TANZANIA 2016UNITERRA 70th INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR

a collaborative research on the role of youth and technology in achieving food security

The Uniterra program receives funding from the Government of Canada, provided through Global Affairs Canada.

table of contents

3 PREFACE4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS5 INTRODUCTION7 METHODOLOGY

9 ARUSHA REGION10 methodology11 youth involvement in agriculture14 women involvement in agriculture16 use of technology in agriculture18 case study: Mbuguni Village19 goals of farmers and food security20 recommendations

21 MANYARA REGION22 methodology23 food security and institutional support26 technology development and innovation31 youth inclusion

37 KILIMANJARO REGION39 methodology40 food security43 technology45 youth inclusion47 case study: Materuni Village Tours49 inclusion of women50 case study: Kalali Women’s Dairy Cooperative

52 OVERALL RECOMMENDATIONS56 CONCLUSION57 REFERENCES

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PREFACE

The Uniterra 70th International Seminar (IS) was a 5-week collaborative project for youth that was hosted in Arusha, Tanzania. Eight Tanzanian and eight Canadian students collaborated on the following research project pertaining to global food security and smallholder farming. Through this cross cultural exchange, it was hoped to assess the potential role of youth, women and technolog-ical innovation in strengthening the smallholder farming sector in Tanzania

This document was collaboratively compiled by all IS participants, who worked to provide the most useful and accurate report in the limited five weeks that they spent together in Tanzania.

TANZANIAN PARTICIPANTSAnderson Dickson Dar Es Salaam, Kinondoni DistrictMwanahidi Hassan Arusha, Arusha DistrictIrene Leo Dar Es Salaam, Kinondoni DistrictWin Luhwago Dodoma, Dodoma DistrictStephano Msuya Moshi District, Kilimanjaro RegionSteven Mwakakeke Mbeya Urban, Mbeya CityNeema Mwakibete Mbeya Urban, Mbeya CitySaul Samwel Ngara District, Kagera Region

CANADIAN PARTICIPANTS Hannah Barry St. John’s, Newfoundland and LabradorHeather Dirckze Mississauga, OntarioLindley Celine Dupuis Larder Lake, Ontario Amy Harrington Glenholme, Nova ScotiaAsha Nelson Winnipeg, Manitoba Kathleen Novelia Montréal, QuebecErika Rodning Edmonton, AlbertaAnna Tsui Saskatoon, Saskatchewan

Photo Credits: Hannah Barry Heather Dirckze Brea Elford Asha Nelson Anna Tsui WUSC Tanzania Editors: Hannah Barry Lindley Celine Dupuis Reg Noble Anna Tsui Graphic Design Kathleen Novelia

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Arusha Regional Commissioner OfficeAsian Vegetable Research Development Centre (AVRDC)Centre for Agricultural Mechanization and Rural Technology (CAMARTEC)Community Support Initiatives of Tanzania (COSITA)East, Central and Southern African Health Community (ECSA-HC)East-West SeedFarm Radio International Friends in Development (FIDE)Fumbuka Agro Solutions (FASO)HomeVegKalali Women’s Dairy Cooperative Kilimanjaro Regional Commissioner OfficeKilimo Biashara na Ufugaji (KIBIU)Materuni VillageManyara Community Development Organization (MCDO)Manyara/Hanang Regional Commissioner Office Moshi University National Extracts Industries National Networks of Small-Scale Farmers’ Groups in Tanzania (MVIWATA)Nelson Mandela UniversityRadio 5Seeds of Expertise for the vegetable Sector of Africa (SEVIA)Tanzania Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture – Manyara (TCCIA)Tanzania Horticultural Association (TAHA)Twende Vision For YouthWild TracksWorld Vegetable Centre (AVRDC)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe would like to thank the following institutions for their continued cooperation and support during the research process:

First, we would like to acknowledge the financial contribution and support of Global Affairs Canada (GAC), which made the 70th Uniterra International Seminar possible. We would also like to express our thanks and gratitude towards the organizations who supported the International Seminar, including; Uniterra, World University Service of Canada (WUSC), and Centre for International Studies and Cooperation (CECI). Thank you for providing us with this unique opportunity; we have thoroughly enjoyed our time together in Tanzania. We would also like to thank our incredible program coordinators; Catherine Douville, Gaudence Kapinga and Tina Sudi, as well as our academic advisor Reg Noble, for their commitment and unwavering support throughout the Seminar. We truly appreciate how hard they worked to provide us with the best IS experience as possible. Asante Sana!

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INTRODUCTION

Overview of the Agricultural Sector in Tanzania

Agriculture is the largest driving force of the Tanzanian economy, making up nearly half of the coun-try’s GDP.1 The majority of farmers in the sector are smallholder farmers that cultivate on an average 2.4 hectares of land.2 The most common crops include maize, sorghum, millet, cassava, sweet potatoes, bananas, pulses, paddy and wheat. Most smallholder farmers are subsistence farmers but they also inte-grate cash crops into their farming system The major cash crops of the country include tobacco, cashew nuts, coffee, tea, cloves, cotton, and sisal.3 In regards to value-addition within the sector, Tanzania has increased its net output of value-added products by 61% from 2009-2014, some of which include cotton yarn, manufactured coffee and tobacco.4

Tanzania has many varied ecological environments from fertile savanna grasslands and plains on vol-canic soils to rolling hills and mountains that reach a height of 5,895m.5 These diverse environments have an abundance of arable land and natural resources which allow for production of a wide variety of produce and livestock. Climate varies widely too with some regions experiencing two rainy seasons and others only one. However, with the onset of climate change, wet seasons have become more unpredict-able in terms of timing and duration. This is presenting a major challenge for smallholder farming.

Importance of Smallholder Farmers

As mentioned previously, the majority of farmers in Tanzania are smallholder farmers and are responsi-ble for driving the Tanzanian economy. Not only are they integral to the local economy in Tanzania, but similarly across the world, smallholder farmers are responsible for producing the majority of food that is consumed by the global population.6 Due to Tanzania being an agriculture-based economy, the most obvious way to reach the country’s development goals and to alleviate poverty is to expand the productiv-ity and strengthen the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Increased agricultural production would raise the incomes of rural farmers, reduce a farming household’s food expenditure and reduce income inequi-ties between farmers and others working in non-farming sectors.7 Strengthening the smallholder sector and its local food system would also have a synergistic effect on the local economy and increase potential business and employment opportunities in rural and urban communities. The World Bank has reported that certain types of economic growth can reduce poverty more than others and found that GDP growth from agriculture was about four times more effective in reducing poverty than GDP growth from other sectors that, for instance, require a high amount of start-up capital and cannot employ many people.8

1 United Republic of Tanzania (n.d). Agricultural Sector Development Programme (ASDP). Retrieved from http://www.kilimo.go.tz/publications/english%20docs/ASDP%20FINAL%2025%2005%2006%20(2).pdf2 Global Agriculture (n.d.). Industrial Agriculture and Small-Scale Farming. Retrieved from http://www.globalagriculture.org/report-topics/industrial-agriculture-and-small-scale-farm-ing.html3 Tanzania Invest (n.d.). Tanzania Agriculture. Retrieved from http://tanzaniainvest.com/agriculture4 Tanzania Invest (n.d.). 5 World Atlas (n.d.). Tanzania Geography. Retrieved from http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/africa/tz.htm 6 Global Agriculture (n.d.).7 Salami, A., Kamara, A,, & Brixiova, Z. (2010). Smallholder Agriculture in East Africa: Trends, Constraints and Opportunities. African Development Bank. Retrieved from http://videa.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Smallholder-agriculture-in-East-Africa.pdf8 Commission on Growth and Development (2008). The Growth Report Strategies for Sustained Growth and Inclusive Development. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/6507/449860PUB0Box3101OFFICIAL0USE0ONLY1.pdf

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Research Rationale

The Uniterra team in Tanzania in consultation with stakeholders in the small-holder farming sector (e.g. farmers, food processors, distributors and mar-keters, NGOs, university research departments, and government agencies serving smallholder farmers) identified three points of focus for research by the student participants of the international seminar. These were the potential role of youth in agriculture; the contribution technology and innovation could make to strengthening the smallholder farming sector; and the role of small-holder farming in helping Tanzania’s population to achieve food security.

Youth in the Food SystemTanzania has a growing youth population (ages 14 – 25 years); it has doubled from 4.4 million in 1990 to 8.1 million in 2010 and is expected to reach 11 million by 2010 and 15 million by 2030.9 In its 2016 report on Tanzania, the World Bank reports that 800,000 youth are joining the labour force in Tanzania each year. The World Bank states that “…nurturing a vibrant private sector to provide productive jobs to those new [youth en-trants to the labour force] is critically important.”10 Given this situation and the need to strengthen the smallholder agriculture sector in Tanzania; it was thought vital to explore the potential opportunities that agriculture could provide for youth employ-ment and entrepreneurship. To ensure the future of Tanzanian agriculture; it is essential that youth are engaged in the sector; yet, youth are leaving rural areas and migrating to cities because they see little opportunity for advancing their livelihoods by farming. For this reason; the Uniterra team in Tanzania together with its Tanzanian partners decided that the seminar student participants should study what is happening to youth currently in agriculture. It would also be important to iden-tify the many potential livelihood opportunities open to youth in the food system from farming to processing, distribution and marketing of food. An essential part of the research would also be to determine what needed to change in policy and practice in order engage the interest of youth in the food system.

9 Gaddis, I.; Wane, W.; & Morisset, J. (2013). Youth in Tanzania: A growing uneducated labour force. World Bank [Blog Post]. Retrieved from http://blogs.worldbank.org/africacan/youth-in-tanzania-a-grow-ing-uneducated-labor-force10 World Bank. (2016). Tanzania: Overview. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/tanzania/overview

Technology and InnovationTanzanian agriculture is also facing serious challenges from climate change and a lack of innovation and technology development to mitigate its impact. However, technology and innovation is also needed to improve food system infrastructure in terms of processing, distribution and marketing and such improvements could lead to creation of more business and employment opportunities, particularly for youth. At the present time, the Tanzanian smallholder sector is hampered by under-investment in production-enhanc-ing technologies that can cope with climate change and is not adequately supported by research and extension services. It is estimated that 60 – 75% of farming households have no contact with such services.11 Therefore, an essen-tial part of the seminar research was focused on what was currently happen-ing with regard to technology and innovation in the food system and how to how to fill the gap in access to technology and innovation that would improve farming, processing, distribution and marketing.

Food SecurityThe third focus of the research was on food security. As smallholder farmers are the main producers of food in Tanzania; understanding their role in ensuring the country’s food security and strengthening this role is very important to the future well-being of Tanzania’s population. This is why the main theme of the seminar is global food security and the contribution that smallholder farming in Tanzania can contribute to it through improving the country’s food security. In order to address the issue of food security; it was essential to have a clear definition of what constitutes food security.Food security is defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) as the state in which “… all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.”12 However, in order for this goal to be achieved, people must have the resources to purchase and/or grow the food they need to be food secure. Therefore, the challenge is to deter-mine how to ensure the people do have these resources. In the context of the seminar research, the focus would be on what has to be in place to ensure the food security of farming households and how the role of youth, and technol-ogy and innovation in the food system can contribute to and enhance food security locally, and thus, in Tanzania as a whole.

11 Komba, C., & Muchapondwa, E. (2015). Adaptation to climate change by smallholder famers in Tanza-nia. Education for Development Discussion Paper Series June 2015, EfD DP 15-12. Retrieved from http://www.efdinitiative.org/sites/default/files/publications/efd-dp-15-12.pdf12 FAO (2003). Chapter 2. Food security: Concepts and measurement. Retrieved August 16, 2016, from http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4671e/y4671e06.htm

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MethodologyWith the three sub-topics for the seminar i.e. Food security, Technology and innovation, and Youth in agriculture; we needed to identify a concept which would allow us to link so that they can be viewed from a common perspective. We chose to use a sustainable livelihood approach which would allow us to integrate the findings from the research on the sub-topics and demonstrate its impact on smallholder farmers and their ability to survive and thrive.

Sustainable Livelihood Framework

Food security is the outcome of farmers achieving a secure livelihood. The latter provides a rural household with the assets and entitlements that allow them to access sufficient food through their own production and/or purchase to meet their nutritional needs. Therefore, in exploring the three topics for the seminar; it is crucial to understand farming from such a perspective and see how farmers are currently attempting to achieve livelihood security and what challenges they face in doing so. By taking this approach; it will be possible to identify where innovation is needed in farming strategies to cope with a dynamic and rapidly chang-ing environment but also what changes are needed in the institutional structures and policy processes that can either increase or limit the opportunities for farmers. Institutional struc-tures and policy processes refers to the government; nongovernment and business sector institutions that create the policy environment within which farmers struggle to survive and thrive. “Policy processes” refers to how decisions are made about policies on issues relevant to farmer’s well-being and how they are implemented.A livelihood perspective is also valuable in exploring what the possibilities are for youth to create secure and sustainable livelihoods from farming or other business and employment opportunities in the food system. By exploring the challenges youth face in entering the food system and creating viable livelihoods; it will be possible to identify where changes will be needed in policy and practice.The definition for a sustainable livelihood is as follows:

“A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (stores, resources, claims and access) and activities required for a means of living”

“…a livelihood is sustainable which can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide opportunities for the next generation and which contributes to the net benefit of other livelihoods.”13

There are three basic components that form the livelihood framework i.e. livelihood assets (the resources on which households can draw from their household and the community); the vulnerability context in which they live (i.e. the stresses with which they have to cope); and the transforming structures and processes (i.e. the institutional and policy environ-ment of government, business, and nonprofit sectors that can limit or expand livelihoods opportunities for households.). It was hoped that we could use this concept of a sustainable livelihood to undertake our re-search in the field. However, it was not always possible to apply this concept fully because of time and inexperience but, nevertheless we recognized it as a valuable approach to exploring the three research topics and integrating our findings from each to understand the chal-lenges farmers face.

