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- CONTENTS -

Unit Overview 3-6

Unit Goals 6-7

NAAEE Guidelines 7

Lesson Descriptions 8-9

Unit Materials 9

Abridged Prescribed Fire Resources 10

Unit Modifcations & Extensions 11

Lesson 1 12-14

Lesson 2 15-17

Lesson 3 18-19

Lesson 4 20-21

Lesson 5 22-24

Appendix 1: Role-Play Rationale 25-26

Appendix 2: NSE Standards Matrix 27-28

Appendix 3: Additional Prescribed Fire Resources 29-31

Appendix 4: Fictional Primary Source Synopses 32-37

Appendix 5: Long-Term Project Rubric 38-40

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Firestorm: Thinking Critically About Environmental Issues -

Unit Overview

The Environmental Literacy Council describes environmental literacy as requiring a undamentalunderstanding o the systems o the natural world, the relationships and interactions between the living

and the non-living environment, and the ability to deal sensibly with problems that involve scienticevidence, uncertainty, and economic, aesthetic, and ethical considerations. This ve-lesson unit isintended to help students develop these environmental literacy skills, which like media literacy skills require a great deal o critical thinking.

They will participate in a role-play simulation that addresses a highly controversial orest managementissue prescribed res (also reerred to as controlled burns or any combination o prescribed/controlledres/burns). Whichever word combination is used, the term reers to careully-planned, supervised res

that consume orest uels (e.g., trees, shrubs, grasses) within a specic land area and under pre-selectedweather conditions.

These res are usually designed to:

1. Release nutrients that are held in the trees.

2. Convert dead trees, leaves, and live organic matter into an ash that is rich in minerals, so that

grasses and shrubs (early stages o succession) may occupy the area again.

3. Remove excessive understory growth and build-up o burnable woody material that developed as theresult o previous land-use practices and re suppression to reduce the likelihood o a catastrophicre.

As they participate in the role-play, students assume the roles ostakeholders in a communitycontroversy about a proposed prescribed-burn policy. They will be asked to sit through a large numbero resources and data, and then determine which are most valid and useul in supporting their positions

as stakeholders. They must deend their own positions and also be aware o the impact o burns onenvironmental, scientic, economic, and political issues. This investigation/research process will not

only instill greater understanding o environmental issues and strategies, but also help students todevelop and hone their scientic-inquiry and problem-solving skills.

The stakeholder roles are varied, each representing people who stand to lose or gain something rom

prescribed burning. I the role-play scenario happens to mirror recent events in your own community,you can use that to make it even more meaningul. The unit culminates in a community meeting inwhich students present positions on the scenario within their stakeholder roles.

Firestorm ThinkingCriticallyaboutEnvironmentalIssues

A Role-playing Experience or Middle and High School Students

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n Why use a role-playing simulation?

Simulations are eective at broadening understanding o realistic problems and scenarios because theyhelp students to recognize the complex nature o environmental and social issues by being immersedin alternative realities rom dierent perspectives. Several proponents o situated learning (Winn,1993), (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989) and (Schank,1995) show that it is easier or learners toapply new concepts i they acquire them while undertaking authentic tasks in real-world situations or

representations o them.

Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, Situated Cognition and the Culture o Learning.EducationalResearcher 18, no. 4 (1989): 32-42.

Schank, R. and Cleary, C. Engines or Education. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.: 1995.

Winn, W., Instructional Design and Situated Learning: Paradox or Partnership. Educational Technology33, no. 3 (1993): 16-21.

[For more inormation on the benefts o role-playing as an instructional strategy, please seeAppendix 1, pages 25-26]

n Why use fctionalized primary source documents (PSDs)?

In order to emphasize environmental literacy and critical thinking, the unit includes numerousctionalized primary source documents (PSDs) that reveal the various stakeholders viewpoints. Thesedocuments run the gamut rom blog excerpts to articles rom scientic journals. In each, studentswill nd the styles o language unique to particular proessions and particular modes o writtencommunication all presenting the kinds o inormation and means o delivery that the stakeholderswould likely encounter in the real world. Many o the documents also demonstrate how subjectivity,bias, and point-o-view can aect or slant the inormation that is presented.

Because some students may not be amiliar with all o these document types, a handout entitledFICTIONALIZED PRIMARY SOURCE DOCUMENT DESCRIPTIONS is provided on page 67o the student materials. This handout contains descriptions o each type o PSD used in this scenario.Also, to help students as they encounter new concepts and vocabulary, many o the PSDs containsticky note graphics with clariying messages or probing questions.

n Why rank the stakeholders and their PSDs?

Since the stakeholder positions and the PSDs that help present them are so varied, stakeholders areranked by diculty on a scale o 1-3 (1 = least dicult). A stakeholders rank is based on the diculty

o its position (e.g., is the position clear cut or more nuanced?) and on the challenge o presentinga rationale or the position. Additionally, a stakeholders rank relates specically to the diculty ounderstanding its PSDs including drawing inormation rom the PSDs in order to adopt a position.Please note, too, that among the stakeholder groups ranked as a 1, each o the main positions onprescribed burns is represented.

The rankings ARE NOT intended to suggest that students be homogeneously grouped according toability levels. As you know, student success depends as much on motivation and interest as on readingability. The rankings are intended to help you identiy the kind o instructional support individual

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students may need rom you or rom peers and to help you plan or the learning opportunities that occur

when students are presented with challenging material. For example, a student who needs assistance tounderstand a dicult passage may shine when it is time to synthesize his/her stakeholders perspectivein preparation or the community meeting.[All o the fctionalized primary source documents, as well as other student handouts important tothe unit can be ound in the separate document: Firestorm:HighSchoolStudentMaterials]

n How can you localize this experience?

I the issues explored in Firestorm do not seem immediately relevant to students who live incommunities that are remote rom commercial or recreational orestland, you can help studentsunderstand that decisions that determine how orests will be used or altered do have nationalimplications. Prepare your students to become engaged in the Firestorm controversy by helping themdiscover and understand some o the ways a decision made about ar-away ecosystems and businessescan be elt in communities across the country. For example:

Decisions made about lumber harvesting practices can aect the price o many consumerproducts that we all use every day. Purchased by consumers nationwide, building constructionmaterials, paper products, urniture, even Christmas trees are all examples o products whoseprices rise and all according to demand and availability.

Among regions not debating the issue o prescribed res, there may be additional rippleeects not tied to an economic impact. A ar-o debate on prescribed re can aect publicpolicy on more local issues, particularly in the lens o what governments role should be. Plus,stakeholders reputations and policies within the Firestorm controversy can extend to issues o

more local concern. Forests can have recreational and aesthetic value to people who live ar away and can visit only

occasionally.

Also, the skills and processes that your students will practice during their Firestorm experience canlay the groundwork or exploration o a local environmental issue that is generating controversy. Yourcommunity may be grappling with dicult decisions about managing wetlands or coastlines, balancingthe need or green space with the demand or development, managing solid waste or protecting wildlie.

By participating in a role-playing experience built around a local issue, your students can bring valuableknowledge and skills to the community debate.

Here are steps to ollow to organize a role-playing experience based on a localized scenario. WithFirestorm as a rame o reerence, students can participate in the development o the role-play as well asits implementation.

1. Identiy an environmental issue that is critical in your region. In making the selection, be sure toconsider the potential number o stakeholders likely to participate in the debate. For example, there

may be a debate raging within academia, but only a ew people outside o that arena are aware o it.

Please note that the local debate around the issue that you have chosen may be so prominent that the ollowing

steps in setting up the role-play can utilize an actual scenario, authentic primary source documents, etc. I this isthe case, the steps will still apply, yet they may require less speculation and more research.

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2. Identiy the potential stakeholders in the debate. Speculate on the general position each

stakeholder group is likely to take. Examine i certain positions are overrepresented. There need notbe exact balance, but it should not be skewed too much toward one position. I there is too muchimbalance, try to come up with ways to add a wrinkle to the issue that could alter some o thepositions.

3. Develop a scenario that is set locally and centers on the environmental issue. It may also need toinclude a wrinkle as mentioned in #2 above.

4. When possible, nd authentic primary source documents that present the environmental issue

and represent the opinions o the stakeholders. Additionally, you and your students can createctionalized primary source documents similar to the Firestorm PSDs based on research (including,or example, interviews with local stakeholders) on the topic. Having students create them takesthe process, knowledge, and skills at the heart o role-playing experiences to a deeper level ounderstanding.

