Sultan Hasan with a miniature scale plan of the mosque for each madrasa occupying one of the corners of the building. Being of a residential nature madrasas had amenities for the students living inside like toilets, kitchens, stables and in some cases, hospitals.  

Mafraj  Reception chamber, often with a view.    

Maghani   See aghani.    

Maghribi   A fully cursive script which developed directly from Kufic.    

Maghtas   Derived from ghatas or to immerse or dip. It is found in baths and is the pool in the hot room.  

 

Majana  Clepsydra. This is an old device used to tell time by measuring the regulated flow of water through an opening. 

 

Ma'jil  Open air cistern.   

Majlis   Derived from the Arabic root, jalas, which means to sit. A room in a house which served the same function as the iwan, to receive people, and always overlooked a court. Its mention in the sources started with the tenth century A.D. historian Mas‘udi who described the majlis hiri bi-kummayn or the T-plan house found in Iraq and Egypt. During the Mamluk period it meant a room that was closed as to differentiate it from the iwan.  

 

Majma'  Large assembly hall. It is also used to refer to prayer areas in complexes built in the proximity of the Haramayn in Mecca and Medina, and al-Masjid al-Aqsa in Jerusalem. In this context, the majma' replaces what would have been the mosque area in a madrasa or khanqa complex for instance. The proximity of these three holy mosques makes the construction of nearby individual mosques redundant since most people would not foresake praying in the Haramayn and al-Masjid al-Aqsa.  

 

Makhzan   Warehouse or storeroom.    

Maliki  One of the four Sunni legal schools. The originator of this school was Imam Malik (713-795 A.D.), the second of the four major imams, who studied and taught in Medina. His teachings spread to the western Islamic world including al-Andalus, Spain. 

Nadir   Refers to the frieze beneath the ceiling in Mamluk architecture.    

Nahas   Copper.    

Nafura  Fountain.    

Namaz  Persian for prayer. See Salat.   

Naskh/Naskhi  

Literally means 'copied'. It is a type of calligraphy that was developed by the wazir Ibn Muqala, and is one of the most widespread styles. This rounded, clearly written script is considered one of the six 'classical hands'. 

 

Nasrids (1232-1492 A.D.) 

This was the last Muslim dynasty that ruled Spain, lasting from 1238 A.D. when it was founded by Muhammad I ibn Nasr, until 1492A.D. when it fell to the Christians. It was following the defeat of Almohads when many Andalusian Muslim cities fell into Christian hands, that the Muslim general Muhammad I ibn Nasr rose to power and was able to control Granada. Although Muhammad I ibn Nasr, was able to expand the Granada region further south, he still created peace treaties with the Christian kings, and paid tribute to Ferdinand I of Castile. The Nasrid dynasty continued until Granada fell to the Christians in 1492 A.D. The Nasrids were the patrons of one of the most celebrated Islamic buildings, Alhambra, which was their main palace. In general, the Nasrid court in Granada was a viable cultural center. Ibn Khaldun was a diplomat in the court of Muhammad VI.  

 

Nasta‘liq   A type of calligraphy developed in Iran and known also as the farsi script or ta‘liq. This script is composed of elongated sweeping diagonals and short ascending strokes. Popularly used for non-Qur'anic Iranian manuscripts, this type of calligraphy was also extensively used by the Ottomans on their buildings and in their manuscripts. Calligraphers who excelled at this script included Sultan Ali al-Mashhadi, Mir Ali and Mir ‘Imad. 

Ottomans  An important dynasty that traces its origins to Uthman, the leader of a Turkic clan who moved to the borders of Byzantine empire having fled the Mongul invasion in the thirteenth century A.D. A strong military organization was established and by 1453 A.D. the Ottomans had taken over what remained of the Byzantine Empire, making Constantinople their capital, Istanbul. By the sixteenth century A.D. they ruled all of modern Turkey, the Balkans, much of North Africa and the Middle East. Although the Ottomans continued to be a major power until the nineteenth century A.D., they had already started losing land to local leaders in Europe and the Middle East. Joining the First World War was a destructive blow leading to the loss of the rest of its Arab provinces. Its end was at the hands of the movement of the Young Turks led by Ataturk in 1922 A.D. The Ottoman dynasty can thus be divided into three stages. The first, from the thirteenth century A.D. until the capture of Constantinople represents a period of growth from a small sovereignty to a major dynasty. From 1453 A.D. to the mid-sixteenth century A.D. is considered the grand Ottoman period of superior developments in technology and arts. The last period, was that of the decline which started in the mid-sixteenth century A.D. until its end in 1922 A.D. The Ottomans left a rich architectural legacy for they had built extensively, particularly in their imperial cities, establishing a recognized Ottoman architecture known for its tall pointed minarets, multi-leveled domes and tilework. They were also great patrons of the arts, where Iznik tiles, carpets and textiles are among their most celebrated artistic legacies.