13 Chambers, R., & Conway, G. (1991). Sustainable rural livelihoods: Practical concepts for the 21st century. IDS Discussion Paper, 296, 1-29. Retrieved from http://www.ids.ac.uk/publication/sustainable-rural-livelihoods-practical-concepts-for-the-21st-century

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Field Research

To undertake the research, we were divided into three groups to conduct research in three different regions in Northern Tanzania; Arusha, Manyara and Kilimanjaro. Each group consisted of both Tanzanian and Canadian participants, who col-lected data over the course of ten days. During this time, each team collected primary data by inter-viewing farmers and institutional stakeholders assisting the smallholder sector, conducted focus group discussions, and observed farming activi-ties in order to identify the main challenges that smallholder farmers face in the region. Our last three days in the field were spent at home stays in the rural villages, where we had the opportunity to experience smallholder agriculture first hand by joining the farmers in their farming activities.Over the course of five weeks, the IS participants met with multiple actors within the local agri-cultural sector that impact farmers, including; government agencies, non-governmental organi-zations (NGOs), academic professionals, as well as private sector institutions. These actors provided us with primary data pertaining to their existing programs and services that aim to support small-holder farmers in Tanzania. These institutions also identified the challenges that smallholder farmers face in achieving sustainable livelihoods. Sec-ondary data was also collected from these actors to clarify details and allow for further analysis of their work.

Format of the Report

This document consists of a report on each respec-tive region, followed by a set of general recom-mendations. The reports on the Arusha, Manyara and Kilimanjaro regions identify regional-spe-cific challenges that smallholder farmers face, in conjunction with an analysis of the institutional support structures that impact farmers. These findings for each region have been integrated to identify the common challenges that exist across all three regions in order to provide recommenda-tions for addressing these commonalities. By fo-cusing specifically on technology and innovation, as well as youth and women inclusion in agricul-ture, we were able to better assess the challenges to attaining food security in Tanzania. The objective of this document is to provide useful recommen-dations to key institutional actors and farmers in hopes that our findings will be considered during the future development of policies and programs that impact farmers in Northern Tanzania. It is important to note that the data collected and used in this report is limited in its scope and does not necessarily reflect the entirety of regional situa-tions, nor the services provided by the organiza-tions that we worked alongside.

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NOverview of Arusha Region

According to the 2008 National Census of Agriculture, the number of agricultural households in Arusha was 205,547, of which 19% were involved in growing crops only, 15% livestock only, and 66% both crops and livestock.14 With a growing season lasting from December to March, this district of Tanzania focuses on producing maize, paddy, beans and sorghum. Cash crops include coffee and sugarcane, while live-stock practices include cattle, goat, pig and chicken rearing.15 Smallholder farms dominate the region with the average land area utilized for crop production being 1 hectare.16

The Tanzania Food Security and Nutrition Analysis System published a report in 2012 outlining the status of food security nationwide. The total food requirement for Tanzania in 2011/2012 was 11.532 million megatons.17 The food crop production at this time totaled 12.972 million megatons. This indi-cates satisfactory overall food availability at national level, but this does not necessarily translate into food security at household level. People require the resources to access food and there are major regional and district variations in that access. Just over half of the population consume three meals per day, the rest eat twice daily.18 This being said, it is hard to determine if what they are consuming is fulfilling all of their dietary needs. There is little dietary diversification, the majority consuming large quantities of

14 United Republic of Tanzania. (2007). National Adaptation Programme of Action. Division of Environment, 1-61. Retrieved from http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/tza01.pdf15 United Republic of Tanzania. (2007).16  United Republic of Tanzania. (2012). National Sample Census of Agriculture. 5(B). Retrieved from http://harvestchoice.org/sites/default/files/downloads/publications/Tanzania_2007-8_Vol_5g.pdf17 Tanzania Food Security and Nutrition Analysis System. (2012). Comprehensive Food Security and Nutrition Assessment Report of the April, 2012 Main (Masika) Season, 1-32. Retrieved from http://www.kilimo.go.tz/publications/english%20docs/FSNA%20Report%20April%202012.pdf18 United Republic of Tanzania. (2012).

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cereal crops and tubers.19 The Tanzania Food Security and Nutrition Analysis System also reported that the percentage of children with a mid-upper arm circumference less than 12.5cm to be 5.3% in Arusha 2012. This represents moderate to acute malnutrition and it has increased since 2009 and so Arusha district can be categorized as experiencing some serious child malnutrition.20 Livestock and mixed production systems dominate within semi-arid regions like Arusha.21 These areas are vulnerable to the impact of climate change due to their dependence on rainfall. Farmers fail to produce enough food to achieve their target production goals because of the change in the normal pattern of two wet seasons. Rainfall is now erratic and unpredictable and often too little. Water access for domestic household use is mainly from unprotected sources, such as rivers, which are becoming de-pleted as the dry seasons expand due to the change in rainfall patterns.22 As negative impact of climate change increases, agricultural practices regarding crop and livestock pro-duction need to quickly adapt to a dynamic and rapidly-changing environmental conditions. Changes in temperature, rain seasons and access to water are among the top challenges facing individuals working in the agriculture sector. Farmers in Arusha region, who largely rely on rain-fed agriculture, are begin-ning to implement irrigation practices to combat the loss of water from reduced annual rainfall. There is a distinct difference in viability of farming between farmers who adapt their agricultural practices to cope with climate change compared with those who do not. Farmers who adopt new practices are able to mitigate the impact of climate change and this has helped them to more successfully maintain their live-lihood and food security. However, farmers who have not adapted their farming practices are becoming vulnerable to livelihood insecurity and subsequently food insecurity.

19 Tanzania Food Security and Nutrition Analysis System. (2012).20 Tanzania Food Security and Nutrition Analysis System. (2012).21 Tanzania Food Security and Nutrition Analysis System. (2012).22 Tanzania Food Security and Nutrition Analysis System. (2012).

MethodologyThe research team for the Arusha region was com-prised of five members, three Canadians and two Tanzanians. Each of us were given one of the three research topics to focus on; the roles of youth & women in agriculture, agricultural technology and innovation, and food security. To gather our primary data, we met various farmer groups, agricultural service organizations, and in-dividual smallholder farmers, where we discussed with them their challenges from the perspective of the three research topics. The various goals of the organizations and what they provide for the farmers were noted, along with what challenges they face. We asked the farmers what their aspi-rations were for their future were what challenges they faced as a smallholder farmer in Tanzania. Farmer insight was further explored during our time living with host families. We did a reflection and visioning exercise with them. We sat down with three heads of a farming household to map out where they used to be in terms of livelihood and food security when times were better, where they are currently, and where they would like to

be in the future. At each stage of their timeline, we asked what factors they felt played a role in reach-ing in influencing their well-being. Then, we asked them what they felt they still needed to change their lives and reach their goals for improving their livelihood and food security. As regards the data collected from the various service organizations, we compiled them into the current opportunities they afford farmers. This in-formation was then compared to what the farmers said their individual needs and challenges are. From this, we were able to identify where organi-zations could and could not meet farmer aspira-tions. Therefore, our report on Arusha explores where the institutional environment of service organizations can meet farmer needs and where they do not, and require a rethink in their policy and practice. From this analysis, we were able to make recommendations.

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YOUTH INVOLVEMENT IN AGRICULTUREAgriculture remains the principal employer in Tanzania accounting for 62.3% and 68.5% of men and

women respectively. However, the sector produces only a quarter of Tanzania’s Gross Domestic Product. The sector is characterized by limited incentives (poor pay, job security and work conditions) and nega-

tively affected by the impact of climate change. According to youth map report 2014, young people expressed interest in the agriculture sector, but were not fully aware of the income generating opportunities across its value chains. Youth associate the agri-

culture sector with high opportunity costs, barriers to entry, and low-returns. Attracting more youth into agriculture and agribusiness in Tanzania requires overcoming negative perceptions, providing education

on entrepreneurship initiatives and easy access to capital through low-interest loans and grants.

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Opportunities for Youth in Agriculture

As youth engage themselves in agriculture they see an increase in livelihood while acting as a key to enhancing agricultural productivity and food security. Young farmers have received their education and understanding of agriculture from a variety of sources. Some youth receive advice and training from older and experienced farmers who act as mentors, while others receive training from organizations, such as Tanzania Horticul-tural Association (TAHA). There are also youth who have attended post-secondary institutions for different agricultural topic areas. Successful young farmers are able to influence other youth to get involved in agriculture, and the creation of youth groups allows them more credibility when applying for loans. While youth do not have much capital, those who have some are able to start small and build on their farms. Youth are also involved in the markets, often acting as helping hands with transport from one market to another. While some youth sell fruits and vegetables in the market, many others sell other types of goods, like clothes or electronics.One youth engaged in farming explained his new found success in the sector. His experience is that it doesn’t consume all of his time; he can be

involved in other economic activities simultaneously. He said the market will always be there for him as consumption is a necessity. He uses newer tech-nology, such as social media, to share his agricultural activities with a wider audience, and uses his background in Information Technology to promote his work to those who follow his accounts. He did not come from a farming family, but said he has found sustainability through farming and therefore feels independent and autonomous. Through a mentor that has been involved in agriculture for many years, he has been able to attend seminars, work-shops, and farming events which have increased his capacity. His success has encouraged his friends and peers to consider working in agriculture, and he is working on the formation of a youth group. One young female farmer said her involvement in farming has allowed her to experience more luxuries in life, such as having her hair done or partic-ipating in social activities. She shares land with her family and has started her own garden, allowing her to receive a separate income from the family income. She has support from her family and they do not take her profit from her, thus giving her autonomy over her garden and profits. She attributes her success to the hard work she has invested, saying it does not just happen easily. Her friends have been motivated by her success and attitude towards her work, meaning more youth have become involved in agriculture in her village. She has good access to the market, such as the Banana Market, which is very close by, and uses local services to transport her products. She is able to get her market prices from listening to the radio as well as going to the market herself and asking. Her goals are high and she intends to continue working in agriculture as she continues to pass different milestones in life.

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Challenges to Youth in Agriculture

Youth have a particularly difficult time accessing loans as they have a lack of assets and are facing the common misconception that they are un-trustworthy. It is difficult for young people to get started in agriculture, especially those who do not come from farming families and have little educa-tion or no financial assistance. Youth have a lack of networking capabilities as they tend to take an individualistic approach more often than adults. One youth was using modern means of personal promotion, such as social media, but lacked the appropriate marketing and business knowledge to help him reach his full potential. Poor and inadequate education limits produc-tivity and acquisition of skills, while insufficient access to information can hinder the develop-ment of entrepreneurial ventures for youth in agriculture.23 Youth face issues with accessing information which in turn impacts their ability to manage their crops effectively. Due to a lack of knowledge among youth in the sector, the collab-orations between youth and agricultural service organizations are limited. This is due to their lack of understanding of the available services these or-ganizations provide for supporting livelihoods in the food system. This lack of disconnect between youth and organizations remains a key issue in Arusha region. Land access and ownership is a key challenge to youth in agriculture in the Arusha region. The issue of land ownership among youth was wit-nessed during our case study in Mbuguni village. Many youths begin their work in the agriculture sector working for an established farming family or community member as a way to gain knowl-edge and income prior to purchasing their own plots of land. When youth lack support, the issue of access to land is increased as a financial and knowledge based barrier is raised.Many financial service providers are reluctant to provide services to rural youth due to their lack of collateral and financial literacy.24 Through the youth that were interviewed there was a common trend of the issue of capital and financial support. As youth are seen as untrustworthy and regularly have less assets than adults, financial institutions are commonly denying them support. The lack of financial support that youth face causes them to lose confidence and motivation to exhaust other means of gaining funds.

23 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2014). Youth and Agriculture: Key Challenges and Concrete Solutions. Re-trieved from http://www.fao.org/sustainable-food-value-chains/library/details/en/c/265736/24 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2014).

Recommendations to Support Youth in Agriculture

The perception of the agriculture sector among youth has a negative connotation. This perception has youth seeking work that provides ‘immediate pay’ rather than dedicating time to a long term investment. The misconception of the stability and sustainability farming provides leads youth to make the decision to work in other sectors. However, there are youth in the Arusha region that involve themselves in the sector and seek to gain knowledge from organizations and established farmers. Creating a system to encourage collaboration and knowledge sharing would help youth to gain confidence and knowledge in a sector that sys-tematically discourages them. Youth face issues of perception when trying to secure loans and funding to establish themselves. Supporting youth with logistical matters and overcoming percep-tions and obstacles would increase youth engage-ment and success. Youth inclusion in agriculture acts as a viable source of income and a crucial part of the Tanzanian economy. The government and media should profile successful, young farmers to persuade more youth to be involved in agriculture. A change in perception will encourage farmers to be more vocal and the sector will become a vibrant and exciting place. Affordable loans with low interest rates and youth friendly alternatives to collateral should be available to decrease discour-agement from the sector.25

The implementation of a country-wide campaign to change the negative perception of the agri-cultural sector in Tanzania would be beneficial in eliminating the stigma towards agriculture. Incorporating agriculture in school curriculums would be an effective approach to providing initial understanding to youth. This change in perception and initial introduction to the sector would allow youth to learn about the importance of the sector and the many opportunities to get involved in the sector.

25 Youth Map Tanzania. (2014). Tanzanian Youth: Assets & Opportunities. Retrieved from http://www.iyfnet.org/sites/default/ files/library/YouthMap_Tanzania.pdf

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WOMEN INVOLVEMENT IN AGRICULTUREWomen are highly involved in agriculture in the Arusha region and there are many opportunities for

women to get more involved. During our research we had the opportunity to speak with and interview many women who are involved in the sector. Women of all ages were willing to speak about the oppor-tunities and challenges they face daily. While women face specific challenges in the sector, such as loan

access and land ownership, their presence in agriculture is undeniable. On the farm women and men are considered equal and often times collaborate and both play crucial roles to the success. Women are often times seen at markets selling the products and are highly valued for their ability to connect with buyers.

Women see opportunities and challenges in the different areas related to their work.