5. Follow the Firestorm implementation model, making adjustments based on the time you haveallotted, on the need or researching and creating the PSDs and on characteristics o theenvironmental issue and/or the scenario.

Unit Goals

Inquiry & Environmental LiteracyBy completing the lessons that make up this unit, students should:

Understand that they must seek out and understand multiple sides o a controversial issue in order

to have an adequate understanding o it.

Be aware that many inormation sources have points o view that are not necessarily explicit to the

recipient, and that sources oten color the inormation they provide, according to their values andinterests.

Understand that some inormation is more objective and accurate than other inormation. High-quality materials are backed by sound theories and well-documented acts about the subject.

Distinguish between sources according to their relative objectivity, e.g., students will understandthat blogs and newspaper opinion columns are generally less objective than straight newsstories, and that straight news stories are generally more objective than inormation provided byorganizations with a stake in the outcome, e.g., environmental or industrial organizations.

Demonstrate the ability to ollow a basic strategy or seeking and identiying accurate inormation(e.g. inormation is reerenced, rom primary sources and peer reviewed).

Demonstrate the ability to ollow a basic strategy or seeking a balanced range o perspectiveswhen researching a topicor example, in a web search, they would know to visit websites o bothindustrial and environmental organizations.

Explore and represent dierent perspectives and orm their own opinions.

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Scenario-Related GoalsBy completing the lessons that make up this unit, students should: Articulate the benets and the risks associated with prescribed res.

Recognize that people place dierent values (e.g., aesthetic, economic, recreational, spiritual,scientic) on orestlands.

NAAEE GUIDELINES

The North American Association or Environmental Education [NAAEE] revised its EnvironmentalEducation Materials: Guidelines or Excellence in 2004. The guidelines provide criteria or developing andselecting environmental education materials. This Firestorm unit was developed to meet the ollowingNAAEE criteria:

1 Fairness and Accuracy Environmental education materials should be air and accurate in

describing environmental problems, issues, and conditions, and in refecting the diversity operspectives on them.

2 Depth Environmental education should oster awareness o the natural and builtenvironment, an understanding o environmental concepts, conditions, and issues, and anawareness o the eelings, values, attitudes, and perceptions at the heart o environmentalissues, as appropriate or dierent developmental levels.

3 Emphasis on skill building Environmental education should build lielong skills thatenable learners to address environmental issues.

4 Action orientation Environmental education materials should promote civic responsibility,encouraging learners to use their knowledge, personal skills, and assessments oenvironmental issues as a basis or environmental problem solving and action.

5 Instructional soundness Environmental education materials should rely on instructionaltechniques that create an eective learning environment.

6 Usability Environmental education materials should be well designed and easy to use. Theoverall structure (purpose, direction, clarity, and logic o presentation) should be clear to

educators and learners.

NSE Standards

Appendix 2 on pages 27-28 o this Unit Plan contains a matrix that identies the National ScienceEducation Standards addressed in each o the 5 lessons that make up the Firestorm Unit.

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Lesson Descriptions

Five lessons make up the unit. Each lesson helps students prepare or and present their stakeholderviews at the community meeting. One lesson leads to the next, so the unit has a natural fow rom startto nish in which students gradually take on more responsibility or their learning and preparation orthe community meeting.

Block Schedule vs. Traditional ScheduleBecause o varying lengths o class periods, the unit and its lessons have been designed with fexibilityin mind. Some lessons will require a little more time than others, but a block schedule class periodshould provide more than enough time to complete each lesson. In act, i you teach in a blockschedule, you may nd that your students complete a lesson beore the end o a class period. Since alesson picks up where the previous one let o, please consider moving on to the next lesson. Further,should you start a new lesson in the middle o class, you will nd that within each lesson there arenatural stopping points that you can coordinate with the end o a class period.

I your class periods are shorter than those in a block schedule, the lessons are likely to mirror yourclasses i.e., one lesson per class period. You may also nd, however, that some o the lessons require

additional time. Should you need to maintain a pace o one lesson per class period, the lessons allow orstudents to continue their work outside o class. I you have more than ve class periods to devote tothe unit, please consider extending it. As mentioned, the natural fow as well as the naturalstopping points within each lesson should allow you to maintain a comortable pace whileyour students progress through the unit.

To help you envision how the lessons might work with your own schedule, here aredescriptions o each:

Lesson 1: Scenario, Background Inormation, & Forming a Position

In this lesson, students will become involved in a community problem-solvingscenario that deals with the same environmental issues aced by many communitiestoday. Some groups in and around the ctional community o Prosperous Grove wantto adopt a policy that allows prescribed burning on specied areas in and around ShelPark; others are strongly opposed to such a plan. State and county ocials have been fooded withletters, e-mail, and phone calls that show the wide range o opinions on the controversy. In response,

they are proposing a community orum at the next County Commission meeting at which they hopeto make a decision about what kind o prescribed re policy, i any, should be adopted. They are alsoasking or input rom concerned citizens and groups.

To help students prepare or their roles, the lesson includes a handout with basic inormation on

prescribed burning. Each student (or group) will also receive handouts that present the viewpoints otwo opposing stakeholders. When students have studied these handouts and considered the views, theywill be asked to take a position on the issue.

Lesson 2: More Viewpoints & Introduction to StakeholdersIn this lesson, students will receive three PSDs to study. There are two magazine articles about theproposed controlled burn that is at the center o the controversy. The articles will show how peopledevelop dierent opinions and conclusions when they apply personal views and values (contextualtruths) to an issue. The other document represents an excerpt rom a reputable scientic journal. It

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Firestorm: Thinking Critically About Environmental Issues - 1

Abridged Prescribed Fire Resources

Below are some resources that will help you better understand the issues surrounding prescribed burns,

as well as arguments or and against the practice. Encourage your students to consult these resources aswell. Additionally, Appendix 3 contains a more comprehensive list o resources.

Forest Service Fire Site

This site rom the USDA Forest Service includes sections on re science and re management plans.http://www.s.ed.us/re/

FEMA Kids SiteThe Federal Emergency Management Agency provides a kid-riendly primer on re and re

management, including a link to the Anatomy o a Prescribed Burn.http://www.ema.gov/kids/brenner.htm

How to Conduct a Prescribed BurnThe Noble Foundation a oundation devoted to agricultural practices provides a one-pagedescription about administering prescribed res.

http://www.noble.org/Ag/Wildlie/prescribedburn/Index.htm

BCs Ministry o Forestry SiteBritish Columbias Ministry o Forestry site provides extensive inormation on prescribed re, includingcreating a burn plan.http://www.or.gov.bc.ca/protect/burning/prescribedre.htm

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Unit Modifcations & Extensions

Here are some ideas to consider in order to maximize the units impact and/or to adapt or to yourstudents and class structure.

As mentioned within the Lesson Descriptions section, each lesson is designed to take a ull class

period. However, there are components within each lesson that students can do or homework i

the activities cannot be completed during class time. Also, the activities can be easily adapted to tblock scheduling and are particularly eective or those who integrate curriculum or team teach.

The unit design calls or students to work in groups o two or three, an arrangement that assumesa class size o 25 30 students. Depending on the number o students in your class, you may needto assign some students to work individually or in larger groups, but try to avoid eliminating anystakeholder groups each group plays an important role in the scenario. There are two separategroups that represent citizens who enjoy the park, as well as two groups that represent citizens who

live near the park. These groups could be combined, i necessary.

The stakeholder rankings provide you with guidance on the diculty o a stakeholders position

and its PSDs. I you worry that the stakeholders ranked as a 3 are too challenging or your students,assign only those stakeholder groups ranked as a 1 or a 2. Doing so will likely increase the size oyour student groups.

I you teach in a block schedule and are unable to devote ve class periods to the unit, here is one

way to complete it in three 90-minute class periods:Class 1 Combine lesson 1 and lesson 2 and assign steps 3 - 5 in lesson 2 as homework.Class 2 Combine lessons 3 and 4 and assign step 1 o lesson 3 as homework.Class 3 Corresponds to lesson 5.

This unit includes all o the material needed or your students to learn some important basics aboutorest management issues and strategies. You will also be giving your students the time and meansto consult, analyze, and apply inormation rom a variety o media and outside resources. The unitstresses how to evaluate the reliability o resources, but you can use this unit as a springboard or

digging even deeper into the need to evaluate the reliability o resources.

This role-play culminates in a mock community meeting in which students take the parts o variousstakeholders involved in the scenario. Additional debrieng suggestions included in this unit canserve as summative assessment tools.