Parison  Molten glass ball inflated on a blowpipe. This is also known as a 'gather'.   

Pietra Dura  Technique of inlay using colored and semi-precious stone used in Mughal architecture.  

 

Pishtaq  Persian term for portal projecting vertically or horizontally perpendicular to the façade.   

Pomander  Pierced container of perfumes.   

Pontil  Solid metal rod onto which glass vessels are moved after the blowpipe. The mark left by the pontil on the base of the glass object is called the 'pontil mark'. 

Qa‘a   A room with the following plan: two elevated areas (iwans) opposing each other and overlooking a lower area called the durqa‘a. The plan was inspired from the four-iwan plan or cruciform plan of the religious buildings. They were found in houses on ground floors and first floors alike. The source of light and air in the qa‘a was the shukhshaykha or a wooden hexagonal skylight. For extra ventilation a badhahanj was usually found on top of one of the iwans. In Cairene architecture the size of the qa‘as was reduced as time went by, Burji Mamluk qa‘as being smaller than Bahri Mamluk ones. Mashrabiyyas were used inside the qa‘as to cover the recesses on the side walls of the two iwans; these were called aghani. The area inside the aghani was reached by a small staircase.  

 

Qabaq  Sport based on target practice.   

Qabr   Grave.    

Qabw   An Arabic term meaning 'to make something in the shape of a dome'. In architecture in means a vault. Vaults are of many shapes, including barrel, crossed and fan.  

 

Qadi  Arabic for judge.    

Qajars (1796-1925 A.D.) 

This dynasty, of Turkic tribal origins, originated as a tribal federation established by Muhammad Khan (d. 1797 A.D.), and took power over Iran in 1796 A.D. The eighteenth century A.D. saw civil conflicts which ended Qajar unity, and by 1919 A.D. Reza Khan led a coup ending Qajar rule, leading to the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1925 A.D. Qajar art was heavily influenced by European art, and marks the beginning of artistic decadence. 

 

Qal‘a  A citadel.    

Qalansuwa   Pointed turban for men.    

Qamariyya   A type of opening in the form of a stucco grille. There is no one single shape associated with a qamariyya, it could be round, rectangular or squarish. In Mamluk documents they have been described in different ways; including stone carved, with stained glass.  

 

Qamis  Short tunic or shirt.   

Qandil  Lamp.   

Qaraqoyunlus (1380/90 -1469 A.D.) 

Literally meaning the 'Tribes of the Black Sheep', this Turcoman dynasty named after their original totem animal, ruled parts of eastern Anatolia, Azerbaijan, the Caucasus, Iraq and most of Iran from 1380/90 -1469 A.D. Originally Jalayrid allies, Qara Muhammad (r. 1380-1390 A.D.) ruled the territories from eastern Anatolia through Azerbaijan and Armenia, until his successor Qara Yusuf (r. 1390-1420 A.D.) gained independence and took over northwest Iran with Tabriz. Battling against the Timurids and the Jalayrids, he took over Baghdad in 1411 A.D., Diyarbakir, parts of Georgia and Shirvan by 1419 A.D. Their zenith was under Jahanshah (1435-1467 A.D.) who deposed the Timurids in 1447 A.D., took over southern and central Iran with Isfahan in 1452 A.D., Fars and Kerman in 1453 A.D., and Herat in 1458 A.D. The Qaraqoyunlus were defeated by the Aqqoyunlus in 1467 A.D., and their last ruler was unseated in 1469 A.D. Their contribution to architecture can be seen in their capital Tabriz, where their blue mosque stands with its distinct style. 

 

Qarqal   A small basin to which water flows from the shadirwan.    

Qasaba  Central part or avenue of town or citadel. It usually comprises the main axial area. Can also refer to the citadel, capital or metropolis. 

 

Qashani   Glazed tiles. The name is derived from the city Kashan in Iran, which was a major centere of tile production. Tiles adorned buildings in Iran since the pre-Islamic period. In Egypt their use to decorate buildings was only introduced during the Mamluk period.  

 

Qasr  Palace.    

Qaysariyya   A type of caravanserai that lodges craftsmen on its upper floors and housed their  

goods on the ground floor around a sahn.  

Qaytun   In Egypt, it was the space in a house that overlooked water. Most of the houses overlooking the ponds in Cairo (birkat al-fil or al-azbakiyya) had a qaytun as its basement.  

 

Qibla  The direction to Ka‘ba in Mecca. For example, the mihrab is found in the qibla wall of a mosque.  