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Opportunities for Women in AgricultureThe agricultural sector in Arusha is very inclusive

of women. Women participate in many differ-ent activities, such as harvesting and packaging. Women are able to own their land and livestock,

often times with the assistance of family and friends although there is still a long way to go

with regard to women having equality with men in owning land. There are retail places available,

such as Banana Market, which provide a space for female farmers to sell their own products. Before the government created the market, women used

to sell their products on the side of roads, or at Tengeru Market. With the creation of Banana

Market, women have become more entrepreneur-ial since they are able to grow and sell their own products, separate from the husband and family.

Much of the money the women make in the market contributes towards school fees and other

family needs, allowing for more income for the family from other means. Women of all ages are

able to begin selling at the market, provided they can pay the required tax for their space. There is

a community that has formed among the women in the market which additionally provides a social

support network for many women. Women who are successful in agriculture have become trainers

and influence other women to become involved, creating a growing chain of women in the sector.

Challenges to Women in AgricultureThe biggest challenge women face is balancing their agricultural work and domestic duties. Based on cultural realities, women are expected to prepare food, clean, and care for the children in addition to their agricultural duties. While women are included in agriculture, they are limited due to cultural expectations. On a daily basis, women in the Banana Market are forced to pay taxes but see no improvement to the market, and are constantly harassed by the government officials who collect the taxes. The pressures from market tax collectors and family expectations placed on women create additional barri-ers to overcome each day. With many tasks for women to complete on a daily basis, accessing educational opportunities or collaborating with organizations becomes difficult. This limits women from gaining opportunities to improve farming success and achieve livelihood security. Another challenge that some women in Arusha face is obtaining and maintaining land ownership, as most them do not traditionally own land since it is typically owned by men within the Tanzanian culture.

Recommendations to Support Women in AgricultureEducation on the importance of women in the sector would assist women in increasing their productivity. By ensuring all members of the community recognize the importance of including women in agriculture, women will face less barriers and have access to more opportunities. As women are crucial to crop production on farms and household food security, it would be benefi-cial to provide them with opportunities to learn about agriculture and best practices in a flexible manner. Assisting organizations with projects that will increase knowledge on gender inclusion would begin to address the gender issues that women face in the agriculture sector. By ensuring women have adequate and equal access to all opportunities in education and the agricul-ture sector, stabilization of economy and livelihood will increase among the Arusha region.

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Use of Technology in AgricultureThere are plenty of opportunities to bring technology and innovation into the

agriculture sector in Arusha. Important areas for development and appli-cation of technology and innovation are in crop and livestock production;

prevention of post-harvest losses; efficient transportation to market; and in information and communication technology (ICTs). The latter can provide

up-to-date information on market prices for produce and access to organiza-tions and groups who are developing new technologies. ICTs are also valuable

in peer-to-peer support between farmers with regard to sharing ideas for improving their livelihoods.

Opportunities for use of Technology in Agriculture

One of the service organizations which our team visited was the Centre for Agricultural Mechanization and Rural Technology (CAMARTEC).26 This is the leading government organization working to develop appropriate technologies for smallholder farmers in Tanzania. CAMARTEC adapts foreign agricultural technology to suit local conditions and also develop new in-country farming equipment in collaboration with farmers. For example, they are currently working on development of biogas plants, sun cookers, solar dryers and tractors that are all designed locally. This is important as it ensures the technology is appropriate to the local farming context. Another organization involved in technology development is Twende.27 Its approach is very innovative in that they stimulate farmers to be creative and develop technology rather than Twende developing technologies for the farmers. The organization runs innovation workshops where farmers are free to try out their ideas and build machinery that will improve their ability to plant, harvest and process their produce more effectively. Twende also hosts workshops in secondary schools and provides internships for university students at its workshop in Arusha. The emphasis is on encouraging youth to engage in technology innovation for agriculture. They also try to ensure they have a 50-50 gender split in their workshops so that women as well as men, have the opportunity to build their skills and knowledge to innovate and develop technology. Twende has a combination of volunteers, interns, and staff members from Tanzania and from around the world who are working together to create affordable agricultural technology based local materials.

26 CAMARTEC. (2016). History of CAMARTEC. Retrieved from http://camartec.go.tz/index.php/about-us/history27 Twende. (2016). Our story. Retrieved from http://www.twende-tanzania.org/our-story.html

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Challenges of use of Technology in Agriculture

Smallholder farmers in Arusha are still mainly using small handheld hoes to prepare and plant

their fields and weed them. This is partly due to a lack of financial resources to purchase machinery that would make farming easier and partly due to

a lack of information and knowledge about what is available to them in terms of innovative technical

means to improve their farming livelihoods. Many farmers have the desire to own a tractor; however,

they are often forced to share with others or use the equipment of organizations they are in con-

tract with due to the high cost of owning a tractor. In some cases, the government subsidizes farmers so that they can use more up-to-date technology.

However, we take the case of CAMARTEC, many farmers have not heard of the organization, and those that have, are often unable to utilize their

services because they simply cannot afford them. In the case of Twende, although the cost to farmers

would be very low in terms of acquiring technol-ogy; very few farmers have heard of Twende.

Other organizations, we visited in Arusha Region were the Tanzanian Horticultural Association

which is a private sector organization which has the objective: “To develop and promote the Hor-

ticulture industry in Tanzania to become more profitable, sustainable, and participate more effec-

tively in the development of the country.”28 They are particularly interested in youth in entrepre-

neurial activities in the horticultural sector which is undergoing rapid technological development

and innovation.There is also Farm Radio International in Arusha which works with local broadcasters to share new ideas in farming strategies and technology devel-

opment with farmers via radio programs. 29 These programs are also designed to provide

farmers with a “voice” in influencing policy and practice in agriculture. The challenge is to provide

farmers with the means to access the radio pro-grams and also build their skills in learning how to

conduct peer-to-peer exchange of ideas in agricultural development.

28 TAHA. (2016). About us. Retrieved from http://taha.or.tz/site/about_us29 Farm Radio International. (2016). Our mission. Retrieved from http://www.farmradio.org/about-us/our-mission/

Recommendations for Technology in Agriculture

One of the challenges which became very obvious in our research is that there is a lack of awareness among farmers of the technology and innovative ideas available to them. Even when farmers are aware of what is available, they do not have the livelihood assets to purchase the technology or to be trained in new strategies for managing their farms. Therefore, our recom-mendations are that:

There needs to be improvement in raising farmer awareness of what is available in terms of new technology and innovative strategies for man-aging their farm resources.

Service organizations working in technology and innovation need to make themselves better known to the smallholder sector.

Nonprofit organizations such as Twende and government organiza-tions such as CAMARTEC would benefit the smallholder sector if they collaborated more to catalyze technical innovation in farming that was affordable for farmers who have limited financial resources.

Most importantly, for technology to be locally-appropriate and afford-able requires farmers to play a leading role in technology development and in design of new strategies for managing their land and water resources. Twende and TAHA already have policy and practices for en-couraging farmers to lead in technology development; so maybe, these organizations could partner with other service organizations to assist them to develop a more collaborative farmer-led approaches for agricul-tural development.

One of the major challenges facing farmers is the impact of climate change which has disrupted rainfall and often created drought condi-tions. So, we recommend that there is a focus on adaptation to climate change which should involve issues such as:

• improving irrigation technologies• innovative water and soil conservation strategies• adoption of new crop and livestock arrangements on farms that will

better protect natural resources. As part of this development; there is a need for government to support the creation and facilitation of more wells and pumps in rural villages.

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CASE STUDY: MBUGUNI VILLAGEIn the Arusha region our group was divided between three separate households to live for a few days with farming fami-lies. This was to gain insight into Tanzanian culture and better understand the lives of farming households and the chal-lenges they face.

In Mbuguni village, food is available as farmers produce vegetable and cereal and cereal crops. Beans, maize and rice in addition to vegetables crops such as amaranth, African eggplant, onions, tomatoes, and French beans are among the crops farmed in this village. Farmers in Mbuguni have plenty of land to cultivate crops for consumption together with an infrastructure which allows them to access market opportunities to buy a variety of food. They have both physical and economic access to food through their own production and also have stores of food to ensure availability of food in the next season. The families have food stability as they use irriga-tion technology during drought or water shortage conditions to ensure that the food is available in all seasons of the year. Other economic activities, such as mining, enables them to have financial access to a variety of foods such as meat, maize and rice. Although the farmers produce differ-ent food crops, they do not always consume a balanced diet in the household causing them to be food insecure from a nutritional perspective. Meals may consist of meat, rice, and chips with a lack of vegetables. While meals are three times a day, they are not consistently nutritiously-bal-anced. Cooking practices are varied based on family dynamics and access to technologies. The families felt as though they had seen increases in livelihood security over recent years; however, were still hoping to see further advancements in the future.

Challenges of Farmers

The most commonly stated challenge among farmers is the lack of capital. A significant amount of farmers expressed their interest and aspirations to increase production; however, they are being held back by the limited access to capital and loans. Investors are hesitant to put money into agriculture due to water shortages, uncertainty of land titles, instability of markets, and lack of collateral among farmers. Lack of education on farming practices restricts farmers from most effectively using their land and contributes to land infer-tility, limits in production potential, and destruction of crops. In Mbuguni, there is poor knowledge of soil conservation, no testing of soil, and lack of equipment to collect manure, leading to an overuse of fertilizer. Organizations that claim to provide seminars on seed use are providing farmers with seeds without providing the appropriate education on proper procedures and uses. Pests and diseases are a major problem for farmers while some claim they are given pesticides and chemicals that are ineffective. Some diseases are in the soil and have no known remedy, destroying entire fields of maize.There is a community-based organization, i.e. the Kilimo Biashara na Ufugaji (KIBIU) Farming Organization. This has proved to be beneficial for farmers in Mbuguni; however, there is a lack of communication and outreach. KIBIU has partnered with private agri-business companies and is dependent on them for technology (i.e. for seeds, fertilizer, etc.) and have no partnerships with organizations such as CAMARTEC. KIBIU has an administration system but no constitution, and communication between the farmers and the organization is poor. Farmers want to know how to better utilize their land, but the KIBIU is doing little to advance themselves. While contract farming with KIBIU can supply a steady income, companies may set limits for pro-duction, and therefore a limit to income. For example, farmers in KIBIU have a limit to the amount of tomato seeds they can sell within their contract.Climate change is very evident to farmers with some saying they first noticed changes in 2001 when crops were perishing from lack of water and soil fluc-tuations. Unpredictable rain patterns and lack of irrigation has forced farmers to decrease production or change to other crops which require less water. Those growing rice have priority access for water and producers of other crops must use the remainder. The high intensity of the sun and wind and short rain season contribute to the prevalence of diseases.

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GOALS OF FARMERSThe most common aspiration of farmers across

the region was the desire to increase agricultural production. Some hope to do this through an

increase of land ownership while others would like to better utilize the land they already own. It was commonly agreed that higher income and a

better standard of living would be an outcome of increased agricultural production. Smallholder

farmers would like to own their own farming equipment such as tractors, irrigation technology, and rototillers, as well as improve the technology they currently own. One older farmer expressed

the desire to shift from agriculture to agribusiness, as his productivity decreased, to maintain a steady

income. Farmers from KIBIU Farming Orga-nization expressed the desire for more contract

farming with agri-business companies to ensure a more reliable income.

FOOD SECURITYThe majority of farmers in the Arusha region have both physical and eco-nomic access to food, but lack food literacy. Many times when we had the opportunity to speak with local farmers we recognized their misconceptions pertaining to healthy balanced lifestyles. In many cases individuals try to sustain themselves on carbohydrates, lacking incorporation of fruits, vegeta-bles and healthy fats and proteins.All farmers in the Arusha region claimed to grow crops for both profit and consumption, allowing them access to a wide variety of foods. Many of the farmers we visited explained that they will visit markets to access foods they do not produce, however upon visiting a market with families there was plenty of access to foods they were lacking with no intent to purchase. Farming organizations attempt to contribute to food security as farmers can exchange food crops amongst themselves. The issue facing farmers is their lack of knowledge of the importance of meeting all dietary needs, this in turn influences farmers to consider quantity over quality when making trades. Farmers have the ability to consume a balanced diet but have little knowledge of what they require to achieve a balanced and healthy diet. There is oppor-tunity for organizations and educational institutes to incorporate lessons on nutrition to address the concern or food insecurity in Arusha region.

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RECOMMENDATIONSWe have worked to provide recommendations

based on the challenges faced by youth, women and technology for the purpose of increasing effi-

ciency of agricultural practices and livelihood of smallholder farmers in Arusha region.

1. Many organizations offer training and educational services to farmers; however, many are still not satisfied with their knowledge of farming techniques and best practices. The organizations offering these services must design an outreach strategy to ensure they are reaching all of the farmers in need. Conducting follow up reports of these seminars would be an efficient way to evaluate their quality and impact within a commu-nity. There is an opportunity to have volunteers placed with organizations to help with marketing and community relations. Ensuring quality mar-keting and community relations will help organizations in being certain they are reaching their target audience and stakeholders. Farmers can then be confident in the organizations assisting them and have regular access to information and services.

2. Few farmers were aware of the government extension officers in their villages, while those who were aware did not see the effects of their work. The duties of the extension officers should be evaluated and remain consistent between regions. Conducting frequent follow up with farmers to determine quality and impact would help to determine strategic plans and adapted techniques.

3. An improvement in infrastructure and the taxation system of outdoor markets in the Arusha region, such as the Banana Market, is needed for farmers to work in a safe and secure location. Taxes are being collected each day, however, market vendors have not seen any improvements since the opening of the market. For the market to be more conducive to sales, expansion should be conducted to allow more women to sell their produce and encourage young people to get involved. For health and safety purposes, clean and functioning toilets and waste management should be available for vendors at the market. Tables and seating built into the market would be beneficial for vendors for comfort and sustain-ability purposes.

4. Some farmers are provided with pesticides and chemicals to protect their crops from disease, however, crops are still being destroyed. There must be significant research in disease and pest control to understand why certain diseases affect specific regions and determine solutions that can prevent crop destruction.