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Lesson 1 Description

Among their introductory materials, students will nd a map o the town o Prosperous Grove and the

surrounding area. Students will see that the prescribed burn areas at the center o the controversy arerelatively small. Ater becoming amiliar with materials, students will work in groups to discuss andshare initial impressions ormed rom their research.

Learning ObjectivesBy completing this lesson, each student will: Form an impression o prescribed re ater reading about the scenario and studying a map o the

area. Explore and compare impressions o the scenario, including initial reactions about prescribed

burning. Read and analyze two ctionalized primary source documents tied to the scenario to see how

opinions can dier, and yet still be well-reasoned, and based on strongly-held, honest convictions.

Begin to understand that polar-opposite opinions concerning prescribed re do exist and that thetwo poles will probably never meet.

Materials NeededLong-Term Project Rubric (Appendix 5, pp. 38-40)Scenario Description (Firestorm Student Materials (FSM), pp. 3-5)Map o Scenario (FSM, p. 6)Team Reading Assignments (FSM, pp. 63-64)Seed2Tree Press Release (FSM, p. 22)TreesRUs.org Press Release (FSM, p. 41)Fictionalized Primary Source Document Descriptions (FSM, pp. 67-68)

Time Required

45 - 60 minutes

Background InormationBeore beginning the lesson, amiliarize yoursel with the scenario that anchors this role-playingexercise.

Establish expectations about student participation and success. The units emphasis on inquiry androle-playing puts much o the responsibility or learning and participation on students. Introduce thePresentation Rubric during this lesson to help students understand what must be accomplished tocomplete the unit successully.

The introductory lesson is also a good opportunity to establish the tone o the exercise. Be sure to stressto students that dialogue is essential to the success o the project. This means it is exploratory andinvolves the suspension o judgment, biases, and prejudices. It diers rom discussion or debate whichis a transer o inormation designed to win an argument. Your students are likely to need guidance. Asthey learn the art o dialogue, they will nd that the ability to ask meaningul questions which stimulatethoughtul interchanges o ideas is more important than nding the answer. For tips on acilitatingdiscussions, visit http://instruct1.cit.cornell.edu/courses/taresources/leadisc.html

As they try to nd consensus, students will see that resource conficts are oten infuenced by other

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actors (economic, legal, personal etc.) that have little to do with environmental issues. It is likely that

students may even recognize positions that t their own worldview or that o their parents. The samemix o infuences will be true o the students themselves as they orm their own positions. You can expectto nd that some o their viewpoints will be based on emotions, bias, and personal backgrounds, whileothers are based on valid analysis, interpretation o data, critical thinking, and refection. It is importantto encourage students to consider all viewpoints critically and objectively as the scenario unolds.

During the unit week, give students a chance to discuss their progress to see i their positions still seem

valid and logical or i they might need a mid-course correction in light o new inormation.

Additionally, prior to lesson 1, encourage students to seek out and study resources related to prescribedburning. This will make the set-up to the unit much easier or both you and your students.

*Please note that the ctionalized primary source documents provide an adequate synthesis o variousviewpoints, but outside research should be encouraged.

Suggested Lesson Steps1 Probe Prior Knowledge

Begin a dialogue by activating students prior knowledge o wildre versus prescribed burning. Somestudents will be amiliar with news stories o res burning in the western United States.

2 Present Rubric & Unit OverviewHand out the Long-Term Project Rubric (Appendix 5, pp. 38-40), the Scenario (FSM, pp. 3-5), andthe Map o the area (FSM, p. 6). Explain to students that over the next ve class periods they willbe participating in a role-play scenario having to do with prescribed re. They will assume the roleso various stakeholders (people who stand to lose or gain something rom prescribed burning) in thescenario. Review the rubric and establish your expectations.

3 Present Scenario

Once students get the gist o what they will be doing and understand your expectations, ask them toread the scenario and study the map silently. *It may be helpul to make a transparency o the map to projectin class.

4 Divide Into GroupsAter students study the map and scenario description, divide them into groups o three. Ask them todiscuss their initial thoughts rom their review o the scenario. (I students consulted outside resourcesahead o time, have them share the inormation they ound.)

To help them share their opinions and to avoid making judgments on their classmates opinions, assign

students to one o the ollowing roles in a cooperative triad group: Leader, Connector, or PassageMaster. You may wish to provide the Team Reading Assignments handout (FSM, pp. 63-64) when youassign group roles. This approach to reading the PSDs can be applied to other lessons in the unit i youwish.

5 Students Stake PositionAsk students to write a paragraph in which they privately stake a position based on their personal

eelings and new understanding o the situation i.e., a statement about how the situation in thescenario should be handled, along with a brie explanation o why it should be handled that way. Theyshould also rate their convictions on their commitment to thisplan by giving it a 1 to 5 rating (with

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5 being strongly committed and 1 being weakly committed). This step will allow students to see how

their own opinions can change when they critically and objectively consider new inormation.

6 Collect Personal StatementsCollect these personal statements as a ormative assessment tool so that you and your students cancompare their perspectives at the beginning and end o the unit.

7 Revisit Scenario

As a class, explore the scenario in more depth. Ask students to share the parts o the scenario thatthey nd most interesting, troubling, etc. This is an opportunity or students to ask questions about thescenario. Although some questions will be easy or you to answer, other questions may best be answeredby the students themselves as they prepare or their role-playing activities. Remind students to remainopen minded and nonjudgmental toward others opinions.

8 Speculate on Press ReleasesDistribute (or place on the overhead) the handout entitled:Fictionalized Primary Source DocumentDescriptions. Tell the class that you have two press releases written by two o the stakeholder groupsmentioned in the scenario: Seed2Tree Timber Company and TreesRUs.org. Ask students to look at the

description o the press releases and then to speculate on the positions that these two stakeholders arelikely to present in their press releases.

9 Read Press ReleasesPass out the press releases to students and ask them to read the releases and underline any areas thatreveal each organizations position regarding the proposal or the prescribed burn. Then, have studentsunderline the reasons that each stakeholder presents to support its position. Finally, ask students to ratethe convictions o each stakeholder on a scale o 1 to 5.Be sure to ampliy the idea that these documentsare simply a way to show dierent viewpoints that are inuenced by their source. In reality, the majority opeople are likely to subscribe to viewpoints between these extremes.

10 Students Share RatingsIn the remaining time, have students share the numbers they used to rate the stakeholders convictions.They are likely to be 5s. Ask students i these organizations with such strong convictions agree on theplan or the prescribed burn. Is one groups opinion more valid than the other groups opinion? Setup the subsequent lessons by letting students know that they will not only explore opinions relatedto the scenario, but they will also explore the sources o the opinions i.e., various stakeholders like

the timber company and the environmental group. Further, students will consider how stakeholdersviewpoints might infuence how they present inormation.

Academic Extensions/Modifcations

Use the students personal statements in the ollowing manner: Students can refect on the positions that they have staked out as well as their convictions on them.

Ask them to estimate how much their positions and opinions will change during the unit. Students can read their initial thoughts and compare them to those ormed ater conducting

research. Summative assessment will show changes in opinion and/or renement o thoughtresulting rom exposure to the Primary Source Documents and associated critical thinking exercises.

Ask i students would be willing to share their personal statements with the class as a means o

gathering opinions or later in the scenario.

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Students will critically analyze a ew primary source documents. Two ctional magazine articles present

points o view rom two dierent interest groups. The articles illustrate dierent contextual truths(views/values) as they relate to Shel Park. Ater reading the articles, students will recognize howreadership and source aect the viewpoints. The other ctional primary source document represents anexcerpt rom a reputable scientic journal to help provide students with a undamental understanding

o prescribed burns.

Learning ObjectivesBy completing this lesson, students should: Evaluate inormational materials (Internet, magazines, newspapers, etc.) to determine clarity, logic,

accuracy and bias. Learn about more o the likely viewpoints o various stakeholders involved in the scenario.

Better understand the issue o prescribed burning with the help o a ctionalized excerpt rom a

scientic journal. Evaluate the subjectivity/objectivity o the primary source documents that depict views clearly

connected to (and aected by) their authors. Better understand that opinions concerning prescribed burns exist along a continuum.

Materials Needed Scientic Report on Fire: The Role o Fire in Ecosystem Functioningarticle (FSM, pp. 7-9) Critical Questions handout (FSM, pp. 65-66) All o the ctionalized primary source documents (FSM pp. 17-62) [See Appendix 4 or synopses o

each.]