 

Qishlaq  Quarters used in winter, often by an army.    

Qit'a  Literally means 'piece', and is used to refer to a calligraphic panel.   

Qizilbash   Literally means 'red-head' and refers to Turkomen who followed the Safavids and were part of their court. They wore the red head gear known as taj-i Haydari.  

 

Qulla  Clay water jug. Architecturally can refer to a minaret finial that resembles the upper part of such a water jug. 

 

Qubba   Literally means dome. It is also used to mean a mausoleum.    

Qur’an   The Word of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad.

Rab‘   In Arabic, it literally means 'a place where someone would feel comfortable'. In Mamluk architecture the term describes a small hotel. A group of duplexes or triplexes rented mostly for travelers or to anyone interested. It can also be defined as a type of collective building for the accommodation of the middle class. Noteworthy examples are those of Qaytbay built in 1474 A.D. in the Northern Cemetery close to his funerary complex and that of Kizlar in Siyufiyya street built in 1618 A.D. Some rab‘s were found above wikalas, khans or stores.  

 

Rahba  An open stretch of space.    

Rank  A Persian word meaning colour and in a historical context it means blazon, insignia or emblem. It symbolizes the position of a dignitary and his functions. Different ranks used by the Mamluks included cupbearer (al-saqi), the one responsible for the royal arms (silahdar), the one responsible for the royal warehouse (jamdar), and the taster (jashinkir). The Bahri Mamluk Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun was the first to use written blazons and from his time onwards the inscribed rank became the sultanic blazon.  

 

Rawda  Garden or paradise.    

Rawhayn fi jasad  

Literally 'two souls in one body'. Medieval architects used this expression to describe two windows joined by a column in between.  

 

Rawshan  Another term for mashrabiyyas. More specifically, it is used to describe mashrabiyyas when they overlook a street, forming some sort of balcony.  

 

Rayhan  A calligraphic script where a finer pen is used for the vowels. This is considered one of the six 'classical hands'. 

 

Ribat   The term is derived from the Arabic root, rabata meaning to tie, to bind. It is a kind of caravanserai but with a specific function. By the tenth century A.D. it came to mean an Islamic castrum used as a base for holy war (jihad). Ribats were built throughout the Muslim world from Morocco to Central Asia. The word was also used to describe urban structures which served commercial purposes or in which Sufis congregated. Another role they played was supporting the postal services, especially throughout the Seljuk lands. Many ribats are still to be found in the Maghrib; Munastir, Susa, Tafertast and Tit. In the eastern Muslim lands we have the celebrated eleventh century Ribat-i Sharaf in Khurasan and Ribat-i Malik on the road between Bukhara and Samarqand. Khan, wikala, and caravanserai can also be used to denote a ribat, particularly in the commercial or lodging context. 

 

Rikabkhana   Derived from Persian, meaning stable.    

Riq'a  Calligraphic script usually used on administrative documents. It is also used sometimes for sura headings, dedications and colophons in Qur'ans. It is considered one of the six 'classical hands'. 

 

Riwaq   The meaning of this word differs according to the context in which it was used. In a mosque, it means an arcade carried on columns or pillars. In a house, it means a living unit with all its dependencies.

Sabat  Passage with vaulted ceiling.   

Sabil  Drinking fountain usually established for public charity.    

Sabil-Kuttab  A charitable foundation composed of a sabil, public water dispensary, and a kuttab, an elementary Qur'anic school for children where they would usually learn reading, writing and Qur'an. The sabil would usually be located on the ground floor with the kuttab above it on the first floor. This foundation could be attached to a mosque or be a separate structure in itself. 

 

Sadr   The back wall of an iwan.    

Safavids (1501-1722 A.D.) 

A dynasty that ruled Iran from 1501 A.D. until 1722 A.D. They were the descendants of the Sufi Shaykh Safy al-Din Ishaq (1252-1334 A.D.) who founded his tariqa in his hometown Ardabil in 1300 A.D. It was strictly Sunni in orientation but by the mid fifteenth century A.D. it became Shi‘i. At the age of twelve Shaykh Safy’s grandson Isma‘il invaded Iran. Isma‘il was full of passion and vigor and this was how he marched into Tabriz in 1501 A.D. after the Aq Qoyunlu fled in fear of his advances. Few years later he was ruling from Iraq to Uzbekistan. After his death in 1524 A.D. no other Safavid was as passionate or charismatic. Tabriz was the first capital, Qazvin the second and then later in 1598 A.D. Shah Abbas made Isfahan the capital. The last Safavid Shah was Sultan Husayn who was overthrown in 1722 A.D. by the Afghan Ghazali tribe. The Safavids were amongst the important patrons of Islamic art, however they are not one of the peaks. The Maydan-i Shah in Isfahan represents the typical Safavid style of architecture, which was to a great degree influenced by the Timurids but never reached its excellence.  