5. Providing workshops, seminars and inclusion in curriculums on the topic of food literacy would be significant to increasing overall health and wellness of individuals of all ages in Arusha region. Implementation of food literacy knowledge from a young age, while still ensuring those who do not attend formal education institutes are receiving information will assist in addressing the issue of food insecurity in the Arusha region. Col-laboration among different organizations, educational institutes and gov-ernment would allow for a smooth transition from little knowledge on the topic to full educational opportunities for individuals in the region.

6. When asked what they needed to achieve their goals, the majority of farmers expressed the need for increased education and additional op-portunities to learn. Topics of interest for education of farmers relate to chemical and fertilizer use, efficient land utilization, market negotiation, and best seed germination practices. Focus should be placed on agricul-tural practices and strategies to cope with the effects of climate change. A rejuvenation of the agricultural sector is needed in Tanzania to increase educational opportunities for farmers.

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YARA

REG

IONOverview of Manyara Region

The Manyara Region is situated in the central-northern part of Tanzania. It sits at a relatively high altitude, with an elevation ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 meters above sea level, and is characterized by its dry climate and fertile red soil.30 Agricultural production primarily depends on rain-fed crops, and the area experiences high crop yields when rainfall is good.31 There is one long rainy season that lasts from November to April, with the driest period experienced between June and September. These weather patterns determine when and how people organize their agricultural activities.32

The majority of farmers in the area rely on agriculture as their main source of income; producing large quantities of maize, sorghum, beans, pigeon peas, and sunflower crops.33 Maize and beans are the central food crops, while sunflowers are sold most often for cash. Many households also rely on livestock keeping of cattle, goats, and chickens as a secondary source of income.34 Therefore, the amount of land and livestock a household owns is vital to the amount of income they are able to generate. As regarding poverty, 40-50% of all households are considered to be ‘very poor’ or ‘poor’, with house-hold income ranging from 855,000Tsh – 2,000,000Tsh per year (approx. US$390- $900).35 The lower end

30  Tanzania, Minister of Agricultural Livestock and Fisheries. (2016). Manyara-Singida Maize, Sorghum, Beans & Sunflower Livelihood Zone Profile. Retrieved from http://agriculture.go.tz/publications/english docs/fslbp/12 profiles/T25_FINAL PROFILE.pdf31 Tanzania, Minister of Agricultural Livestock and Fisheries. (2016).32 Tanzania, Minister of Agricultural Livestock and Fisheries. (2016).33 Tanzania, Minister of Agricultural Livestock and Fisheries. (2016).34 Tanzania, Minister of Agricultural Livestock and Fisheries. (2016).35 Tanzania, Minister of Agricultural Livestock and Fisheries. (2016).

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of the scale falls below the World Bank poverty line of $1.90/day.36 The remaining households represent the middle to upper class, who make anywhere from 2,000,000Tsh – 6,500,000Tsh per year (approx. US$900- $2,900).Transportation and infrastructure are considered to be relatively good, however access to rural villages can be a challenge; especially during the rainy season when roads become muddy and inaccessible.37 Fur-thermore during the dry season, traders will travel from village to village to collect crops to sell at local markets. From there, crops are sold to larger market hubs in Arusha, Singida and Dar es Salaam. Maize is traded from July to September; sunflower is traded from May to August; and beans are traded from August to October.38

36 Tanzania, Minister of Agricultural Livestock and Fisheries. (2016).37 Tanzania, Minister of Agricultural Livestock and Fisheries. (2016).38 Tanzania, Minister of Agricultural Livestock and Fisheries. (2016).

Methodology

Our team consisted of two Canadians and four Tanzanians. During our field research in Manyara we visited five villages within Babati and Hanang dis-tricts, including; Endadosh, Endagaw, Kigongoni, Gedamara, and Hallu. This report is compiled using both primary and secondary data that was collected in the region.Primary data was collected by interviewing farmer groups and individual smallholders, as well as representatives from regional government offices and other organizations. Data was collected through observation, oral questions, and focus group discussions. Farmers were asked a variety of questions that varied from each encounter, such as; their daily food intake, the crops they produce, and the technologies they use, as well as the largest challenges they face to improving their livelihoods.Secondary data was collected from various organizations, including the Na-tional Networks of Small-Scale Farmers’ Groups in Tanzania (MVIWATA), Community Support Initiatives of Tanzania (COSITA), the Tanzania Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture – Manyara (TCCIA), Friends in De-velopment (FIDE), and Manyara Community Development Organization. Additionally, further research was collected from government institutions, in-cluding; Manyara Agricultural Regional Office, and Hanang District Office. We would like to thank these institutions for their cooperation and support during the compilation of this project. It is important to note that the data col-lected is limited in its scope and does not necessarily reflect the entirety of the following organizations and their service.In the analysis of food security, we used Ryerson University’s Centre for Studies in Food Security criteria for what needs to be in place for households to achieve food security.39 These are referred to as the Five ‘A’s of food secu-rity i.e. food must be “available,” “accessible,” “acceptable,” (in cultural and nu-tritional terms); “appropriate” (in terms of being produced by a food system which is sustainable); and to achieve these goals, there must be “agency” (i.e. farmers and other social actors are knowledgeable about food security and are active on a personal, community, and/or national level to contribute to poli-cies and practice that will ensure food security for all)

39 Centre for Studies in Food Security. (2016). The Five ‘A’s of Food Security. Retrieved from http://www.ryerson.ca/foodsecurity/our-approach/

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FOOD SECURITY AND INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT

AvailabilityFood availability primarily depends on the state of local food production. In Manyara, the majority of farmers rely on rain-fed crops and traditional farming techniques that make them more vul-nerable to food shortages. Therefore, improving the production capacity of Manyara’s agricultural sector is paramount to achieving a higher level of food security within the region. Organizations like MVIWATA, COSITA, FIDE, and Manyara Com-munity Development Organization have expressed similar goals to improving the capacity of regional farmers by providing trainings on modern tech-niques that increase crop production, such as; in-tercropping, soil conservation, pest management, and organic fertilizers.40

Additionally, several organizations currently offer micro-financing loans so that more farmers can obtain funds to finance improved technologies and agricultural inputs. The Tanzania Chamber of Commerce, Industry & Agriculture - Manyara (TCCIA) has developed a strategy to create micro loans from their collected membership fees that aim to help young entrepreneurs expand their operations.41

AccessibilityAccessibility to food is linked to one’s ability to access the resources required to grow one’s own food and/or purchase it. Acquisition of food depends most importantly on household income and the market price of food. A recent study has shown that very poor households within Manyara cannot meet half of their annual food needs from crop production, and must therefore rely on other income generating activities to survive.42

Some organizations, like COSITA, have designed projects that promote agro-economic practices, so 40 FIDE. (n.d.). Our Projects: Agriculture. Retrieved from http://www.fidetz.org/our-projects/agriculture 41 TCCIA, personal communication, August, 2, 201642 Tanzania, Minister of Agricultural Livestock and Fisheries. (2016).

that added-value products can be sold for higher prices and help to generate better incomes. COSITA’s Sesame Value Chain project is a great example, as it links farmers to new markets while providing training on sesame production tech-niques, as well as entrepreneurial skills to sustain their livelihoods.43 Despite the fact that these programs exist, additional measures need to be taken in order to protect farmers during times of crisis. For example, Manyara needs a more effec-tive social safety net that assists farmers during harvest loss or personal disability so as to consis-tently maintain a reliable state of household food security. AcceptabilityThe evaluation of food acceptability is based on the ability of institutions to effectively support farmers in obtaining adequate nutrition, and whether or not that support is culturally sensitive. COSITA’s Mwanzo Bora Nutrition Project strives to increase the nutritional status of women and children in the region by promoting appropriate pre-natal care and inclusive diets. COSITA pro-vides support and training for community health workers so that these values may be embodied within the healthcare system.Similarly, Manyara Community Development Organization is committed to improving public nutrition and sustainable food systems, partic-ularly in local schools.44 Standard 6 students are given the opportunity to manage small-scale community gardens so that income can be gener-ated to support their school. The program allows young children to learn about agriculture, while gaining valuable business skills. These programs effectively support agricultural production, while simultaneously promoting nutrition and better food consumption.

43 COSITA, personal communication, August 1 201644 Livingstone Tanzania Trust. (n.d.). Enterprise in Schools. Retrieved from http://www.livingstonetanzaniatrust.com/enterprise-in-schools

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AppropriatenessA necessary component to measuring food security is ensuring that food comes from a safe and sustainable source. Sustainable sources refer to ones that nurture the environment during all stages of production, processing and distribution. Conservation practices ensure that renewable resources will be available for generations to come. However, choosing to only promote sustainable practices can be difficult, especially when orga-nizations solely prioritize increasing agricultural production in the short term, and neglect to con-sider the long-term consequences.Therefore, it is ever more important for institu-tional actors to promote farming technologies and practices that can rehabilitate soil fertility and enhance local ecosystems, particularly given the environmental stress being caused by climate change. The Manyara Community Development Organization uses a model that is socially, eco-nomically and ecologically sustainable, as it pro-motes agricultural practices that are environmen-

tally sound, such as application of organic manure rather than fertilizer, drip-irrigation, and careful intermixing of crops with plants that deter disease pests, and hence, reduce the need for chemical pesticides.45

AgencyAgency refers to one’s ability to participate in de-cision making concerning food security processes at all levels from the household and community level to the district and national level. With this in mind, it is important to assess whether the institu-tional environment directly works with farmers to develop strategies for improved food security. In the case of COSITA’s pastoralist project, they seek to improve the capacity of pastoralist communities by providing community members with the tools and training needed to advocate for their own interests on a local and national level.46

45 Manyara Community Development Organization, personal communication, August 2, 201646 COSITA, personal communication, August 1, 2016

Fig.1: Fatuma, a market seller in Babati town, expressed a desire to work directly with the horticulturalist farmers who supply her produce

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Challenges to Achieving Food Security

Despite the array of services provided by the institutional environment, smallholder farmers continue to face challenges in Manyara that inhibit their ability to be food secure. These challenges include climate variability, market access, lack of financial assets, and food literacy.As previously mentioned, most farmers in the region depend on rain-fed agriculture, but unpre-dictable weather patterns have resulted in recent periods of drought; making rain-fed crops difficult to grow. Rainfall patterns greatly impact a harvest’s yield, and make it difficult for farmers to feed themselves. In Hallu village, within Babati district, farmers were previously able to harvest 6-7 sacks of crop per acre when rainfall was more predict-able, but recent harvests have yielded 5-6 sacks per acre (i.e. some farmers are experiencing a 30% drop in yields). From our observations, more attention needs to be placed on helping smallhold-ers cope with climate change and unpredictable weather patterns.With regard to marketing their food, many smallholders expressed the need to abolish mid-dle-men within the food value chain, so as to acquire more power for setting product prices. Many farmers complained of not having access to information regarding the market value of their crops. MVIWATA – Manyara does provide price planning to its members for select crops, but other crop value is left unknown.47 Many farmers in Manyara sell their crops directly to the National Food Reserve Agency (NFRA), in order to receive higher prices. But, several smallholders men-tioned that it takes too long to receive their money. Instead, farmers opt for selling their crop to local traders where they receive immediate returns, but for a lower price. The presence of middle-men also posed problems in Manyara, as the majority of market sellers are unable to purchase crops from farmers themselves. As a result, market sellers are limited in their ability to negotiate a fair price and are often affected by price fluctuations. Therefore, further support is needed to help farmers cope with price volatility and stabilize the livelihoods of all value-chain actors.

47 MVIWATA, personal communication, July 28, 2016

Additionally, many farmers are food insecure due to their limited crop yields. Many desire to improve their yields by using improved technolo-gies, but are unable to afford them. We were told that smallholders in Manyara are unable to access loans or financial assistance due to strict regula-tions and high interest rates. Organizations and government agencies that currently provide finan-cial assistance to farmers may need to re-evaluate the accessibility of such programs and consider innovative ways of extending their scope, so that more communities may benefit from their services.Similarly, programs exist to improve food liter-acy, but many farmers have a poor understanding of the concept. Many consider themselves to be food secure by measuring their ability to eat three meals a day, but no consideration is given to the nutritional value of these meals. When asked to describe a typical meal, farmers listed dishes that largely consist of carbohydrates and starch. Aside from small portions of legumes, the majority of meals excluded meat, vegetables or fruit.These findings indicate that many households may not have the financial stability to support a diverse and nutritious diet, but also highlights their lack of knowledge surrounding food literacy. Some farmers expressed the desire to better understand the impact of food choices on their own health during our field research. Therefore, institutions should place a greater emphasis on improving food literacy for small-scale farmers.

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TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT & INNOVATIONManyara region has the potential to serve as Tanzania’s national food basket if its land is cared for sustainably but the limited use of modern farming technologies has greatly constrained the ability of smallholder farmers to fully utilize the land resources available to them. The lack of appropriate mechanization and knowledge about farming strategies further constrains their ability to engage in conservation practices; which are increasingly important in an era affected by climate change impacts, loss of soil fertility and population growth.48

When preparing the land for cultivation, oxen are typically used for ploughing. Households with higher incomes are able to use tractors, while poor farmers rely on hand-hoes. Weeding and threshing are also done by using hand-hoes, but is very time consuming and arduous. Farmers are encouraged to use inputs such as im-proved seeds and industrial fertilizers, but these inputs are largely unavailable for poor households. Mechanization and improved technologies are typically expen-sive and difficult to use and not always suitable for ensuring farming practices are sustainable. Therefore, many farmers cannot afford to avail themselves of these re-sources and if they can, the technologies are not always locally-appropriate.49

Technology in agriculture can sometimes play a significant role in improving the livelihoods of small-scale farmers by reducing labour-intensive tasks and maximiz-ing crop production. This ultimately gives more power to smallholders within the value chain and allows them to generate a higher income. From the data collected in Manyara, we have observed that stronger support services are needed in the region to provide equal access to modern technologies for all smallholders.50

48 Tanzania Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.tccia.com49 Tanzania Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture. (n.d.).50 Tanzania Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture. (n.d.).