Time Required45 - 60 minutes

Background InormationAt the end o this lesson, students nd out which stakeholders they will represent throughout the rest

o the unit. For your reerence, below are our likely viewpoints that will be represented among thestakeholders adopted by your students. As mentioned, the views may change during the course o therole-play, and/or they may be modied slightly rom the way that they are presented below.

Extensive preparation and requent prescribed fresAmong the main reasons or this viewpoint is the desire to restore a prairie habitat an outcomewith its own set o reasons, such as to return an ecosystem to its more natural (original) state, to restartsuccession, and to restore lost species to an area.

Extensive preparation or prescribed fre

Among the reasons are: better guarantee o eective re management, germination o seeds, selectiveharvesting o hardwoods, and access to natural resources.

Minimal preparation or prescribed freAmong the reasons are: eective re management, ewer trees lost than with extensive preparation,ground habitats less disturbed, less change to status quo, removal o habitat or pests, removal o uelor wildres, restoring threatened fower/plant species, returning area to natural state (ultimately lessmanagement).

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No burningAmong the reasons are: pollution (air and water), the possibility o re spreading, habitat loss, beautyloss, and re is just a bad idea.

As noted above, prescribed res are sometimes used intentionally to encourage succession. Successionis the gradual change in the species in an ecosystem over time. Typically the earlier seres (stages)o succession have lower richness (dierent types o organisms) and high abundance (numbers oorganisms). As succession progresses, the inverse occurs (higher richness, lower abundance). Ecologists

argue that diversity (richness and abundance) leads to stability. Restoration through prescribed reencourages succession to start over so that relative patchiness o habitat increases. Grassland oragers

have access to grass, and so orth. The diversity (species richness) o the burned area will decrease, butthe habitat richness may increase i the area was mostly a climax community prior to the burn.

You will need to have the entire set o ctionalized primary source documents prepared or distribution.Every stakeholder (pair/trio o students), will receive two dierent primary source documents thatwill serve as a oundation on which students will construct their role-play opinions and positions.In act, students will likely decide to integrate some o the ctional primary source documents intotheir presentations later in the unit. In addition, each student will be given a biography to help addsome depth to the corresponding primary source documents. There will be cases where the viewpoint

embodied by a particular stakeholder group is so multiaceted that dierent documents will be neededto appropriately represent the opinions o the group as a whole. For example, there are legitimateecological reasons to burn or not to burn a particular ecosystem.

Suggested Lesson Steps1 Recap Previous LessonInvite the class to recap the highlights o the scenario and the previous lesson by posing this question: What is at stake or the citizens, businesses, and the environment in and around Shel Park and Prosperous

Grove?

Give students the opportunity to share what they recall rom the rst lesson. Write down everythingthats at stake on the board or overhead. At minimum, students should know that there is acontroversy surrounding the need or a prescribed burn and that a prescribed burn is a planned rethat is set intentionally to try to minimize the threat o wildre and/or to alter the ecological makeupo an area. Hopeully, students will also cite the press releases that staked out two drastically dierentpositions.

Regardless o whether students mention the press releases or you do, ask them i the diering positionso Seed2Tree Timber Company and Trees-R-Us surprised them and to explain why or why not.

2 Explore Idea o SubjectivityStudents explanations o the two organizations diering positions should provide an opening orstudents to consider why primary sources such as the press releases are likely to be subjective or biased.Be sure to talk with students so that they do not rame these diering positions as necessarily good orbad.

I you had students gather inormation on prescribed fres beore beginning Lesson 1, ask them i those articles/media might have had biases related to the points o view o their authors (regardless o whether they areindividuals or organizations).

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3 Students Predict Viewpoints*Tell students that you have two magazine articles that ocus on Shel Park: one rom a magazine calledBeak Week and the other rom a magazine called MetroChamber: Lawaposas Business Magazine. Havestudents predict at least two ways in which each article will write about the park.

*Steps 3 through 5 may be assigned as homework to meet time constraints

4 Read Magazine Articles

Pass out the two articles or students to read and test their predictions. As they read, students shouldunderline or highlight any statements that reveal the values o the author, and by extension, the likelyvalues o the readers.

5 Critically Read Journal ExcerptPass out the excerpt rom the scientic journal (The Role o Fire in Ecosystem Functioning) to helpstudents better understand prescribed res. With the help o the Critical Questions handout, theyshould read the document or inormation and to evaluate the subjectivity/objectivity o the primary

source document.

This primary source was created to be an objective presentation o the topic, so students may not fnd much bias.

In addition to providing important inormation, the excerpt should also provide a good model or a credentialedresource.

6 Students Share EvaluationHave students share the results o their evaluation o the document. Questions to help oster the

discussion include: How did it dier rom the press releases and the magazine articles?

How would either o the magazine articles (Beak Week or MetroChamber) stand up to the questions rom

the handout? Were the press releases/magazine articles any less correct than the journal article? Or, did they present

more limited points o view?

7 Divide Students into Pairs/GroupsRemind students that the scenario mentions many dierent stakeholders, each with a point o view on

what should be done. I you have not already done so, explain that students will be role-playing andrepresenting the point o view o a stakeholder in the scenario, and that they will work in pairs or trios(depending on class size) throughout the role-play. Divide students yoursel or have them pair up ontheir own as appropriate.

8 Stakeholder AssignmentsAsk students to draw rom a hat or simply assign roles to them. Distribute the primary source documents

and biographies that correspond to their roles. Inorm students that each stakeholder (group ostudents) has two primary source documents that reveal inormation about how their stakeholdersview the issue o a prescribed re. In the remaining time, they may look over the distributed materials,however, let them know that they will have the next class to do so and that you have given them theirroles now in case they want to amiliarize themselves with them beore the next class meeting.

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In this lesson, pairs o students assume stakeholder positions/viewpoints and present them to the other

stakeholders. The primary source documents (PSDs) handed out at the end o the previous lesson orassigned as homework will help students write letters expressing their views to the newspaper editor.Ater presenting the positions o their stakeholders, students will begin to build coalitions with thosewhose views are similar to their own. Though students work in pairs or trios at the start, they are likely

to end the lesson working with others in preparation or the nal role play.

Learning ObjectivesBy completing this lesson, students should: Research, present, and deend prescribed re viewpoints that may not be their own. Critically evaluate media sources to see that they correspond with assigned stakeholder positions. Express their assigned stakeholder view/position in a Letter to the Editor.

Recognize that other stakeholders may desire a similar end, even though it may be or dierent

reasons. Better understand that opinions concerning prescribed re exist along a continuum. Role-play the positions o several stakeholders on the issue o prescribed re on the basis o well-

documented acts and theories. Locate ctional and real primary source documents and critically analyze and evaluate them or bias.

Materials NeededAll o the ctionalized primary source documents (FSM pp. 17-62) [See Appendix 4 or synopses oeach.]


Background InormationThis lesson and the next will require students to work on their own and to work with other groups ostudents. I necessary, establish the ground rules or these activities.

Over the next two lessons, a benecial part o the process is the opportunity or students to acquire

and analyze real documents that support their assigned viewpoints. This will require access to resources(library resources). Should that kind o investigation not be possible, students will work only rom thePSDs in this unit. Because students will be able to build coalitions during this lesson, they will be ableto learn rom the PSDs o others.

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Suggested Lesson Steps1 Students Write Letters to the EditorAllow students to gather in their stakeholder groups immediately. Let them know that they will havetime to read through their primary source documents in order to identiy their positions regarding thescenario. (Students may have already done this at the end o the previous lesson or at home.) Assigneach group the task o writing a Letter to the Editor rom the assigned stakeholder perspective. (Thisassignment can be given as homework.) The letters should be between 100 and 200 words and shouldclearly articulate their views on what should be done regarding the prescribed re. Allow no more than25 minutes or them to read the primary source documents and to write their letters. Monitor studentsto make sure that they are on task.

2 Stakeholders Read LettersWhen the letters are completed, have each pair or trio read its letter aloud to the class. As each letteris read, the other students should write down the position presented in the letter and the main point(s)used to support the position. Let students know that they should be listening or views that are similarto their own and that they may have the opportunity to orm coalitions and work together.

3 Consider Coalitions

When all o the letters have been read, remind students that they should consider orming coalitionswith other stakeholders. By working together, they can share resources and determine the questionsthat they need to ask and answer as they create compelling arguments to support their views. Alsoremind students that as they conduct urther research, they should be thinking about and preparingquestions and answers they may need in the community meeting.