 

Saha  Terrace or open space.   

Sahn   The court of a mosque whether it be opened or closed.    

Sahrij   The root sahar means to melt something. In architecture it means a water tank.    

Salamlik   Men’s reception area in houses and palaces. During the ninteenth century A.D. rich households had the salamlik as a separate building.  

 

Salari  The wooden leaves of a window attached to the iron window grilles often encountered in sabils.  

 

Salat  Prayers. Derives from the Arabic root silla, meaning link. These are the second pillar of Islam and are performed by Muslims five times a day. In the context of the root, these prayers are a constant link to God. An individual must be ritually pure by performing wudu', ablution, beforehand, and must pray in any clean place oriented towards the qibla, i.e. towards the Ka'ba in Mecca. Prayers can be individually or in congregation. The Friday prayer taking place at noon however needs to be in congregation.  

 

Saljuks (1038-1195 A.D.) 

This was the first great Turkish dynasty to rule Iranian lands. The advent of Turkic tribes from beyond the Oxus and Syr Darya rivers had already been taking place long before the rise of Islam, and they were known as the nomadic predators of the Iranian north-eastern frontiers and the mercenaries in the armies of the Abbasid Caliphate. Those migrating into the Iranian lands were Turkish military aristocracy and many small Turkish dynasties replaced the established Iranian ones as what happened with the Samanids and the Ma’munid Khawarazm-Shahs. The Saljuks belong to the Oghuz clan part of the Gok Turkic tribes, rising to power with Tughril who marched into Baghdad in 1055 A.D. deposing the Buwayhid prince, and by 1058 A.D. the Abbasid Caliph al-Qa’im had bestowed on him an honorary title. The advent of the Saljuks, who eventually ruled from Transoxiana to Anatolia marks the

 

elimination of the Shi‘i presence in this part of the world. Not having a rich culture of their own, they adopted the cultural and literary heritage of Persia and maintained a Persian administration. They opened the way for the immigration of Turkic tribes to Anatolia, eventually leading to the Turkicization of Byzantine lands following the Manzikert victory in 1071 A.D. Sunni Islam was to become the system of their government, especially with the eradication of the Shi‘i Buwayhids. The Saljuks were the bearers of the flag of Sunni Islam and which they spread through the institution of the madrasa. The formal history of the madrasa as a public institution started with the Saljuk vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, who inaugurated his madrasa in Baghdad in 1068 A.D. Following this inauguration, more madrasas were established throughout the Saljuk territories, and many were found in Merv, Balkh, and Herat. Viziers, military officials and merchants also endorsed several madrasas. Architectural forms developed and spread rapidly during the Saljuk dynasty. An important transformation took place in the mosque plan, where a new prototype incorporating a domed chamber in the qibla area in front of the mihrab evolved. The combination of four iwans overlooking a court with a dome chamber on the qibla side soon became a standard plan throughout the Iranian lands. In general, the iwan became an important feature in both secular and religious architecture. In terms of decoration, elaborate stucco and terracotta were extensively used in Iran and the eastern areas, while stone was used in Anatolia. Few Saljuk monuments still remain in their homeland, Iran, for the majority was destroyed by the Mongul invasion. There are several madrasas and tombs in Iraq and Syria, but the most Saljuk monuments have remained in Anatolia.  

Saljuks of Rum (1037 A.D. - 1308 A.D.) 

This Turkish dynasty ruling Anatolia was a branch of the Great Saljuks. It was founded by Kutalmish, who was a cousin of the Saljuk rulers, and it was his son Suleyman I (r. 1077-1086 A.D.) who took over Iznik in 1078 A.D. During the Crusade conflicts the Saljuks of Rum managed to acquire extensive autonomy although they were under the official authority of the Great Saljuks. The dynasty experienced great prosperity from the mid twelfth century A.D. until the mid thirteenth century A.D. when in 1240 A.D. territories were lost and in 1243 A.D. they were defeated by the Monguls. From 1279 A.D. the Saljuks of Rum ruled under the authority of the Ilkhanids who eventually took over their territory making it an Ilkhanid province in 1308 A.D. Artistically the Saljuks of Rum were distinct from those of Iran. Their arts were influenced by Central Asia, Syria, Mesopotamia and of course, the land of Anatolia. The most popular plan for mosques was the basilica plan with three domes in front of the qibla wall. Monumental portals were another feature of the mosques there, together with the single or twin minarets. The entrance of the mosque of Sultan Hasan in Egypt was heavily influenced by Anatolian entrance portals, like the Ince Minare Madrasa in Konya or the G?k Madrasa in Sivas.  