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Fig.2: Bottle drop irrigation using local bags; affordable ways for poor farmers to sustain their crops

Fig.3: Cement structure created to keep crops safe from chickens and other ground-level pests. Taken at Manyara Community Development Organization

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Institutional Support Structures

During our field study we visited several institu-tions that play a vital role in supporting small-scale farmers through trainings, workshops and seminars on the use of farming machinery and im-proved inputs. Organizations, like TCCIA provide unique information on drip irrigation, greenhouse production and borehole drilling.Notably, MVIWATA-Manyara uses a bottom-up participatory approach in which farmers fully par-ticipate in designing and implementing innovative technologies and approaches for enhanced agri-cultural productivity. The methods used include community meetings and open group discussions to reflect on the situation of farmers, to realize their own capabilities, and to identify the con-straints that are holding them back. MVIWATA therefore instils confidence in small-scale farmers and develops action plans to support smallholders in the future.51

These services were observed in Endagaw ward, Hanang District, where we met with a group of farmers who previously had issues with their irrigation system collapsing. After working closely with MVIWATA – Manyara, the farmers group managed to rehabilitate their system so that irri-gation was more effective. This service has enabled farmers in the region to become better established in horticultural production; ultimately contribut-ing to improved livelihoods. The regional admin-istration aims to support modern technologies via the improvement of irrigation systems, which have been subjected under the Comprehensive District Development Projects. Their efforts have focused on the development of drip irrigation technologies that are beneficial for small-scale farmers.52

Similarly, both FIDE and COSITA advocate for good agronomic practices, especially intercrop-ping and value addition. These efforts were evident during our visit to Endadosh and Gedamara villages within Babati district. Several farmers reported that organizations had encouraged them to cultivate more crops in addition to pigeon peas so as to reduce vulnerability to pests and disease.

51 Kaburire, L. & Ruvuga, S. (2006). Networking for agricultural innovation. The MVIWATA national network of far in Tanzania. Dodoma, Tanzania: National network of farmers’ groups in Tanzania (MVIWATA). Retrieved from http://www.kit.nl/sed/wp-content/uploads/publica-tions/913_Case%20Study%20Tanzania2.pdf52 MVIWATA, personal communication, July 28, 2016

COSITA was particularly successful in encour-aging farmers to produce sesame. Intercropping helps farmers maintain their level of food security, as farmers are less dependent on the success of one crop. The development of intercropping practices gives smallholders something to fall back when central crops are destroyed. From an ecological perspective, this technique can also increase pro-ductivity, as partner plants facilitate each other’s growth. COSITA promotes value-added products by training agro-entrepreneurs in the development of sesame snacks, cooking oil, and flour. These skills are helpful in generating a higher income, while promoting the development of cooperative farmer business groups.53

Improved seed technology is particularly im-portant for the production of beans and sorghum varieties, which are drought resistant crops that thrive in Manyara. While interviewing the agri-culture officers in Hanang District, it was revealed that 70 percent of Hanang farmers use improved seed varieties from cereals and horticultural crops. Nevertheless, many farmers are still using tradi-tional techniques. Organizations like COSITA, FIDE, TCCIA and MVIWATA advocate for the use of improved seed varieties by using demonstration plots that highlight its benefits. These organiza-tions also link farmers to seed supplier agents.54

There have been efforts by several institutions to develop biogas plants that can be used by small-scale farming households. Bio-gas fuel uses manure from at least two cows to extract a line of fuel, which is then directly used to power cooking stove-tops. This technology reduces the work of women who are typically taken away from agri-cultural activities to fetch firewood, and reduces their risk of developing smoke-related diseases. Biogas fuel also acts as a source of sustainable and environmentally sound energy; eliminating the need for firewood, and therefore reducing rates of deforestation. In the past five years, biogas plants have been introduced by CAMARTEC in the region, but the high cost of their construction poses problems. FIDE also support the develop-ment of biogas plants, as it subsidizes projects for certain households.55

53 FIDE, personal communication, August 3, 201654  Hanang District Agricultural Office, personal communication, July 28, 201655  Hanang District Agricultural Office, personal communication, July 28, 2016

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Institutional Challenges in Fostering New Technologies

From the data collected in Manyara, we have observed that institutions are sending mixed messages to farmers. Despite their mandates to support farmers and sustainable development, some institutions promote chemical-based farming and conventional cash-cropping. Other institutions support sustainable, ecological-ly-sound approaches to food production and income generation; therefore, it becomes hard for farmers to distinguish which path is most effective. Poor communication structures further hinder in-novation and development, as institutions do not have the capacity to personally assist farmers in a timely manner. Organizations are often limited by their donor demands, which keep them from expanding their services in collaboration with similar groups.56

To further complicate the process of communica-tion, many organizations do not have autonomous extension officers that can facilitate technical trainings and support skills development. Insti-56 Local farmers in Babati and Hanang, personal communication, July & August 2016

tutions can develop many theoretical programs, but relationships with isolated villages can pose problems for implementation.57

Some organizations expressed problems with imple-menting biogas plant projects within certain villages and cultural communities. Due to cultural differ-ences and social norms, these communities were hesitant to adopt biogas plants due to sanitation and ethical reasons. It is important to note this division, as it reminds us that not all modern practices can be adopted by all demographics. These communities were able to alternatively consider the development of solar energy, which is also environmentally friendly and financially appropriate for many average house-holds. Therefore, certain cultures may not open to all methods of innovation.58

57 Local farmers in Babati and Hanang, personal communication, July & August 201658 Local farmers in Babati and Hanang, personal communication, July & August 2016

Fig.4: Agricultural technologies used in Manyara region.

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Adopting New Methods

While interviewing local farmers in Manyara, we had the opportunity to gauge the way innovation and technology has changed over time. According to many farmers, local technologies and hand-made tools were the only resources used to help with cultivation in the past; including hand hoes, oxen ploughs, and traditional seed varieties. Ad-ditionally, farmers expressed that in the past they relied solely on rain-fed crops, and often hand-picked their harvest. Due to the low production and post-harvest losses experienced by smallhold-ers using these methods, new technologies were needed to sustain their livelihoods. As time goes on, more and more farmers are adapting to the use of new technologies, but many challenges still exist for them.

Challenges that Hinder the Adoption of Technology & Innovation

Local farmers in Manyara listed the following challenges in regards to technological innovation; financial constraints to affording machines, a lack of education and skills needed in order to use them; and uncoordinated communication chan-nels. Farmers also experience serious post-har-vest losses due to attack by detrimental pests and diseases which is the result of a lack of appropriate storage facilities for their produce.59

Regions in Manyara, particularly Babati district, lack sufficient input retailers. As a result, farmers are forced to travel to other areas to obtain agri-cultural inputs. Travelling takes away from their farming activities, and transportation is expen-sive.60

As Manyara’s climate continues to be very dry, irrigation systems are becoming more important than ever before. The developments of certain irrigation systems that use natural water sources pose their own challenges, as lakes are affected by land erosion and drought. Some farmers have found these natural sources are slowly losing their ability to store as much water as they had before. Dam walls are also damaged during heavy rains, resulting in the loss of irrigation water.61

59 Local farmers in Endagaw, Gallapo and Gedamara, personal communication, July and August 201660 Local farmers in Endagaw, Gallapo and Gedamara, personal communication, July and August 201661 Local farmers in Endagaw, Gallapo and Gedamara, personal communication, July and August 2016

In regards to technology and its impact on sustainable livelihoods, farmers in Manyara aspire for better access to resources in the future. The majority of smallholders in Manyara identified the need for reli-able post-harvest storage facilities as one of their main priorities. As we walked the streets of Gedamara and Hallu, mountains of maize were seen lying on the ground with no means of protection. Without the use of proper storage, chemicals are used to deter pests, but such chemi-cals jeopardize food safety. Even with the use of chemicals, crops can still be destroyed by pests or eaten by animals. Improvement of storage facilities would have the potential to significantly improve farmer’s household income and food security. Additionally, the region needs to acquire a more reliable means of sharing information about skills trainings, and supporting isolated farmers in accessing technologies. Without them, these farmers are extremely disadvantaged within the market, and more institutional support should be present to equal the playing field for the poorest smallholders. The Manyara region is truly lacking in sufficient support from extension officers, as many farmer groups aspired to have better access to immediate assistance when faced with issues of crop disease and pest invasion. Extension officers have the potential to improve the livelihoods of many rural farmers, but this support is not being received. Finally, it is important that farmers are considered equal partners with organizations when exploring the development of new technologies and farming strategies to ensure they are likely to be locally-appropriate and sustainable. To assume that one technology or strategy is suitable for all farmers’ risks being ineffec-tive. Therefore, farmers need innovations which fit with what they are capable of sustaining with the livelihood resources which they currently have.62

62 Local farmers in Endagaw, Gallapo and Gedamara, personal communication, July and August 2016

FARMERS’ ASPIRATIONS

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YOUTH INCLUSION IN MANYARA

Small-scale farming relies on many different operational resources that contribute to its success, including; physical inputs and avail-able land, among others. As previously mentioned, many small-scale farmers have no other choice but to engage in agricultural activities under less-than ideal conditions, which limits their ability to produce a sufficient amount of high-quality crops. Despite the significant impact that physical resources have on production, it is human re-sources that matter the most; because without farmers the agricul-tural sector would cease to exist. The lack of human resources in agriculture right now is one of Tanzania’s biggest concerns, as the majority of farmers continue to age without a younger generation to succeed them.63 Therefore, lack of youth inclusion is a detriment to the future of food production in all geographical regions, and the need for better youth inclusion is certainly evident in Manyara.

63 The United Republic of Tanzania. (2013). National Agricultural Policy. Ministry of Agriculture Food Security and Cooperatives. Retrieved from http://www.fao-ilo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/fao_ilo/pdf/ICA_MLW_and_TZ/NATIONAL_AGRICULTURAL_POLICY-2013.pdf

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Institutional Support Structures

All organizations that we met with in Manyara work to provide support for smallholder farmers. Educa-tional trainings are provided on land rights, mechanization, and business management. The majority of programs are generally directed towards youth, while others specifically target women. Their presence has contributed to a more equitable environment that lobbies for better farming policies and inclusion within agriculture, while providing specific resources to vulnerable demographics. Although these pro-grams have had many positive impacts on the inclusion of youth, there are specific challenges that must be addressed.Both COSITA and FIDE have programs that train youth for specific roles so as to improve their chance of employment and to better their ability to create sustainable livelihoods. Among their initiatives is COSITA’S Babati Pastoralists’ Land Rights Project; which trains pastoralists on their legal rights to land and the ability to cope with territorial conflicts.64 This program is significant to the inclusion of youth because pastoralists typically engage in this livelihood from a very young age. It appears to hold great potential for training a new generation in conflict resolution so that their practices may become more peaceful and less competitive in the future. Despite the benefits that this program offers for men, COSITA faces significant challenges to including women. Pastoralism is traditionally a livelihood divided by gender, whereby men are considered the ‘owners’ of livestock, and women caregivers.65 Within some indigenous tribes where pastoralism is most popular, women are traditionally thought to be inferior to men and are limited in their abilities to support themselves. Therefore, including women in this program will largely depend on changing the underlying social constructs that control them; which is probably going to take a significant amount of time.66

COSITA also supports Farm Africa in its Improving Smallholder Farmers’ Livelihoods through Sesame Project. Sesame is a drought resistant crop that does well in Babati’s dry climate, and thrives in the district’s sandy soil. This program exists to train farmers in value-addition and marketing, so that they may receive higher profits for sesame oil, jellies, snack bars, and flour.67 Several young farmers that we spoke in Babati expressed a growing interest in manufacturing value-added products, so the support provided through COSITA’s program may encourage youth to become more established in this area.Our team was very impressed with COSITA’s innovative ap-proach to providing opportunities for youth to engage in agriculture and business development, but we identified several challenges. COSITA tries to include women in trainings, but husbands are encouraged to accompany them. This creates an unequal power dynamic, as women may not want to voice their concerns in front of men. COSITA admits that women are never consulted alone, which eliminates the opportunity for women to take control of their own livelihoods and develop past their traditional roles.68

Much like COSITA’s efforts to develop employment opportuni-ties that appeal to youth, FIDE’s biogas masonry project strives to do the same. By training youth on the construction and in-stallation of biogas plants, FIDE is providing them with specialty skills that increase their ability to gain employment.69 Construc-tion projects and hard labour are often identified as work for men, so women are not able to participate in these trainings.

64 COSITA, personal communication, August 1, 201665 COSITA, personal communication, August 1, 201666 COSITA, personal communication, August 1, 201667 COSITA, personal communication, August 1, 201668 COSITA, personal communication, August 1, 201669 COSITA, personal communication, August 1, 2016

Fig. 5: Sesame seeds are used to manufacture other added-value products, such as sesame oil, snack bars, and jellies. This photo was taken

at COSITA in Manyara; illustrating their program that promotes youth entrepreneurship through manufacturing added-value products

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FIDE does offer training programs specifically for women in order to develop their skills in poultry production, hand-crafting, and added-value manufacturing to support women in their ability to generate their own income.70 FIDE collab-orated with 18 women groups throughout Babati, including one that was inspired to manufacture and sell a nutritious porridge flour for children made from locally grown ingre-dients.71 These examples are just a sample of the many programs that are currently operating in Manyara, but their achievements have certainly made a difference in the lives of select small-scale farmers.