4 Consult Resources & StakeholdersFor the remainder o class, allow students to seek out other stakeholders, to consult additional resources(apart rom their ctionalized primary source documents), and to share resources with one another.

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Since students likely ormed coalitions in the previous lesson, this lesson is an opportunity or them

to ormulate division o labor strategies or urther research and or their presentation in the mockcommunity meeting. Students who have Internet access should research authentic primary sourcedocuments or additional inormation that supports their position. Students can also expand theirknowledge by reviewing the ctionalized PSDs o other students in their coalition. As students conduct

meaningul research on this environmental topic, they will become involved in the real-lie experienceo examining and assessing multiple sources.

Learning ObjectivesBy completing this lesson, students should: Develop questions to aid in research to strengthen the positions or the community meeting. Formulate division o labor strategies or urther research and or publicly presenting their

positions at the community meeting.

Better understand that opinions concerning prescribed re exist along a continuum. Research, evaluate, and role-play the positions o several stakeholders on the issue o prescribed re

on the basis o well-documented acts and theories. Locate ctional and real primary source documents and critically analyze and evaluate them or bias.

Materials Needed Access to Resources (See Abridged Resource List and Appendix 3.)


Background InormationThe intent throughout the entire exercise is to enhance the critical thinking skills o the students andto open their minds to diering viewpoints and, thereore, to override various levels o bias withininormation. The unit also encourages students to critically analyze and judge the validity o mediasources, and the stated positions o others.

This is a good place to remind students o the Critical Questions handout that they used in Lesson 2.

Students should reer to it throughout their research in this lesson. Similarly, this lesson is a good placeto point out the Presentation Rubric, since students will be working on their own and preparing or thecommunity meeting.

Suggested Lesson Steps1 Ask Focus QuestionAs a way to ensure student ocus and to start this lesson, ask students i its possible or two scientists tolook at the same set o data and draw dierent conclusions. I so, why does that occur? Students shouldbe able to relate their own experiences thus ar in this unit and see that points o view and biases lead tovarying interpretations. Keep the discussion brie, but use it as a way to set up the community meeting(in the next lesson) and to set up the ocus o this lesson. That is, there are varying points o view

among stakeholders, and all o them are valid.

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2 Introduce Rubrics to Set ExpectationsReview the rubric or the week-long exercise and walk students through the presentation rubric.The latter should help students know what makes up a clear, rational, and eective 3 - 5 minutepresentation. In order or students to make a strong case to support a position, they should ask:

How will other stakeholders argue or their own positions on the prescribed fre question?

How will they argue against our position?

Tell students that todays class will be their opportunity to ask these questions and to prepare their

presentations or the community meeting.

3 Presentation PreparationThe rest o the class should be devoted to preparing or the presentations. The work might also spillover into homework. Circulate around the classroom, asking students to share their lines o reasoning

and perhaps any visual aids that they might use. During their preparation, students should work in theircoalitions and: Critically analyze the primary source documents o others, i available, (rom possible coalition

partners) to help prepare arguments or the community meeting. Conceive o visual aids that support their position/presentation.

Formulate division o labor strategies or:o urther research that will aid in their presentations

o jobs or presentation aids such as design and preparation o support materials, speech writing,

and PowerPoint presentations)

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This lesson is the culmination o the unit. Students will participate in a community meeting. Students,

teachers, and perhaps community members will play the roles o park ocials, county commissioners,and other stakeholders. Students will present inormation they have synthesized over the course o theunit. They will also bring props (materials rom previous classes such as graphs, tables, photographs orPowerPoint presentations, or others) to present their position to the commission.

Learning ObjectivesBy completing this lesson, students should: Eectively role-play stakeholder positions. Write a nal concise document and prepare presentation support materials (graphs, tables,

photographs or products rom lesson 4 above) that will clariy their positions and their nalrecommendations in a community meeting.

Field and ask questions rom and o the county commissioners.

Understand that opinions concerning prescribed re exist along a continuum. Research, evaluate, and role-play the positions o several stakeholders on the issue o prescribed re

on the basis o well-documented acts and theories. Locate ctional and real primary source documents and critically analyze and evaluate them or bias.

Materials Needed Presentation Support Materials Presentation Rubric Costumes appropriate or their roles (optional)


Background InormationRole-playing provides students with a chance to act out, rather than merely talk about, ways to solveproblems eectively. Many students nd this to be an enjoyable and instructive alternative to class

discussions. It also gives you the opportunity to provide students with supervised practice in dealingwith authentic problem situations.

It is also an opportunity to involve other members o the community (including others at the school)as observers or participants. For example, students or teachers rom other classes or representativesrom local community organizations can serve as commissioners expected to vote on a prescribed reresolution. Having outsiders in the class can elevate students expectations o themselves, as well asestablish that the community meeting is a special opportunity or them as students. Try to nd adultvolunteers to participate and provide them with copies o the scenario.

Role-playing may be a new challenge or you and your students. Below are some general guidelines andtips or maximizing the impact and enjoyment o role-play activities.

Role-Playing Guidelines & Tips When introducing role-playing, it is helpul or you to take a part as an actor in the initial role-play.

This helps get things o to a good start and removes some o the hesitancy o the students.

It is very important to structure role-plays by clearly dening both the situation and the roles to be

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played by each actor. You can exercise considerable latitude in how detailed a role-play script can

be. Students should be encouraged to be realistic in role-plays. It is generally instructive to enact a role-play more than once. I time allows, you should ask

students to reverse roles or ask or a new volunteer in the second or third enactment. It is ne or you to coach students to portray their roles eectively as the action is going on. This

coaching provides students with support and eedback. Expect a considerable amount o excitement, nervous laughter, and noise during role-plays. This is

ne as long as students are paying attention. Praise all role-play eorts. Always say what you liked about a role-play rst. At most, suggest only

one thing a student might try dierently in a re-enactment.

Suggested Lesson Steps1 Sign Up to SpeakAsk students to sign up on a speakers list to determine the order in which they will present theirviewpoints.

2 Review Presentation Rubric

With the help o the rubric, highlight what students should strive or in their presentations. It is also aneective way to inorm any guests in the class o what to expect and generally what makes up a clear,

rational, and eective presentation.

3 Introduce Guests & Establish Meetings PurposeIntroduce colleagues, community volunteers, or students who are playing the roles o commissioners.Make sure that students understand the purpose o the community meeting. The meeting is anopportunity to present their views on what should be done regarding prescribed res. The presentationswill infuence how the commissioners will eventually vote on that issue. The introduction is also agood time to introduce the ground rules and ormat or the community meeting. Tell students that thismeeting will not end with a decision on the prescribed re issue, but it is an opportunity or everyone to

present inormation and opinions to those who will be involved in making a later decision.

4 Establish Ground RulesBeore beginning the meeting, establish some ground rules. For example, instruct audience members towait their turn to speak, and then to address only the county commissioners. Additionally, you shouldgive county commission members the discretion to allow rebuttals or to ask clariying questions.

5 Convene & Conduct Meeting

To begin the meeting, ask students to make recommendations on prescribed re policy in general,and then on the specic burn represented in the scenario. These recommendations should refect the

positions o the stakeholders that they are portraying. Students can present visuals as part o theirpresentations. The presentations should not exceed 3-5 minutes. Ater all stakeholders have presented,ask the commissioners to assimilate the presentations and viewpoints regarding the prescribed re inthe scenario so that they may make a decision later (as would happen in the real world).

6 Quick Wrap-UpAter the presentations and the closure o the community meeting, ask each student to write and

contribute a one thing I learned rom this experience to a class collection. Encourage them to lookback at their position statements on the rst day and the ratings o their convictions to help themrefect on what they learned rom the experience.

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Debriefng At the very end o the meeting, allow students to briefy step out o their roles and present their

actual positions.

Have students compare their eelings and convictions on how the situation should be handled.The 1-5 scale can be used within the comparison, but ideally, students will explain their eelingsand convictions, not simply state them and rate them! A comparison can be a good summativeassessment o learning.

As a nal and more extensive synthesis, ask students to put themselves in the place o the ocials

who must make the decision concerning the prescribed burning. Ask them to use evidencepresented to determine a course o action. They will step out o their stakeholder roles and try toevaluate the scenario rom an objective position inormed by the presentations at the communitymeeting.

Have students conceive o and create materials that support their position rom the meeting and/ordemonstrate what they learned rom the entire experience. For example, some might choose toexpand on their Letter to the Editor and create a 750-word Op-Ed piece; others might create a Cost

Benet Analysis; some might prepare and distribute a petition and inormation sheet and others aPowerPoint presentation.