 

Salsabil   A marble or stone plaque that leans on the wall of a sabil or a qa‘a and is part of the shadirwan. Its main function is for the water to flow over it, babbling into a fountain in the middle of the room. This plaque is decorated finely with geometric patterns or with carvings of fish.  

 

Samanids (819/874-999 A.D.) 

The Samanid dynasty, founded and named after Saman Khudat, ruled over Eastern Iran, Afganistan and Central Asia from the late ninth century to 999 A.D. This Sunni dynasty continued to be faithful to the Abassids, although they were Tahiridi subjects, where Saman Khudat's 4 grandsons were Tahirid governors in Heart, Shash, Fergana and Samarqand. In 874 A.D., the Tahiridis were overthrown by Nasr I ibn Ahmad (r. 874-892 A.D.), the son of the Samarqand governor, who then made Bukhara the capital. His brother, Ismail (r. 892-907 A.D.) defeated the Saffarid Empire by 903 A.D., controlling Afganistan, large areas of Persia with Khorasan. Under Nasr II (r. 914-943 A.D.) the dynasty expanded greatly to include territories from Baghdad, Kerman and Mazandaran (Persian Gulf) to the Indian borders and Turkestan. The Buyids however pushed the Samanids back to Transoxiana and Khorasan from 945 A.D. Nevertheless, their court flourished becoming a locus of Persian spitituality and Persian Islamic literature under Mansur I (961-976 A.D.) and Nuh II (967-997 A.D.). They were defeated by the Ghaznavids in 994 A.D. where they lost Khorasan, and by the Qarakhanids where they lost Transoxiana in 999 A.D., and the latter finally killed their last ruler while fleeing in 1005 A.D. Art and culture flourished under the Samanids, and it was during this period that the renowned philosopher and physician Ibn Sina, known to the West as Avicenna, was born and studied in Bukhara. 

 

Saqaqa  Tank of water used for ablution.   

Saqi  Mamluk rank of cupbearer who's responsibility includes the sultan's table and drinks.   

Sarai   Turkish for palace.    

Sasanians (c. 225-651 A.D.) 

Pre-Islamic dynasty in Iran that ruled c. 225-651 A.D., whose main administrative capital was Ctesiphon, Iraq. This dynasty was founded by Ardashir, possibly a distant relative of the Achaemenids, who had replaced the Parthian dynasty. Zoroastrianism was the state religion, and their language was Pahlavi. The Muslim armies started taking over following the conquests of Qadisiyya (636 A.D.) and Nihavand (642 A.D.) The last Sasanian ruler was Yazdegird III (651 A.D.). In general, Sasanian prototypes were important infleunces in Islamic art and architecture. In Umayyad architecture this is indicated by the mosaic motifs in the Dome of Rock, stucco work at Khirbat al-Mafjar and the entire design of Qasr Kharana. Further influence can also be noted in Khan 'Atshan and the 'Abassid palace of Ukhaidar.  

 

Sawma'a  Cell or minaret.   

Sayyid   A title given to descendants of the Prophet or to Sufis.    

Saz  Popular Ottoman vegetal motif based on the leaves of the reed. It can also refer to a type of musical instrument. 

 

Sehna Knot  'Persian' or assymetrical knot used in carpets and rugs.   

Sgraffiato  Italian term which literally means 'scratched'. This refers to a pottery where patterns are incised onto a vessel that was first covered with a slip and coated with a lead glaze. 

 

Shad   It is derived from the Arabic root, shadd or to strengthen, though generally it means architect.  

 

Shadirwan   A Persian word for an element mostly found in sabils adorning one of its walls. It consists of a wooden stalactite conch with an opening for water to pour from into a small basin called qarqal. From the qarqal the water flows on the salsabil, set on the wall at an angle, and then flows to a fountain in the middle of the room. The whole idea is for decorative purposes and for causing a cool breeze in the place and this is why we find it in houses as well.  

 

Shafi'i  One of the four Sunni legal schools. The originator of this school was Imam Shafi'i (767-819 A.D.), the third of the four major imams. He was born in Palestine and raised in Mecca. Imam Shafi'i studied under Imam Malik (see Maliki) in Medina, in Mecca and in Iraq, finally spending the last years of his life in Egypt where he is buried in the Mausoleum of Imam Shafi'i. This school has always been one of the, if not the, most widespread in Egypt. 

 

Shah  Persian for king. It was in use since the Achaemenids.    

Shahid   The Arabic root of the word means 'to witness'. In architecture it describes the tombstone, which carries some Qur’anic verses and an epitaph. Tombstones were always beautifully adorned with the different scripts.  