Challenges Facing Youth in Agriculture

Our research also gave us the opportunity to speak with farmers in Babati, including several youth groups and women. Smallholders in Manyara are struggling with multiple challenges, but youth seem to be most affected by the high price of agricultural inputs, unreliable access to markets or capital, and the lack of expert knowledge and skills. Despite the fact that organizations exist to support them, youth are still extremely marginalized in certain areas.Due to the high price of improved seeds, pesticides and industrial fertilizers, young farmers opt for cheaper options that produce smaller yields and are more vulnerable to pests and disease. They feel that they do not have the necessary knowledge to cope with pests, and therefore experience significant harvest loss. Several groups expressed concern over the high price of improved seeds, as they were interested in using them to improve crop production but couldn’t justify the small profit margin they would make. In Manyara region, a 2kg bag of improved maize seeds costs 12000 Tshs, while 20kg of the resulting crop would only sell for 6000 Tshs.72 In many cases, it proved economical to accept the consequences of local seeds.Many youths we spoke with expressed their desire to access modern machines for land preparation, tilling, and harvesting so that they may save time and increase productivity; but these technologies are simply too expensive. Many said that they would be more interested in agriculture if mechani-zation was more affordable. Despite the fact that national organizations like CAMARTEC exist to subsidize mechanical tools; their technologies price is twice or more doubled by agent’s companies during distribution hence not affordable for the poorest farmers.73

Additionally, affordable means of transportation is often an issues for many young smallholders, as they lack the ability to reach external markets. Youth are largely uninterested in pursuing agriculture as a career because it so hard to access funds to finance their start-up. Funds are not widely available to young farmers due to the difficult terms and conditions posed by financial institutions. Youth lack the collateral to apply for loans, and therefore cannot afford to access the necessary inputs for a viable harvest. For example, Manyara is a big producer of pigeon peas, issue of farmers being paid much less at the market than in the global market. This is discouraging youth indeed.74

70 COSITA, personal communication, August 1, 201671 COSITA, personal communication, August 1, 201672 Local female farmer, Babati Town, personal communication, August 4, 201673 CAMARTEC, personal communication, July 21, 201674 Local small-scale farmers, Babati District, personal communication, August 4, 2016

Fig. 6: COSITA promoting value-added products using sesame seeds

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Challenge of Interest and Knowledge Diffusion: Case Study

Even if the youth of Manyara were able to afford modern inputs and technologies, the majority of them have expressed that they would not know how to use them. Above all other challenges, the lack of education and agricultural knowledge proved to be the most wide-spread and signifi-cant challenge that youth in Manyara face right now. The majority of knowledge that they use for agricultural practice comes from the traditional techniques that have been passed down through generations. As soil qualities and climates change, modern techniques have become more necessary for environmental conservation and food produc-tion than ever before. Despite the fact that many organizations offer training opportunities for smallholders in the area, these resources are not effectively reaching the poorest and most isolated farmers.Several farmers and organizations within the region expressed that youth are currently not interested in agriculture and are much disengaged. One farmer also mentioned that alcohol was a contributing factor in Gedamara, as many young

people were involved in unproductive activities. Many youths are migrating to urban areas of Babati Town to engage in street selling, food service, and other low-paying jobs, as they turn away from agriculture; but these livelihoods can be even more unstable while contributing to extreme levels of urban poverty.75

During our time in Babati rural, we spoke with local farmers who were already engaged in agriculture. When asked why youth are not pursuing agriculture as a career, they said the farming was perceived as a disrespected and undervalued career; considered as a last resort for income. When asked why they had chosen to become involved in agriculture, several young men said that they had had no choice at all, as agriculture was the only thing they were qualified to do in order to support them. Some young men became very emotional and angry when speaking about their experiences, claiming that their low-levels of education were to blame for a livelihood that was somewhat forced upon them.It is widely known that the communication of sufficient infor-mation positively correlates with agricultural development, but many rural farmers have expressed that they feel margin-alized from important information that could stimulate their

75 Lawi, J. (2013). The Rapid Growth of Towns and Migration in Tanzania: A Case Study of Babati Town. International Journal of Business, Humanities and Technology, 3(7). Retrieved from http://www.ijbhtnet.com/journals/Vol_3_No_7_September_2013/7.pdf

Fig. 7: Young farmers engage in a focus group conducted by the IS team in Manyara; discussing their current

struggles and aspirations for the future

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livelihoods.76 Based on what our team observed in Manyara, there appears to be the necessary knowledge and potential support for advancing the development of smallholder farming. Yet, the information seems to have become stagnant within institutions, as it is not effectively dissemi-nated among small-scale farmers.Many young farmers only complete a primary level of education, and further rely on agricultural activities instead of pursuing secondary school.77 This situation applies to the youth of Babati, where under-educated farmers claim to receive little to no opportunities for modern trainings. There appears to be a large gap where select farmers are chosen to attend institutional trainings, but the knowledge they acquire is not shared with the rest of the community. Print materials have also been proven as culturally inappropriate for knowledge dissemination; as this medium does not cater to under-educated farmers.78

Many rural smallholders are also affected by the digital divide, whereby their lack of technol-ogy or enabling resources (internet, electricity, etc.) further marginalize them from society and knowledge-sharing sources.79 It appears that mass medias including radio, television and oral com-munication are the best methods for reaching an isolated and widely dispersed audience. It also noted that visual demonstrations in rural areas can be the most effective way to promote the use of environment-friendly farming techniques.80 Isolated farmers are more likely to invest in these techniques after seeing their results firsthand. Institutions should consider using these media ap-proaches for knowledge diffusion on a larger scale, so as to provide more support for a larger number of people. Select organizations in Manyara cur-rently use these media approaches for knowledge diffusion and have seen successful results. There-fore, more and more farmers could be reached if other organizations began to use these techniques on a larger scale. Additionally, extension officers are a great resource for knowledge sharing, yet the relationship that exists between officers and farmers in Manyara is currently problematic. Almost every group we spoke with said they receive little to no support 76 Lwoga, E. T., Stilwell, C., & Ngulube, P. (2011). Access and use of agricultural information and knowledge in Tanzania. Library Review, 60(5), 383-395. Retrieved from https://unisa.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/access-and-use-of-agricultural-information-and-knowl-edge-in-tanza77 Lofstrand, F. (2005). Conservation Agriculture in Babati District, Tanzania: Impacts of conservation agriculture on small-scale farmers and methods for increasing soil fertility. Swedish University of Agricul-tural Science; Uppsala, Sweden. Retrieved from http://ex-epsilon.slu.se/840/1/Ex_arbete_Löfstrand_slutl.pdf78 Lwoga, E. T., Stilwell, C., & Ngulube, P. (2011).79 Lwoga, E. T., Stilwell, C., & Ngulube, P. (2011).80 Lwoga, E. T., Stilwell, C., & Ngulube, P. (2011).

from the officers assigned to their village. When faced with a problem like pests and disease, farmers in Babati reach out to their extension officers to seek advice, but often claim that they receive no concrete support. In many cases, there exist problems of com-munication between both parties, resulting in ineffective conflict resolution. Issues of transportation also exist; as isolated farmers cannot always leave their farms to travel to ward offices.81

We have also heard other interesting stories from young women within Babati town’s Central Market; where they sold fruits, vegetables, maize, beans, and sunflower oil. None of the sellers in this market are actually producers, as their products were previously purchased from other markets or middle-men. The youth selling products in Babati’s market were only one dot on the spectrum of multiple middle-men within this region’s food value-chain. The problem of middle-men was raised as a major chal-lenge for both producers and sellers, as crops were continuously being sold for higher prices before ever reaching the consumer. This value-chain dynamic appeared to cause many challenges within Babati, as the value of crops would decrease for market sellers after every passing day. Small-scale farmers did all the work to grow and harvest the crops, yet they were the most underpaid actor within this value-chain.The young women we spoke with in Babati expressed the importance of the market to sustaining their livelihoods, as its income was used to cover daily living expenses, to purchase food, and to pay for their children’s school fees. The central market proved to be a way for young women to earn their own income; but due to frequent price fluctu-ations this income has the potential to be unreliable.

81 Lwoga, E. T., Stilwell, C., & Ngulube, P. (2011).

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Success Stories of Innovation

Despite the barriers that youth are facing in the agricultural sector, several groups in Manyara have proven to be very innovative in their approach to overcome these challenges.While staying in Gedamara village for our homestay, we came across a group of youth build-ing bricks in a large dirt pit, and they spoke with us as we helped them do their work. We found that all of these youth rely on agriculture as their main livelihood, but they were producing bricks on the off-season to supplement their income. The bricks were made from local soil, mixed and set with water. From there, the soil was packed into molds and left to dry. These bricks were being manu-factured in large quantities, while both men and women were active in their production.The bricks were being used to build their own houses, but the majority of bricks were sold locally for community construction. This project proved innovative in many ways, as youth found a way to sustain their livelihoods by developing other transferable skills. The brick-building process was very inexpensive, as it did not rely on any amount of expensive technologies or inputs; natural re-sources were simply used to generate a profit. The development of other skills outside of agriculture is paramount to maintaining household stability, as smallholder incomes can fluctuate with every year’s harvest.Our team had previous relationships with the organizations we visited, but we happened to stumble across another unique project while visiting Babati. Manyara Community Develop-ment Organization (MCDO) is a local NGO that is supported by Livingstone International, which

is based in the UK.82 They are actively working on several impressive projects that support youth en-trepreneurship and food literacy within surround-ing schools.83 By running after-school programs to teach young students about small-scale farming techniques, MCDO has been successful in assist-ing two primary level schools develop their own self-sustaining community gardens. Produce from the gardens are sold to the community, with profits being used to support renovation and construc-tion efforts within each school. The benefits of this program are threefold; it engages youth from a very young age to appreciate agriculture as a viable income generator, it has created self-sustaining systems that help to feed students and generate income, and it supports the community by selling directly to market women and consumers.84

In addition to supporting education through agriculture, MCDO also grants loans to farming families. Due to the fact that 90% of households in Babati rely on farming for household income, many parents are struggling to pay school fees for their children.85 MCDO provides parents with financing options, which they can slowly pay back with low-interest rates.86

82 Manyara Community Development Organization - Livingstone Trust, personal communication, August 3, 201683 Manyara Community Development Organization - Livingstone Trust, personal communication, August 3, 201684 Manyara Community Development Organization - Livingstone Trust, personal communication, August 3, 201685 Kavishe, C.B. (n.d.). Sustainable and Regenerative Agriculture in Babati - Tanzania: Presentation at international conference on soils and the food we eat. Retrieved from http://beras.eu/wp-content/up-loads/2013/08/C-B-Kavishe-Agriculture-in-Babati-Tanzania.pdf86 Manyara Community Development Organization - Livingstone Trust, personal communication, August 3, 2016

Fig. 8: Youth engaging in brick-building to subsidize income

37 KILI

MAN

JARO

REG

ION

Overview of Kilimanjaro Region

The Kilimanjaro region is the most North-Eastern region in Tanzania, covering an area of 13,209 sq. km., and is surrounded by the Arusha, Manyara and Tanga regions, and the Southern Kenyan border. The region is then divided into the six administrative regions of Moshi, Rombo, Mwanga, Same, Hai, and Siha, with Moshi being the capital of the region. There are seven Local Government Authorities within the region that work under the Regional Secretariat, whose main task is to streamline the local and national governments’ policies and strategies, and to facilitate the local governments in reaching their development goals. In total, the region consists of 30 divisions, 153 wards, and 472 villages.87

Natural Resources and AgricultureThe vegetation ranges from open grasslands, to woodlands, and finally to montane rain forest, with the most prominent feature of the region being Mount Kilimanjaro, which reaches an elevation of 5,895m and provides water to the lower slopes through numerous streams.  The volcanic soil of the region is optimal for agriculture due to its nutrient-rich components, such as magnesium and calcium, and its ability to retain water. Agriculture in the region can be divided into three main ecological zones consist-ing of the Lowlands Plains zone (<900m), the Intermediate zone (900-1,100m), and the Highlands zone (1,000-1,800m). The Highlands and Intermediate zones are the most densely populated zones per square kilometer. People who live in these zones practice Agroforestry, which is the practice of integrating trees, 87 Kilimanjaro Regional Secretariat. (2011). Kilimanjaro Strategic Plan 2011/2012 to 2015/2016. Retrieved from http://www.kilimanjaro.go.tz/mpango%20wa%20maendeleo%20wa%20mkoa%20miaka%20mitano.doc

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shrubs, food, cash crops, and livestock all throughout the same land unit. Common crops grown in the two highest zones include coffee, bananas, fruits, Irish potatoes, maize, and beans. Typical livestock kept in the two highest zones include dairy cattle, goats, pigs, rabbits and poultry. Featured crops of the Lowlands Plains zone include maize, cotton, rice, sorghum, cassava, and peas. Suitable domestic animals specific to the zone are beef cattle, goats and sheep. In comparison to the other two agricultural zones, the Lowlands Plains zone is the least favorable zone for habitation and agriculture due to its climate, which is typically dry and experiences frequent floods during the rainy season.88

Despite the availability of arable land in the region, the ecosystem is now faced with growing problems of land degradation, deforestation, and increasingly unpredictable weather patterns. These stressors are the result of a combination of factors such as a rapid increase in population, land use change, poor land management practices, unsustainable harvesting of natural resources, migration, declining com-modity prices and climate change.89 For instance, Arabica coffee has been an important cash crop in the region but due to inadequate and unpredictable rainfall, poor irrigation, and the continual decline in its price, farmers are abandoning their coffee crops and replacing them with crops like maize. As coffee is a cash crop, its abandonment has resulted in the decline of income in the region. Climate change is also proving a challenge for rice farmers and so they are turning to other crops such as watermelon, beans and corn to boost their revenue.90 Even though farmers face a number of challenges, agriculture contin-ues to be the main economic driver in the Kilimanjaro region, especially in rural areas.

Socio-economic CharacteristicsIn comparison to the other regions in Tanzania, the Kilimanjaro region is among one of the faster de-veloping regions. It is well connected to its surrounding regions due to the 3,649 km of roads in Kili-manjaro, of which 443 km are tarmac. Road access to markets is relatively good taking only “1-2 hours [or less] to reach the markets and most roads are passable year round.”91 The region is also well-connected with regard to telephone service, both landline and mobile, which are available in all major towns and in much of the rural areas. However, a major challenge is access to electricity in rural areas, where power supply depends on hydroelectricity, and only “52% out of 472 registered villages are connected to the National grid”.92 Poverty rates in the region are slightly lower than the national average, whereby the per-centage of people living below the poverty line is around 31%.93 However, this still means that nearly a third of the people in the Kilimanjaro region are living off of $1.90 a day and may also be food insecure.94

In 2006, agricultural activities including crop farming, livestock, forestry, hunting and fishing contrib-uted 69.2% to the region’s GDP. Traditional smallholder farmers make up 90% of the total farmers in the region, and large scale commercial farmers make up the remaining 10%. It is important to note that 62.1% of the employed population are farmers and 2.8% are livestock keepers.95 Within the households of smallholder farmers, 68% of their income comes from growing and selling crops, and 21% comes from rearing and selling livestock.96 For additional income, these households sometimes undertake other economic activities, including making and selling handcrafted goods, retail, manufacturing, temporary work, or some type of business service. In the urban areas a number of people also practice small scale poultry farming. Besides farming, tourism is also a main economic activity in the region because of the iconic Mount Kilimanjaro. This provides opportunities for employment as porters and guides, and in the public and private sectors.School students in the Kilimanjaro region learn the basics of food literacy. For example, in primary school, students learn about nutrition in their Science class and in secondary school students learn about agriculture in their Geography courses. Students also learn more about nutrition and composition of foods while studying Biology.