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Appendix 1: Role-Play Rationale

BackgroundOten, non-traditional approaches to instruction can make technical topics more meaningul andappealing to a greater number o students. Role-playing is one device that works particularly well whenworking with topics that evoke strong, conficting opinions o social and political issues. This approachserves to stimulate interest and the active participation o all students.

Role-playing as a Teaching ProcessDuring student role-plays, the teachers role shits rom being the classs primary inormation source tothat o a coach or consultant who leads by suggestion. In the process, students become less dependent

on structure, dictum, and the teachers own predisposition on the subject, particularly when an educatoris able to lead in ways that minimize the infuence o his/her own biases. Students must set asidetheir own eelings and opinions and base all research, position development, and arguments on theviewpoints and personalities o the assigned roles.

Role-plays are rich learning experiences because students acquire knowledge and orm ideas throughauthentic research, not through lecture points or memorization. The acquired knowledge is also placedwithin a social context that requires respect and consideration or viewpoints and belies o others whomay have legitimate but contradictory positions based on their own values. And because students, in

essence, become activists or their roles causes, this activity will enhance their abilities to organize,analyze, synthesize, communicate, present, and deend their viewpoints even when the viewpointsthat they must represent dier rom their own viewpoints.

Role-playing as a Learning ProcessRole-playing rees students rom their own mind-sets and attitudes and gives them the ability toconduct academic/social inquiries with resh energy and zeal. Their new roles motivate their pursuito knowledge and spur their desire to establish, develop, communicate, and deend their viewpoints

without exposing themselves to ridicule and ostracism. They can even test-market new theories in class,weigh the reaction o ellow-students, and then correct and ne-tune their strategies accordingly. Theinteractive aspects o the role-plays allow students to explore entirely new avenues o learning with

curiosity, rather than with dread or boredom. As a result, students are provided with the opportunity toexamine, experiment, and realign their own values.

Role-plays provide valuable lie lessons because the process itsel allows students to explore newhorizons without ear o repercussions rom any source. They learn that lie is not a railroad track thatis rigid, xed, and pre-determined. It is an o-road trek that has some surprises, detours, and course-corrections. Students will be able to develop new and dierent ways o thinking, dodge stereotypes,and examine common concepts rom new and uncommon perspectives. They will learn that theirviews o the world can be tenuous and dicult to deend without a oundation o knowledge. Concept

construction becomes kinetic and meaningul.

Because role-play simulations are placed in a real-world context, they are more likely to be rememberedlong ater the course ends. Role-playing requires more o the student because it demands creative inputand output rom both the intellectual and aective experiences o the learner.

Perhaps the most powerul reason or using role-playing is that, by its very nature, it is aninterdisciplinary endeavor that invokes elements o economics, law, science, political science, and

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ethics. This cross-ertilization o domains is a hallmark o role-playing, and it provides students with

the tools to analyze, ormulate, and act with a clear vision o where they are going and a reason or whythey are doing it.

Applying Role-plays to the Study o Prescribed Fire and Land RestorationWith a prolieration o viewpoints regarding threats to our environmental health and the means orcreating and maintaining a healthy environment, it is imperative that the next generation o adults beprepared to grasp the intricacies and complexities o ecological decision-making. Because the topics oorest management, prescribed re, and land restoration are ocal points o a controversy, they provideteachers and students with an opportunity to use role-playing as an invaluable teaching/learning tool.These types o activities also allow students to see that decision-making about ecosystems and naturalresources issues are rarely simple. In many cases, more and better science may not lead to the right

answer, but instead generate more questions. The results o experiments and models done in the labmay not indicate all o the impacts (both positive and negative) an activity might have when it is puton the ground.

Possible solutions or environmental issues are rarely 100% good or bad. There are trade-os with eachoption. Each decision will have both short-term and long-term impacts. Even a decision to do nothing

(a no action alternative) will mean the site or ecosystem will not stay the same because ecosystemschange over time. Few environmental subjects have as many diverse opinions and perceptions. Few

oer students a better opportunity to ormulate responsible attitudes through an enjoyable educationalprocess.

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Appendix 2: NSE Standards Matrix

National Science Education

Standards Addressed

Lesson1

Lesson2

Lesson3

Lesson4

Lesson5

Develop abilities necessary to do scienticinquiry.

x x x x x

Gather, evaluate and synthesize various sourceso inormation in a verbal, physical, and writtenpresentation to the teacher and the class.

x x x x x

Learn that individuals can use a systematicapproach to thinking critically about risks andbenets.

x x x x x

Use media centers and technology to locate,evaluate, and collect inormation rom a varietyo sources.

x x x x

Use technology tools to process data and reportresults.

x x

Use technology resources or solving problemsand making inormed decisions.

x x

Students will employ technology in thedevelopment o strategies or solving problems inthe real world.

x x

Learn that internal and external processes o the

earth system cause natural hazards, events thatchange or destroy human and wildlie habitats,damage property, and harm or kill humans andwildlie.

x x x x x

Develop understanding o the interdependence

o natural resources, environmental quality,natural and human-induced hazards, scienceand technology in local, national, and globalchallenges and how this interdependence canlead to resource-use confict among interestgroups.

x x x x x

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National Science Education StandardsAddressed (continued)

Lesson1

Lesson2

Lesson3

Lesson4

Lesson5

Understand how human actions modiy thephysical environment in space and throughtime.

x x x x x

Understand how physical systems aect humansystems.

x x x x x

Understand the changes that occur in the

meaning, use, distribution, and importance oresources in space and through time.

x x x x x

Explain how human activities can induce

hazards through resource acquisition, urbangrowth, land-use decisions, and waste disposal

and how such activities can accelerate manynatural changes.

x x x x x

Analyze the relationship between the potentialo technology to improve the quality o lie andthe possible causes o stress on the environment.

x x x x x

Analyze the interdependence o Earths natural

resources and systems, including land, air, andwater, with the need to support human activityand reduce environmental impacts.

x x x x x

Build understanding o alternative choicesacing human societies in their stewardship othe earth.

x x x x x

Assess how society weighs the choices o

economic progress, population growth andenvironmental stewardship and selects abalanced responsible course o action.

x x x x x

Develop understanding o the characteristics oorganisms and the lie cycles o organisms withintheir environments.

x x x x

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Appendix 3: Additional Prescribed Fire Resources

BooksPyne, Stephen J. 1997. Fire in America: A Cultural History o Wildland and Rural Fire. Seattle, WA:

University o Washington Press.

Schmidt, K. 1990. Conserving Greater Yellowstone: A Teachers Guide. Northern Rockies Conservation

Cooperative. Jackson, WY. 232 pp.

Wright, H.A., and Bailey, A.W., 1982. Fire Ecology: United States and Southern Canada. Hoboken:Wiley Publishers.

Research Papers/Journal ArticlesArmleder, H.M., R.J. Dawson, and R.N. Thomson. 1986. Handbook or Timber and Mule Deer

Management Coordination on Winter Ranges in the Caribou Forest Region. B.C. Ministry o Forests,Land Management Handbook No. 13.

Baker, W.L. 1992., The landscape ecology o large disturbances in the design and management o naturereserves. Landscape Ecology,. 7, 181194.

Duvall, V.L.; Whitaker, L.B. 1964. Rotation burning: A orage management system or longlea pinebluestem ranges.Journal o Range Management. 17(6), 322-326.

Franklin, Scott B., Philip A. Robertson & James S. Fralish. 1996. Small-scale re temperature patternsin upland Quercus communities.Journal o Applied Ecology 34:613-630.

Freedman, J.D., and J.R. Habeck. 1984. Fire, Logging, and White-Tailed Deer Interrelationships in the

Swan Valley, Northwestern Montana. In: Fires eects on wildlie habitat - symposium proceedings.

Missoula, Montana, March 21, 1984. James E. Lotan and James K. Brown, compilers.

Hanley, T.A., C.T. Robbins, and D.E. Spalinger. 1989. Forest Habitats and the Nutritional Ecology oSitka Black-Tailed Deer: a Research Synthesis with Implications or Forest Management. USDAForest Service, Pacic Northwest Research Station, Portland, Oregon. General Technical. ReportPNW-GTR-230.

Johnson, 1993. Johnson, P.S., 1993. Perspectives on the ecology and silviculture o Oak-dominatedorests in the central and eastern states. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report NC-153.