 

Shamsa   A term derived from shams or sun used in documents to describe ornaments that are round in shape or rounded windows. It might have been used for windows because they admit sunlight and are thus shamsas.  

 

Shamsiyya   Another term used to describe rounded ornaments, especially used for manuscripts. It is also derived from the word shams. See shamsa.  

 

Shararif  Plural for shirfa. See Crenellations.   

Sharbakhana   A composite Arabic-Persian word meaning warehouse for storing drinks and their respective tableware such as expensive porcelain, gold or rock crystal cups. It is also used for the storage of sweets, fruits, essential oils and even potions. In the royal palaces it is supervised by the mihtar al-sharabkhana.  

 

Shaykhuni   A way of roofing.    

Shikaste  Literally means 'borken.' This refers to calligraphy where parts of the word are placed at different levels. 

 

Shurfa/shurfat  See crenellations.    

Sidila  A large recess in the side walls of a qa‘a. By the end of the Burji Mamluk period the side iwans (northern and southern) were reduced in size greatly and were thence called sidilas.  

 

Simurgh  Persian mythical bird.   

Sinf  Constitution of workers into guilds   

Sirdab   An underground corridor or a tunnel.    

Sirja  Sesame oil press.    

Siyyaj   Fence of any kind.    

Slip-carved  Pottery decoration where slp is carved away from the surface.    

Slip-painted  Pottery decoration technique where the piece is covered in a color against which contrasting earthy pigments are painted thinly. 

 

Squinch  An arch or system of arches usually placed at the corners of a square supporting a dome.  

 

Stalactite  See Muqarnas.   

Stucco  Fine plaster carved into low-relief decoration used both in interiors and on exteriors of monuments.  

 

Sunna   The traditions of the Prophet Muhammad that forms a huge body of literature. It supplements the Qur’an and acts as a source of guidance for the followers of Islam. Ranging over topics as varied as doctrine, prayer, taxation, government, fasting, pilgrimage, and spirituality, this unique reservoir of religious guidance is an indispensable foundation for the study and understanding of any aspect of Islam.  

 

Suq   Marketplace.    

Sura  Qur'an chapter. 

Tabaqa  The Arabic root means 'to fold' and also means 'level; levels of earth, buildings or people'. In architecture it means a lodging area in a building; a room, a duplex, triplex, etc.  

 

Tabhane  Turkish term referring to lodging section attached to some mosques where travellers, usually mystics, could stay for three days free of charge. In the early mosques these were separate annexes, but they were incorporated into the main body of later mosques.  

 

Tablakhana   A composite Arabic-Persian word meaning the 'house of the drums'. It was basically a warehouse for the storage of musical instruments. Amir tablakhana was the prince who had the right to have drums played at the gate of his palace.  

 

Tabut   Storage box. Its most common usage means cenotaph. In Mamluk baths the word tabut meant a wooden box used as a locker by the bathers, and in mills the term was used for a flour storage place.  

 

Tadhhib   Pronounced 'tad-hib'. To illuminate a manuscript.    

Tahun  Mill.    

Taj al-‘Amud Capital of a column. Different capitals were used in Muslim architecture, amongst which are the ionic, Corinthian, muqarnas and bell-shaped capitals.  

 

Taj-i Haydari  Red head gear worn by Turkomen of the Safavid court.    

Takhtabush   A space designated for the public that was found in the Ottoman domestic architecture of Cairo. Mainly found in big houses, it was the hall on the ground floor allocated for receiving male visitors before they were allowed in other areas of the house. It was usually flat roofed with a façade opening onto the courtyard. The facade was divided in two parts by a supporting column. Its Anatolian equivalent is the hayat.  

 

Talar   An open hall of columns found in many Iranian palaces. Its origins are from Persian or Near Eastern house plans.  

 

Tamwih   Enameling.    

Tanur  Traditional clay oven with open top.   

Taq  Persian for arch.    

Tarbi‘a   A square shaped area. It could be a court, a small garden in a house or a decorative panel in the shape of a square.  

 

Tarima  Open loggia.   

Tariqa  Literally means 'path' or 'way'. Refers to Sufi order.   

Tarsi‘   A masonry technique where pieces of stone are inlaid in a panel of stone. The applied stones were commonly marble or semi-precious stones.  

 

Tasfih   Covering anything with metal sheets, iron or brass    

Tashtiyya   Also pronounced tastiyya. It means a small fountain.    

Tashtkhana   A composite Arabic-Persian word used to describe the place where the textiles of the Sultan were washed. It also houses the Sultan’s entire wardrobe, carpets and cushions.  

 

Tawqi'  Calligraphy used for administrative documents. This is considered one the six 'classical hands'. 

 

Tawriq  Literally means leaf tendril. It is used to describe leaf work or scroll work in Islamic art.  