88  The Planning Commission Dar Es Salaam & Regional Commissioner’s Office Kilimanjaro. (1998). Kilimanjaro Region Socio-Economic Profile. Retrieved from http://www.tzonline.org/pdf/Kilimanjaro.pdf89 United Nations Development Program. (n.d.). Reducing Land Degradation on the Highlands of Kilimanjaro Region. Retrieved from http://www.tz.undp.org/content/dam/tanzania/Sustainable%20Land%20Management%20in%20Kilimanjaro.pdf90 Bagnetto, L.A. (2015). Tanzanian farmers in the shadow of Mount Kilimanjaro struggle to cope with climate change. Retrieved from http://en.rfi.fr/africa/20151201-Smallholder-farmers-shadow-Mount-Kilimanjaro-struggle-cope-climate-change91 Joseph Perfect, A.E. Majule and Institute of Resource Assessment, in consultation with FAO. (2010). Livelihood Zones Analysis: A tool for planning agricultural water management investments. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/nr/water/docs/TZA_LZ_analysis92 Kilimanjaro Regional Secretariat. (2011).93 Joseph Perfect, A.E. Majule and Institute of Resource Assessment, in consultation with FAO (2010).94 The World Bank. (2011). Poverty headcounts. Retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY95 Kilimanjaro Regional Secretariat. (2011).96 Anderson, J., Marita, C., and Musiime, D. (2016). National Survey and Segmentation of Smallholder Households in Tanzania. Retrieved from https://www.cgap.org/sites/default/files/Working-Paper-Smallholder-Survey-Tanzania-May-2016.pdf

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With regard to post-secondary education, the region hosts four institutes and training centers that focus on agriculture: Tanzania Coffee Research Institute (TACRI), Kilimanjaro Agricultural Training Centre (KATC), Kilacha Agricultural Training Institute, and Seeds of Expertise for the Vegetable Sector of Africa (SEVIA). The two primary agricultural organizations in the region that work exclusively to help farmers’ needs are National Networks of Farmers’ Groups in Tanzania (MVIWATA) and Fumbuka Agro Solutions (FASO). MVIWATA is a national farming organization that has existed for just over 20 years, while FASO is a young organization that was formed and exists solely in the Kilimanjaro region.

Methodology                                          

Together, we were five IS participants, two Tanzanian and three Canadian, who travelled to the Kilimanjaro region, along with one of the IS Coordina-tors. In our region, we met with individual farmers, farmer groups, coopera-tives, social enterprises, private companies, and local farming organizations. The six villages and towns that we visited to conduct our primary research were Moshi, Kahe, Mabogini, Ubora, Materuni, and Kalali. The two organi-zations that we met with were MVIWATA and FASO, as well as the private company SEVIA and the social enterprise Natural Extracts Industries (NEI).Our primary research and findings were collected by meeting directly with institutional players as well as smallholder farmers. When we met with insti-tutional players, our goal was to find out what their roles, services, mission, values, and goals were and to assess whether or not they fit and served the needs of smallholder farmers that we met with. In our interviews and field visits with farmers, we began the discussion by asking farmers to draw their typical day-to-day meal. From there, we asked farmers to reflect on how their eating practices changed over time and to identify the things in their envi-ronment that contributed to those changes. This helped bring forward the challenges that smallholder farmers were facing in order to reach livelihood security, and ultimately food security. During the last two days in the region we spent two nights in Materuni village, divided amongst two host families, to experience the way farmers were living in the area. The research and findings in our regional report are a combination of primary and secondary sources.

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FOOD SECURITYWe approached the assessment of food security using the

Five ‘A’s of Food Security, which the Manyara team also used

AvailabilityWithin the region, farmers’ diets consisted mainly of foods that can be culti-vated by themselves on their land, such as maize, yams, spinach, and banana. These staple foods are not hard to come by, but there is a lack of variety in vegetables and fruits that could be cultivated and incorporated into their diets, which would further enrich their nutrients intake. Sometimes a food may be available in the farmer’s environment, but if the household lacks the education on how to prepare the food or it is not already incorporated into the food culture, it will remain underutilized.

AccessibilitySince smallholder farmers are also sustenance farmers, the food that farmer households have access to largely depends on their geographic location and the types of foods that are grown in the area. For instance, farmers who have their own fish ponds or live near other farmers who practice fish farming are more likely to rely more on fish as their main source of protein. This may differ from farmers residing high in the mountainous region who cannot farm fish and rely more on cattle for consumption than fish. For example, in Materuni village, coffee is a staple cash crop in the area and is consumed on a daily basis by everyone in the household young and old. Distance from larger towns and main markets also has an effect on what foods are accessible. Due to poor transportation and infrastructure systems, households in the furthest villages are limited to the kinds of food that they can access in their region. This can lead to certain foods and nutrients not being present in people’s diets.

AcceptabilityAcceptability refers to foods that are accepted within the food culture, which is the result of the culture, aesthetics and taste of the region.97 When small-holder farmers were asked how their eating habits changed over time, they 97 Caraher, M. (1998). Barriers to Accessing Healthy Foods: Differentials by Gender, Social Class, Income, and Mode of Transportation. Retrieved from http://hej.sagepub.com/content/57/3/191.abstract

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noticed how society has moved away from using natural and whole foods to more processed foods. For example, processed oils have replaced the use of animal fat for oil and the bran of maize is now removed from the kernel before consumption. Consequently, some of these changes in food culture can negatively impact the nutritional content of the foods they consume, poten-tially leading to long-term health effects. Interestingly, some farmers noticed the prevalence of more diseases amongst community members and shorter life expectancy since this shift in food practice.One of the most prominent factors that we observed in food acceptability was whether or not a food could make you feel full. This was demonstrated at meal time, where the largest portion of food on people’s plates were always a starch or a combination of multiple starch-based foods. Farmers agreed that it was because it made them feel full and each meal needed to last him or her until the next one.

AppropriatenessFood appropriateness describes whether or not the food that is being con-sumed is from sources suitable to the local environment have been produced, processed and distributed in ecologically-sound ways. Although farmers are consuming foods that grow in their environments and on their farms, the current food system in Kilimanjaro is not ecologically sustainable due to the effects of climate change and smallholder farmers’ response to this challenge. The Kilimanjaro region has a large range of diverse ecosystems that has sus-tained farming for generations. However, farmers have expressed how there has been a noticeable change in their natural environment over time.  For instance, the land has become less fertile and rainfall has decreased year after year. This has affected the types of seeds best sown in the area, increased the use of fertilizers and pesticides over time, and has caused increased reliance on irrigation systems. They have also witnessed the disappearance of indige-nous crops and seeds and a dramatic shift in favor of using new plant vari-eties by purchasing seeds. Often these new varieties are more demanding of chemical inputs and water. The change in climate, and adoption of using new agricultural inputs and practices have intensified the challenges that small scale farmers face, and subsequently, contribute to a rise in livelihood and food insecurity.

AgencyOne of the hardest but most crucial aspects of food security is possess-ing the agency to influence the food policies that small scale farmers must operate within. Agency is necessary in order to influence policy-makers to make greater investments in agriculture and the food system as a whole. The farming organization MVIWATA helps bring farmers together to create that collective voice, but there are still farmers who do not understand or are unable to utilize their advocacy services. MVIWATA should look to increase awareness of their services and find more effective ways to reach farmers, es-pecially youth farmers, so that farmers can also become their own advocates of change to achieve livelihood and food security.

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Nutritional Context

Nutrition is a key component of food security; without adequate nutrition one cannot be considered food secure. Proper nutrition requires not only a sufficient calorie intake, but also varied and balanced meals and a sufficient micronutrient intake. Inadequate nutrition can have detrimental impacts on numerous facets of an individual’s life. In children, inadequate nutrition can lead to stunting and wasting, impaired brain development, weakened immune systems, lack of energy, disease, and/or death. These children often have lower productivity in life, which can result in future lower household income, making it even more difficult to break free from cycles of poverty. This especially impacts the agricultural sector, which relies heavily on phys-ical labor.  Thus, inadequate nutritional status should be of interest to the Tanzanian government because it can have a significant financial impact on the country. UNICEF reported that “vitamin and mineral deficiencies alone cost Tanzania about US$ 390 million in lost revenue each year, equivalent to 2.65 percent of GDP”.98

While we did not do a full analysis of the manners in which the nutritional status of farmers could be raised, when we interviewed farmers and asked them to describe and illustrate their typical meal, we gained better insight into their food culture what was important to them in their diet. One of the first things we noticed is that they only included two to three food groups in their meals.99 The majority of the meals would comprise a large portion of starch, such as ugali (maize flour cooked in boiling water), rice, banana and/or yams, accompanied by a small portion of spinach and a side of protein, such as beef, fish, or beans. With the exception of dairy farmers, the ma-jority of farmers did not identify dairy products as a primary component within their diet and did not see the lack of dairy products in their diet as a concern, which could be a sign of a lack in food literacy. In addition, the bran of some grains such as maize, which contain many beneficial nutri-ents, were removed and fed to livestock. One farmer made the connection of more rapid health deterioration in his community over time as removing the bran of foods for human consumption became the norm, as it was not traditionally removed before. By asking farmer to take a look at what foods were incorporated into their households’ daily meals, we found that they would be satisfied with what they were eating and were not always conscien-tious of the nutritional value of each food and how that contributed to their health in the long term.

Looking at the Tanzanian diet through the lens of the Canadian Food Guide, many farmers may benefit nutritionally through increasing the balance of vegetables and fruits, grain products, meat and milk in their diet, as well as by increasing the variety of the foods they consume on a regular basis.100 From what we observed, sometimes even when individuals had access to foods from all of these groups, their meal was still dominated by starchy foods and supplemented by the other groups. Our observation is that there is still room for nutritional improvement in the Kilimanjaro region.

98 UNICEF. (2016). Nutrition: Overview. Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/tanzania/nutrition.html99 Australian Department of Health. (2015). The Five Food Groups. Retrieved from https://www.eatfor-health.gov.au/food-essentials/five-food-groups.100 Health Canada. (2011). Eating Well With Canada’s Food Guide. Retrieved from: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/food-guide-aliment/index-eng.php

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TECHNOLOGYInstitutional Support

In the Kilimanjaro region, the majority of farmers that we spoke to had connections or received

training from farming organizations in the region, including MVIWATA, FASO, or SEVIA. These

organizations often provided farmers with train-ing sessions, or linked them to training sessions,

which were either conducted on the farmers’ land, or were held on demonstration plots, where

farmers could learn new skills and then apply what they learned to their own farm.

After meeting with some of these farmers, we found that they gained several skills from these trainings, such as proper spacing of crops, pes-

ticide and fertilizer use, and more organic tech-niques like the use of manure for fertilizer. Other

technologies that organizations such as SEVIA are looking to disseminate to farmers include drip

irrigation, pheromone pest trap, greenhouse soil sterilization, and a natural brick cooler to keep

vegetables and fruits cool.

From what we observed in the interactions between farming organizations and smallholder farmers, was that new technologies were being taught from a top-down approach, as opposed to being developed in collaboration with farmers. For example, some training sessions were purely instructional and featured technologies that had been researched and developed apart from farmers. Farmers were not always the ones select-ing the priorities for the training session, nor were they always involved in the identification of a solu-tion to their problem. For example, one farmer we spoke to had been instructed to alter the spacing between the rows of his crops. However, he did not understand the rationale behind the change, and because the altered spacing reduced the number of vegetables that he could cultivate, he was resistant towards adopting the new technique. This demon-strates that researchers need to hear input from farmers from the very beginning so that technolo-gies are relevant and farmers understand the logic behind the new technology, which will also lead to better adoption rates. To achieve technologies that farmers actually need, organizations should consult farmers without a predetermined agenda, to pinpoint the issues they are facing. Then, researchers and farmers should combine their ideas to develop an appropriate technology that address the issue at hand. Farmers should then be able to test out the technology and provide feedback for subsequent revisions to the product. The continuous feedback between the two stakeholders would result in a more effective process that address farmer’s needs in a practical way. It is also important to note that the needs and issues that smallholder farmers face differ throughout the region and throughout Tanzania, meaning that organizations should not assume that the success of one technology will have the same result in another region or district. Despite the work that these organizations are doing and the farmers that they have been able to positively impact, there still remains a large portion of the population who have neither heard of these organizations or understand what kind of services these organizations can provide, in terms of technology innovation. It is crucial that there is more awareness and understanding of these organizations so that farmers can approach these organizations and work towards more collabora-tive solutions. A model that may be relevant to this type of collaborative innovation is TWENDE, an organization in the Arusha region.

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Conflicting TechnologiesIn the Kilimanjaro region, we learned that many

farmers were being given conflicting informa-tion on which types of technologies to adopt.

Some organizations were promoting organic food production techniques, while others were promot-

ing conventional farming techniques. These two methods of farming differ significantly, yet are

both pursued by smallholder farmers in Tanzania. The major concern of having different organiza-

tions advocating for both organic and conven-tional techniques within the same region, is that

farmers may simply be adopting the techniques of the first organization that reaches out to them with support, because they are not sufficiently informed

on the advantages and disadvantages of each practice to make their own educated decision. For

instance, one group of farmers that we met with were practicing conventional farming, but when

they learned more about organic techniques, they decided to switch their farming practices only one year after they began farming. In general, farmers need to be given the proper information about all farming techniques, so that they can adopt prac-

tices that are appropriate to their needs and in return, create a sustainable livelihood.