Kruse, A.D., K.F. Higgins. 1990. Eects o prescribed re upon wildlie habitat in northern mixed-grass

prairie. In: The Art and Science o Fire Management: Proceedings o the First Interior West Fire CouncilAnnual Meeting and Workshop, Kananaskis Village, Alberta: 182-193.

Lay, Daniel W. 1967. Browse palatability and the eects o prescribed burning in southern pine orests.Journal o Forestry. 65(11): 826-828.

Lotis, 1990. D.L. Lotis, A shelterwood method or regenerating red oak in the Southern Appalachians.Forestry Science. 36 (1990), pp. 917929.

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Luken, 1990. Luken, J.O., 1990. Directing Ecological Succession. Chapman & Hall, London.

McGee et al.,1995. G.G. McGee, D.J. Leopold and R.D. Nyland, Understory response to springtimeprescribed re in two New York transition oak orests.Forest Ecology Management. 76 (1995), pp.149168.

Mundinger, J.G. 1984. Biology o white-tailed deer in the Conierous Forests o Northwestern Montana.In: W.R. Meehan, T.R. Merrell Jr., T.A. Hanley (eds.) Fish and wildlie relationships in old growth

orests. Proceedings o a Symposium held in Juneau, Alaska, April 12-15, 1982.

Noss, 1990. R.F. Noss, Indicators or monitoring biodiversity: a hierarchical approach.ConservationBiology. 4 (1990), pp. 355364.

Sackett, Stephen S. 1975. Scheduling prescribed burns or hazard reduction in the Southeast.Journal oForestry. 73(3): 143-147.

Schoen, J.W., O.C. Wallmo, and M.D. Kirchho. 1981. Wildlie-orest Relationships: Is a Reevaluationo Old-Growth Necessary? Prepared or the 46th North American Wildlie and Natural Resources

Conerence, Washington, D.C., March 21-25, 1981.

Sperry, T.M. 1990. Early prairie restoration at the University o Wisconsin Arboretum. In: Restoration89: The New Management Challenge. Proceedings o the First Annual Meeting o the Society orEcological Restoration, Jan. 16-20, 1989, Oakland, CA.

Steuter, A.A., C.E. Grygiel, M.E. Biondini. 1990. A synthesis approach to research and managementplanning: the conceptual development and implementation.Natural Areas Journal 10(2): 61-68

Stritch, 1990. L.R. Stritch, Landscape-scale restoration o barren-woodland within the oakhickoryorest mosaic. Restoration Management. Notes 8 (1990), pp. 7377.

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Websites

How to Conduct a Prescribed Burnhttp://www.noble.org/Ag/Wildlie/prescribedburn/Index.htm

Controlling a Burn or Ecological Benetshttp://orestry.about.com/cs/orestre/a/prescribe_burn.htm

The U.S. Fish and Wildlie Service Branch o Fire Management

http://re.r9.ws.gov/

FEMA For Kids: Prescribed Burnshttp://www.ema.gov/kids/brenner.htm

Fort Ord prescribed Burns: Caliornia State Universityhttp://news.csumb.edu/t_ord_landuse/burns.htm

Lake Chelan - Forest Fuel Reduction/ Fire Management Planhttp://www.nps.gov/noca/svplan

Wildland Fire Policywww.s.ed.us/re/management/policy.html

Forestrys Most Dicult Issues (List o Articles and Resources)http://orestry.about.com/od/dicultissues/

Fire Eects Inormation Systemwww.s.ed.us/database/eis/

Wildre Newswww.wildrenews.com

Regional Fire reportswww.s.ed.us/re/reports.shtml

Fire Ecologywww.s.ed.us/re/operations/ecology

Prescribed rewww.s.ed.us/re/operations/rxre

Wildland Fire Assessment System: Drought and lightning maps, uel moisture and re danger maps:www.s.us.land/was/

Pacic Northwest Coordination Centerwww.blm.gov/nwccc/

Caliornia Regional Firewww.s.ed.us/r5/re/

Pacic Northwest Fire Inormation Sourceswww.or.blm.gov/nwcc/websites/rel-sites/htm

Reerence Guides and Brochures

Heritage Forests Campaign Fact Sheetwww.ourorests.org/act/re.html

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Appendix 4: Fictional Primary Source Synopses

Christmas Tree Farmers (Carla & Miguel Obrero o Esperanza Farm)

Rank = 11. Lawaposa Livingarticle Our Very Own Santas (p. 17)This article rom a monthly magazine or the Lawaposa region is a human-interest story on Carla andMiguel Obrero, owners o Esperanza Farm. Originally rom Mexico and beginning with a ten-acre arm,

the Obreros now have a 500-acre arm o White Pines sold as Christmas trees. The article describes howeach year the Obreros donate 13,000 ree Christmas trees to people in need, set up bank accounts ortheir migrant workers, and pay or a college scholarship or a local student. The article also describesthe Obreros eelings on the proposed prescribed re. At the time the interview took place, they wereleaning against supporting the re because o the risk o the re spreading.

2. Line o Credit cover letter (pp. 18-19)This is a letter written to accompany an application or a line o credit. The letter describes howEsparanza Farms, LLC (Limited Liability Company), wants to alter part o its business structure.Instead o selling all o its harvested Christmas trees to wholesalers (or in some cases, donating them toworkers), the owners want to allow consumers to choose and cut trees rom the arm. Converting part

o the arm will require capital, so the owners want to pay or those changes using a line o credit, whichthey believe will give them more fexibility than a lump-sum loan. The letter provides details about

how the arm operates and its revenues, but does not speak directly to the prescribed re issue.

Environmental Group 1 (EcoBuddySystemorg)Rank = 11. E-mail to members (p. 20)EcoBuddySystem.org is a national environmental group that is devoted to the whole environment.This e-mail comes rom the organizations executive director, Jessica L. Tuackshun. Her e-mail urgesmembers to contribute to an ad campaign to prevent extremists rom stealing the debate. Sheworries that those who take a no-burn policy and those who take an approach that requires extensive

preparation and logging will get all o the attention on 24-hour news shows and in other media. Further,Ms. Tuackshun believes that controversial local issues such as the prescribed burn in and around ShelPark can mushroom into national debate with the help o 24-hour news channels. EcoBuddySystem.org endorses prescribed burning with minimal preparation because that approach provides the greatestbenet to the overall environment.

2. Talking points (p. 21)EcoBuddySystem.org created talking points specic to the Lawaposa prescribed re situation. The

introduction to the talking points says, As with many cases o prescribed burns, EcoBuddySystemsocial position or the Lawaposa area is that there be periodic prescribed burns with a minimal amount

o preparation (i.e., logging and wood removal) prior to the prescribed burns. It goes on to say that thephrase when done correctly should always accompany prescribed burns. The talking points describethe positive eects o prescribed burns that are done properly e.g., mirrors natural cycle, minimaldisturbance to habitats and ecosystems, ewer wildres would mean ewer people would push to developorested lands (tinderboxes).

Timber Company (Seed2Tree)

Rank = 11. Press release (p. 22)The press release, entitled Prescribed burns are sae and smart orest management, quotes Seed2Trees

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CEO Paul B. Yon extensively. In it, he says his company ully supports prescribed burning in the areas

being considered. He believes that it will make the area much saer and more resistant to wildres,particularly i the prescribed re includes careul planning and preparation something he ullyexpects to occur. He also believes that extensive planning and preparation will ensure the saety osurrounding communities. He points out that Seed2Tree has vast knowledge and experience in orestissues, and as a result, they endorse the plan or prescribed burns.

2. Internal e-mail (p. 23)

This email was sent to managers in the Lawaposa region rom the companys CEO, Paul B. Yon. In it hestresses that the company should try to speak with one voice when it comes to discussing the proposedprescribed res. Mr. Yon says that there is a lot o misinormation out there about the prescribedres, so it is important that employees o Seed2Tree learn about the issues and help educate the public.The e-mail goes on to say that to help everyone in the company learn more about prescribed res, thecompany is in the process o putting together packets o educational inormation to distribute to allemployees (not just managers).

Adjacent Homeowners (either two separate groups, or one group)Rank = 2

1. Valley View Gazette article Talk o Restoration Burn Is Heating Up (pp. 28-29)This is an article rom a local newspaper, not the main regional paper rom Lawaposa. In the article,many local residents are interviewed about their opinions regarding prairie restoration and the needor a re management plan that includes prescribed re. The article says that more residents seem to beagainst rather than or any sort o prescribed re. Those against it worry mainly about the re spreadingand air pollution. Those who avor a prescribed re include Sol Shel, who represents the amily trust thatowns much o the land. The article also quotes a restoration scientist who supports a controlled burn.