Tawwaf  Circumambulation, mainly with reference to that around the Ka'ba in Mecca.   

Tazzgig  Using a transparent glaze for pottery    

Tekke  See Tikiyya.   

Thuluth  A cursive script that is bold and monumental. This is considered one of the six 'classical hands'. 

 

Tikiyya   A Sufi hospice. This term was used during the Ottoman period, as it replaced the term khanqa . The usage of the Ottoman structure does not vary from the usage of the Ayyubid or the Mamluk khanqa, however the plan differed. Tikiyyas flourished all around the Ottoman Empire until World War I when most of them were abandoned. A tikiyya consists of an open courtyard surrounded by arcades on its four sides. Surrounding the arcades were the Sufi cells, which were usually small vaulted rooms. Also included were a small mosque and a graveyard.  

 

Tim  Covered market.   

Timurids (1370 – 1507 A.D.) 

This great Turkic dynasty founded by Timur Lang who claimed descent from Jingis Khan, was the last greatest Muslim dynasty of Steppe origin. Timur’s father ruled Kish in Transoxiana, which allowed Timur to create a base in Samarqand. From there he conquered areas to the west, thus gaining power over Iran. His first campaigns were in Khawarizm and Khurasan., after which he went into Iran and conquered Muzaffarid and Jalayrid lands. Further west he defeated the invincible Bayazid I in Ankara in the year 1402 A.D., three years before his death when he had set out to conquer China. To the north he penetrated Moscow. Timur's descendents continued to control the

 

Timurid empire, but by the mid-fifteenth century A.D. western provinces were lost, and their rule ended in 1507 A.D. when Heart was overtaken by the Turkmans. Cultural patronage was an important aspect of Timurid court life, where the remains of Timur's palace Aq Saray, in Shahr-i Sabz, show the grandeur of this chieftain. He attested that the measure of the genius of an empire is its buildings, and would thus send all the craftsmen from conquered territories to Samarqand. After his campaign in India, Timur built one of the biggest mosques in the Muslim world in Samarqand, the Mosque of Bibi Khanum. The shrine complex of Khuja Ahmad Yasavi in Jassy and Timur’s Mausoleum, Gur-i Mir in Samarqand are yet other examples of the Timur's grandeur. His descendants were also great patrons of both architecture and the arts of the book. His son Shah Rukh moved the capital to Heart, transforming it into one of the most important cities in the history of Islamic culture. Gawhar Shad, Shah Rukh’s wife, commissioned several buildings throughout Timurid territories, the most important of which is her Friday Mosque in Mashhad. Ulug Beg, Shah Rukh’s son, also commissioned several observatories and refurbished the Registan Square in Samarqand by building his madrasa. The Shahname of Firdawsi, the Khamsa of Nizami, to name a couple, were commissioned by most of Timur’s descendants. Historians, like Hafiz-i Abru, great mystics, like Abd al-Rahman Jami and painters like Bihzad were appreciated and sponsored by the Timurids.  

Tiraz  Inscription band found on the façade of a building.   

Tughra  Derived from Turkish, it means the artistic signature of the Ottoman Sultan, which contained his name and a victory phrase drawn beautifully. It was used to certify documents by the Sultan.  

 

Tulunids (868 - 905 A.D.) 

This was a minor dynasty established by Ahmad ibn Tulun (d. 884 A.D.) which ruled briefly over Egypt and Syria. As a subgovernor of Egypt for the Abassids, Ibn Tulun seized the chance of the weakening Abassids to create a private army and take over Egypt in 868 A.D. Although the Tulunids expanded into Syria, the Abassids still managed to reclaim their lost power in 905 A.D. by taking over Egypt and destroying the Tulunid capital. The celebrated mosque of Ibn Tulun (876-879 A.D.) however remains standing.  

 

Turba   Grave or tomb. In Mamluk documents it was used to denote the mausoleum with all its dependencies.  

 

Turbe  Mausoleum in Turkish.    

Twelvers  See Ithna 'Asharis. 

Ulama’   Religious scholars of Islam.    

Ulu Cami  Turkish for 'Friday Mosque' or 'Great Mosque'.   

Umayyads (661-750 A.D.)  