2. Minutes rom a meeting o the Lawaposa Hills Homeowners Association (pp. 30-32)The March 30, 2005, meeting includes nine people who speak during the meeting, some o whomare stakeholders rom outside the Adjacent Homeowners group. Among the latter are Wendy Jones

(politician) and Carla Obrero (Christmas Tree armer), who is also a resident. The meeting alsoincludes a Fire Management Ocer and a Fire Program Technician, who answer most o the questionsthat the homeowners pose. Among the homeowners, the prevailing belie is that a prescribed re wouldnot be a good idea or their area. The experts try to allay their ears o the re spreading and creatinghazardous air quality.

Chamber o CommerceRank = 21. MetroChamber: Lawaposas Business Magazine article Know Park(ing) (pp. 24-25)This article comes rom a section o a magazine published by the Lawaposa Chamber o Commerce.Lawaposa is the largest city in the region, part o the county that includes Shel Park. The article is notat all about the prescribed re issue; instead, it ocuses on Shel Park. It reports that many new residentso the area report that quality o lie is the number one reason or choosing to relocate to Lawaposa. (Inact, the name Lawaposa roughly translates to many trees in the language o the Alabama tribe.) The

author suggests that what is good or residents is also good or businesses. The article points to Shel Parkas a key contributor to the high quality o lie that area residents enjoy.

2. Minutes rom a meeting o the North Area Small Business Organization (p. 26-27)The April 21, 2005, NASBO meeting sponsored by the Lawaposa Chamber o Commerce convenedto discuss the issues surrounding the prescribed re. Numerous small business owners were present,

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including Carla Obrero (a separate stakeholder) who owns a Christmas tree arm with her husband.

Many who speak in the meeting worry that the risks o a re have been downplayed and that the risksare legitimate concerns. Hope Macon-Sidwell o Telebellcom (a phone company) describes her supportor the prescribed re. She says that her company assessed the damage rom the previous wildres, andthe study concluded that controlled burns would greatly minimize the risk o uture wildres.

Citizens Who Use Shel Park (Birders, Bikers, Hikers, et al)Rank = 2

1. Beak Week article Controversy Flames Over Prescribed Burns (p. 33)This short article is rom a bi-weekly e-zine or bird enthusiasts. The article explores the issue o theprescribed re in Shel Park a place important to bird watchers. The article says that the AudubonSociety might be involved in the planning, implying that the Audubon Society endorses some use oprescribed res. The article points out that there is a rough ault line among birders. It says that thosewhose bird enthusiasm centers mainly on game birds such as turkeys and quail avor prescribed burnsbecause they tend to boost the populations o game birds. Those whose interests in birds extends to allspecies, however, are more cautious about prescribed res, worrying about the risk to bird habitats.

2. Chat room rom the Shel Park Community Website (pp. 34-36)

This comes rom a chat room exchange among six people who enjoy Shel Park or various reasons.The prescribed re is the ocal point o the exchanges. The moderator (TmBrLnd) is well-inormed onthe issues surrounding the prescribed re, so he answers many o the questions posed by people in thechat room. TmBrLnd explains that there are many options within the use o prescribed burns i.e.,minimal preparation, extensive preparation, rare res or requent res. Some in the chat worry aboutthe danger to habitats and the risk o re spreading. TmBrLnd believes that there should be someprescribed re and that citizens views should carry more weight than those o industry.

Citizens Who Use the Water In & Around Shel Park (Anglers, Paddlers, et al)Rank = 21. Talking points or Anglers (members o FISH) (p. 37)

Focused on Investing in Stream Habitats (FISH) is a local coalition o anglers. Because o thecontroversy surrounding the proposed prescribed re, FISH produced a list o talking points to help itsmembers contribute to discussions on the issue. The introduction to the talking points recommends ano-burn policy or one with minimal preparation and inrequent use o re (depending on the details othe plan). Overall, FISHs talking points stress the harm to water habitat, in part due to the impact oprescribed re on the land surrounding the water. Further, any negative impact on the quality o shing

is predicted to have a negative economic impact on the community.

2. Waterblogged a blog or Shel Park waterways enthusiasts (pp. 38-40)This comes rom a discussion thread entitled Prescribed burns good or bad? started by hydro_boy.The discussion is among eight dierent water enthusiasts, most o whom seem to support a limitedamount o preparation and burning. Those who state that they avor this position believe that the riskto the water ecosystem is greater with wildres than with prescribed re, and that prescribed re willgreatly minimize that risk. In the words o one: its a good compromise between doing nothing and

doing too much. One participant cites his/her experience with prescribed res while living in Florida,saying that the res negative impact seemed to be minimal.

Environmental Group 2 (Trees-R-Us)Rank = 21. Press release (pp. 41-42)

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The press release rom Trees-R-Us, entitled Controlled Burn Could Leave the Area in Ashes, makes

it clear that the national environmental group endorses a no-burn policy. The press release basesthe organizations stance on the possibility o the re spreading beyond its intended boundaries. Thepress release recognizes the sincerity o the pro-burners, but it strongly urges everyone to consideralternative measures with ewer risks to the saety and health o the people in the area and theenvironment, in general. The press release also reers to or-prot companies using ear o wildres torally public support or prescribed res.

2. Lights on Lawaposa interview transcript 2 (pp. 43-44)Lights on Lawaposa is a television program devoted to local issues (the type o show likely to air ona Lawaposa PBS station). The transcript comes rom an episode eaturing Dr. Bob Williamson, aproessional ecologist who represents Trees-R-Us. He avors a no-burn policy. (An episode rom theprevious week eatured a guest, Sol Shel, who avors prescribed re.) The transcript reveals that Dr.Williams rejects many o the reasons or prescribed re sometimes embraced by ecologists. Dr. Williamssays that we have altered the landscape so much, it is no longer possible to mimic nature that tryinga little re here and a little re there doesnt work and carries great risks o res burning out o control.He recommends other means or re management.

Local Politician (Wendy Jones)Rank = 21. Minutes rom a meeting o the Lawaposa Hills Homeowners Association (pp. 30-32)The March 30, 2005, meeting includes Wendy Jones and eight others who speak during the meeting,most o whom are stakeholders rom the Adjacent Homeowners group. The meeting also includes aFire Management Ocer and a Fire Program Technician, who answer most o the questions that thehomeowners pose. Among the homeowners, there is mostly a belie that a prescribed re would not bea good idea or their area. The experts try to allay their ears o the re spreading and the res creating

hazardous air quality. Wendy Jones oers to help out in whatever way she can, but she does not revealwhat her opinions are regarding whether or not a prescribed re policy should be implemented.

2. Talking points or public appearances (pp. 45-46)An assistant to State Representative Jones has prepared a list o talking points on the prescribed reissue. Following some opening remarks or Representative Jones, the talking points include both thebenets and the risks o prescribed re. The benets outlined include: re management, the positiveresults o mirroring a natural cycle, the ertilization o the soil, and the contribution it makes to orestdiversity. The risks outlined include: the re spreads beyond its intended boundaries (perhaps because

o the unpredictability o the weather), the damage to air and water quality, and the general unintendeddestruction o vital parts o a habitat.

Paper Company (Flatiron Paper Company)Rank = 21. Press release (p. 47)Coming rom the Lawaposa regions oldest paper products company, this press release relates specicallyto the proposed prescribed re policy. The press release makes clear that Flatiron ully supports

using prescribed re in the orested areas that the company manages. Parts o the press release quotethe companys CEO Brad Reeves. In one place, he stresses the importance o careul and extensivepreparation leading up to a prescribed re, leaving less to chance during the planned re. The pressrelease also reminds readers that there is a common misperception that trees are disappearing, butactually, orestland is growing in the United States. The press release ends with boilerplate inormationabout Flatiron, promoting its environmental stewardship.

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2. Internal business proposal rom the companys CFO (pp. 48)

In anticipation o prescribed res that are under consideration by the state and county authorities,Maria Mooney, the companys Chie Financial Ocer, writes a letter to Flatirons Board o Directors.She wants the company to be ully prepared to submit a competitive bid in order to win the contract toremove brush and mature trees in preparation or the prescribed burn. A lot o the timberland has beenset aside in recent years to protect sensitive species and as a result, the supply o logs to Flatirons millhas diminished. Winning the contract may allow Flatiron to avoid having to shut down the mill andlay o employees in order to save money. However, she suggests that the Board be careul to not bid so

much that th

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