The first dynasty of Islam which was founded by Mu‘awiyya ibn Abu Sufyan (r. 661-80 A.D.), who was the governor of Syria after the Syrian conquest. He came to rule the entire Muslim world from his capital Damascus, which became a main cultural center of the Muslim world. Mu‘awiyya used the already existing Byzantium base of shipyards to build a strong Arab navy. The greatest caliphs of the Umayyads were Mu‘awiya, Abd al-Malik (r. 685-705 A.D.), Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (r. 717-20 A.D.) and Hisham (r. 724-744 A.D). Their caliphate fell in 750 A.D. because of the opposition of the Arab tribes in Iraq and others in Medina. They were overthrown by a revolution that began in Khurasan, led by Abu Muslim who gained the caliphate for the Abbasids. Most of the Umayyads were killed during these happenings, one of those who survived was Abd al-Rahman who fled to North Africa and reinstituted the Umayyads in Spain. Their architecture was heavily influenced by Byzantine norms. Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan built the dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, in 691 A.D., the first monument in Islam. Its plan is derived from Byzantine mausolea and its decoration, the mosaic on its inner walls, are classical in inspiration. Umayyad caliphs built several desert palaces, all similar to Roman forts. The bath at Qusayr Amra is the typical Roman bath. The mural paintings adorning its walls are all of Byzantine inspiration. The mosaic floors in Khirbat al-Mafjar are yet another classical influence. Other influences from the east played a role, but not as strong as those of Byzantium. The façade of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi shows Sasanian influences on the sculpted figures.  

 

Ustadar  Mamluk position of tutor, who was also responsible for managing the sultan's private issues, including his residence and treasury affairs. 

 

Utruja   Citron or ethrog and is used to describe the shapes of decorative elements.

Valide  Turkish for mother. In the Ottoman period it referred to the mother of the Sultan, who became a very important persona in the later periods of the Ottoman court.  

 

Vizier  Minister.   

Voussoir  Stones shaped like wedges used in the construction of arches. 

Wajiha   Façade.    

Wakala  See Wikala.   

Wali  Governor.   

Waqf  A very important institution in the history of Islamic architecture. For the upkeep of religious buildings and charitable foundations a system had to be instituted to guarantee that their functions will not come to a halt once the founder had died. The revenues generated from allotted plots of land or other institutions were dedicated to the upkeep of a mosque, madrasa, khanqa or complex. Usually the patron would stipulate in the endowment deed that what he draws up from his property will be dedicated for this cause and he appoints someone to overlook the occurrence of his stipulations, which include the conditions of administration and upkeep, including the cost of maintenance and salaries. The person appointed was usually a descendant of the patron. The deed itself had to be legally authenticated and kept with a qadi (judge). Some waqfiyyas were carved on the exterior or interior walls of the buildings. It was not only lands that were endowed to buildings, but Qur’ans as well and their deed was usually inscribed on either the first or last page of the Qur’an. Curses called down on anyone who alters any of the waqfiyya’s conditions are often encountered in them. Waqfiyyas are important documents for the study of the social history of Islamic architecture as it thoroughly describes the building, what goes on inside and the relation of the building with its surroundings.  

 

Waqfiyya  The deed where the waqf is written. The alternative name in Persian is waqfnamah.    

Waq-waq  Mythical talking tree.   

Wazara  In Mamluk architecture, it referred to a dado usually made of marble.    

Wazir  Arabic for minister or vizier.    

Wikala   The Egyptian caravanserai. Like the khan, the basic plan consisted of an open court surrounded by rooms for storing merchants’ goods and for their display as well. Annexed there is usually an area that would function as a stable for housing the animals of the merchants, mostly horses. The upper floors of a khan are the accommodation areas, with single rooms, duplexes or triplexes for the travelers.  

 

Wudu'  Ablution required to make the believer ritually pure. It is obligatory before prayer, and is composed of washing hands, mouth, face, arms, head and feet.

Yasa  Customs, traditions or behavioral codes of Turks.    

Yataghan  Long sword with a blade that curves inwards.   

Yurt  A round tent used in Turkey and Central Asia composed of a movable wooden frame covered in felt or skin.  

Zawiya   In Arabic, it literally means collecting things and then compressing them or contracting them. It can also mean a corner. Since many shaykhs sat in the corners of the

 

mosques or madrasas instructing their students so term was thus used for small mosques and oratories. Zawiyas were also used by Sufi tariqas and named after them and in this sense resemble khanqas. Zawiyas however had no lodging area.  

Zeghir  Thumb-ring used by archers,   

Zellij  Moroccan Arabic term for small enamelled ceramic tiles used to decorate buildings. These are used extensively in North African and Andalusian architecture.  

 

Ziggurat  The Zoroastrian temple, which was in the shape of a tower of many levels.    

Zikr  See Dhikr.   

Zilu  Floor covering made of flat weave.   

Ziyada   The extra or empty space between the mosque and the surrounding buffer wall. Not all mosques had ziyadas, but a very good example is the one of the mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo.  

 

Ziyarat  Lterally means 'visitation', but is used to refer to a mausoleum.   

Zulla  Arabic term meaning shaded area, which usually refers to the covered part of the mosque.