Challenges in Adopting New TechnologiesOne of the first challenges that farmers identify in adopting new technologies are the involved costs. This is whether it be the initial cost to invest in the technology, or the costs to maintain the new technology, such as expensive inputs like specialty seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides, which can put a financial burden on farmers over the long-term.Another hindrance to adopting new technologies in the region is unreliable electricity and frequent power outages. This especially affects farmers and cooperatives that are looking to increase the value of their products by venturing into val-ue-added activities that often require electricity. Power outages means that farmers need to be able to afford back-up generators, or they will risk losing their product, or be forced to use manual machines and decrease output. Either way, it is a loss in productivity and profit, which does not incentivize farmers to invest in value-added tech-nologies or to create their own innovations. For instance, the Kalali Women’s Dairy Cooperative has been trying to produce more dairy products besides milk, such as cheese, but due to unreli-able electricity they are unable to use their elec-tric-powered machinery and control refrigeration temperatures during power outages. Like mentioned above, farmers need to have an understanding of the technologies available to them and understand how and why to use them. If technology is too complicated or insufficiently explained to farmers, they will not be able to un-derstand its intended benefits.

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YOUTH INCLUSIONIn Tanzania, youth under 25 years old make up 66% of the population, but contribute to 53.3% of the country’s unemployment rate, making them one of the most underutilized

resources in the country.101 When it comes to youth involvement in agriculture, “the major challenge has been difficult to make farming attractive to the youngsters since most of them were not interested in taking up farming as their economic activity”.102 Their involvement is further dwindling as more youth move away from rural areas to urban centers in search

of opportunity and employment due to the lack of decent employment opportunities and poor working conditions for youth in rural areas. Internal migration to urban areas is a

massive phenomenon both in Tanzania and across Africa. Most youth in Tanzania “[view] the sector as [not profitable enough] and thus [migrate] to nearby urban centers”, however,

there are also limited opportunities for success in urban centers as well.103 Although agri-culture is the largest economic driver in Tanzania and can provide many opportunities for

youth employment, it is not considered a quick enough way to generate income, nor is it seen as a sustainable livelihood practice by the majority of youth in Tanzania, who argue

that farming has not been able to bring their own families out of poverty.

101  Restless Development. (2011). State of the Youth in Tanzania. Retrieved from http://restlessdevelopment.org/file/res-tz-soy-pub-rpt-final-version-feb12-pdf102 The Citizen. (2011). Why Tanzania Youth Shun Farming. Retrieved from http://www.tccia.com/tccia/?custom2=why-tanza-nia-youth-shun-farming103 The Citizen. (2011).

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Challenges for Youth in AgricultureThe nature of small scale farming has many chal-

lenges and provides limited incentives for youth to become involved. The following challenges go over and beyond the current struggles that the majority of smallholder farmers face within Tanzania. This makes it even more difficult for youth to become interested in engaging themselves in the agricul-

tural sector. Specific challenges to youth engaging in agriculture include:

Access to financingMost financial institutions are not in favor of lending loans to youth, not only due to their lack of assets, but due to misconceptions towards youth, such as being untrustworthy.

Access to landIn the region, land is traditionally inherited and divided amongst the owner’s children. Consequently, plots of land have diminished over several generations, leaving less land available for agriculture. Today, some parents can no longer afford to distribute their land to their children because they themselves only own a very small parcel of land. Thus, if youth want to engage in agriculture, they must resort to buying their own land or renting it.

Access to capital and modern technologiesAgricultural inputs like seeds, fertilizers and pesticides can be very expensive for youth who struggle with making the initial invest-ments in agriculture. Lack of capital dissuades youth from making investments in good but expensive technologies that will bring them the kind of profits that they are looking for. The youth that we interviewed said they would like to adopt modern technologies, like trac-tors, to increase efficiency and produce better yields, but due to high costs of such technolo-gies, their only resort is to continue using local techniques.

Lack of food storage and bargaining powerThe other challenge facing youth is their ability to market their produce effectively in the market. Due to a lack of storage facilities and preservation techniques, youth are forced to sell their produce at below market value. This perpetuates the presence of middlemen who then have the leverage to set their own prices.

Lack of awareness of available resourcesNot all youth are aware of the farming orga-nizations within their region who can provide them with needed support and training. This makes it further difficult for them to access information about market prices, sustainable agricultural practices, and available technolo-gies. Organizations need to make themselves known to youth within the region and com-municate their goals and services so that youth can become more encouraged to engage in agriculture.

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CASE STUDY: Materuni Village Tours

Materuni Village Tours (MVT) is a small-scale tourism company that offers cultural and ecologi-cal tours that expose tourists to life on a Tanzanian farm in the village of Materuni. The village itself is located 15km from Moshi town on the mountain-ous slopes just before Kilimanjaro National Park, approximately 1,900m above sea level. The steep slopes, unpaved roads and secluded location make travel to Materuni village slightly inconvenient, but nonetheless a part of the experience.MVT utilizes local people and local resources in several capacities. The tours are led by young Tanzanians who are local to the Materuni village area. MVT also helps local farmers sell their coffee beans by selling the local cooperative’s roasted coffee beans to tourists.  Meals are prepared with organic ingredients that come from local farms and are harvested daily. Another important com-ponent of the company is that it contributes 10% of its earnings towards community development. This initiative was not part of MVT from the start, but was incorporated as the village people saw that MVT was benefiting economically from sharing their village with foreigners.Our Kilimanjaro regional team had the oppor-tunity to visit Materuni village and stay with two host families through MVT. The first home stay belonged to the aunt of one of the guides, where the majority of the tours are based out of and overlooks Mount Kilimanjaro. The second home stay was located on another farm within the village who welcomed visitors into her home as an addi-tional source of income.

During our stay, we experienced cooking local foods, toured local farms and houses, had a coffee tour, watched how to make Maasai paintings, and visited the large Materuni Falls. Both of our guides were young males in their twenties who could speak fluently in English and who accompanied us for during our stay. The majority of the meal preparation and cleaning was done by the women of the host families who were not proficient in English and had to perform other daily duties to maintain their property and as part of their livelihood activities.In general, the guides were knowledgeable about the agricultural practices of the region, but were not interested in engaging themselves in agricultural production. For them, tourism seemed a more appealing profession because it can be lucrative, a source of fast cash, interactive and exciting, and a way to use and develop their English skills. MVT has a strong online presence with an informative and attractive website, as well as good reviews on Trip Advisor. As a tourism business, they appear to be successful for their small size and for the market that they are targeting. Setting aside a portion of their earnings and investing it into the community has been especially important for them to maintain a good relationship with the community and to help improve people’s standard of living. One aspect of MVT’s business that could be strengthened was the connection between tourism and the livelihood security of the people in the village. The main economic activity of the village is agriculture, and many villagers also depend on agriculture for self-subsistence. This makes the tourism company reliant on the fact that farmers are still able to maintain livelihood security through agriculture. However, we did not see any innovative and sustainable agricultural projects in the area. One opportunity to expand the tourism business would be to partner with a youth-led agricultural project and incorporate more agro-tourism into the current village tours. For example, MVT could invest some of its savings into a value added project that trans-forms raw products into a preserved product that can be sold to tourists that visit the village. MVT has been able to create youth employment opportu-nities and bring revenue into the village, but there is the potential to create more long-term economic opportunities for youth and farmers in the village through agro-tourism.

Fig. 9: Young tour guide from Materuni Village Tours

Fig.10: A house in Materuni Village

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Areas of Opportunity for YouthInstead of viewing agriculture as a slowly dying and stagnant industry, youth have the capacity

to contribute in many aspects of the agricultural value chain and improve the food system as a

whole within Tanzania.

Post-harvest loss and value additionThe common issue of post-harvest loss can provide an opportunity for youth to engage in value-adding technologies that can prolong the useful life of crops. Examples of value-adding technologies that require minimal capital are canning, sterilization, solar drying, and curing. These techniques of food preservation provide an opportunity for youth to engage in a differ-ent area of agriculture and food production that is specialized and leaves room for individual creativity in entrepreneurship. Adding these kinds of technologies add value to raw prod-ucts, can enhance customer appeal, maximize the use of resources post-harvest, and generate higher returns.

Design and PackagingTanzania lacks a processing and packaging industry that can meet the needs of smallholder farmers and entrepreneurs that want to start expand into value-added products. This could provide an opportunity for youth to use their creativity and innovation to create packaging and labels using recyclable materials.

Agribusiness managementAnother challenge for small scale farmers and small-scale cooperatives it finding knowledge-able and qualified persons to fill management positions. Youth should be given more oppor-tunities in education, training and mentorship, specific to small-scale agribusiness, so that they will have more opportunities to engage them-selves within the agricultural sector and grow their business.

TransportationA large barrier for rural small-scale farmers is to get their product to market. Although this could be largely addressed by more investment in infrastructure and transportation systems, there is also an opportunity for youth to create their own transportation systems to meet farmers’ needs. One possibility for youth is to create a transportation cooperative within their community or a set of communities to help farmers bring their product to the market.

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selling of their fruits and vegetables, as it is socially seen as a women’s activity.108

There is tangible evidence that demonstrates that “with equal access to education, training and means, women can raise the living standards of their families and inject new life into the local economy.”109 It is critical that women are given the opportunities to access education and proper agri-cultural training so that they can improve the lives of their families, as well as play a larger role in cre-ating food security in Tanzania. A great example of the impact that educating women and creating economic opportunities for women can be found within the Kalali Women’s Dairy Cooperative.

CASE STUDY Kalali Women’s Dairy Cooperative108 Uniterra (2016). Fruits and Vegetables Sub-Sector Analysis Tanzania.109 World Food Programme (2010). Four Ways to Empower Women. Retrieved from https://www.wfp.org/stories/four-ways-empower-women

In comparison to men, women are most vulnerable to food insecurity because they have limited access to livelihood assets and entitlements. This is why eradicating food insecurity must move hand in hand with addressing issues of gender inequality.104 The intra-household inequities in access and en-titlement comes from “discriminatory laws and social and cultural norms, and the consequences of such obstacles for food and nutrition security.”105 Women are disadvantaged in accessing their livelihood assets, this is due to long unpaid labor at home, limited access to land, being disfavored during food allocation at home, fewer economic opportunities due to lower educational level, societal expectations and many more.106 By not recognizing women as even more disadvantaged due to social constructs, it puts women in an increasingly vulnerable position in reaching food security and restricts them from fully unleashing their potential of a reaching a sustainable livelihood.In the Kilimanjaro region, women’s daily routines are generally constructed around domestic work, sustenance farming and crop production. In addi-tion, women are commonly found engaging in the formal and semi-formal vending of fruits and vegetables.107 Despite women’s crucial role in household food security and contributions to livelihood security, often women are not given the same level of decision-making power and ownership over their assets. However, some women in districts like Moshi have expressed having joint decision-making power over household income and control over the 104 Chambers, R. and Conway,G. (1991). Sustainable livelihoods: practical concepts for the 21st Century. IDS Discussion Paper, 296, 1-29.105 FAO. (2013). Gender equality and food security: Women’s empowerment as a tool against hunger. Manila, The Philippines: Asian Development Bank. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1XVDWoD106 FAO. (2013).107 Uniterra (2016). Fruits and Vegetables Sub-Sector Analysis Tanzania.

INCLUSION OF WOMEN

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Kalali Women’s Dairy Cooperative was started in 1988 by a group of women in the village of Machame in the Hai District, Kilimanjaro region. The cooperative was established with the aspira-tion of empowering women in the community to improve their livelihoods. In the beginning, the cooperative received some help from some ‘Good Samaritans’ in Europe that donated and 8 cows amongst the women. After seeing the women’s success with only 8 cows, the Good Samaritans donated 40 more cows that were distributed amongst the cooperative members. In return for receiving a dairy cow, each household was re-quired to give 1 liter of milk to the cooperative, which was then sold to a local school. As the coop-erative kept growing and the donors saw that the group was making small successes, they suggested that Kalali look into other ways to diversify their activities.In 1995, TechnoServe conducted research for them and suggested that the cooperative start engag-ing in three different projects.110 The first recom-mendation was to expand their dairy business and begin a dairy processing factory since they had many cows and a strong cooperative society. The second was to attain a sunflower processing machine and start making sunflower oil. Lastly, they suggested that they sell the unused outputs from the sunflower oil for animal feed. With the help of the Good Samaritans, they were eventually able to start engaging in the recommended value 110 TechnoServe, Tanzania. (2016). About us. Retrieved from http://www.technoserve.org/about-us

added activities and start to generate more capital for the cooperative and for its members. From this, the cooperative has been able to produce milk, butter, cheese, and other dairy products, as well as sunflower oil and animal feed for additional income.Since then, the cooperative has encountered many successes and challenges along the way. Over the years, the cooperative was able to save signifi-cant sums of money in which they used for the betterment of their community. For instance, the cooperative has supported many children in the community to complete school and post-second-ary education. The living standard and quality of life of the women and their households have also improved tremendously, where households have gone from having no modern amenities to having modern houses with amenities. In 2006 the cooperative created a Savings and Credit Cooperative Organization (SACCOS) to help members finance other entrepreneurial activ-ities. In order to be more inclusive, the SACCOS is not exclusive to the women in the cooperative, but is also accessible to both men and women in the community. This has been one way that they have been able to address community members’ lack of access to loans and credit from commercial banks, which is a huge barrier to smallholder farmers.Although the cooperative has empowered many women and has challenged conventional gender roles, where men are typically the decision-makers with control over familial assets, the cooperative

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has had a difficult time attracting youth to engage in dairy farming and production. Even though the cooperative has sent many youths to school and has given them the opportunity to receive post-secondary education, there are not many incentives for them to return to the community and enhance the cooperative’s capacity. A better policy environment needs to be created by govern-ment bodies that better encourage and incentivize individuals with relevant education to bring their skills into strengthening community development initiatives such as this. This could be addressed by creating more accessible educational opportunities that provide relevant entrepreneurial training and training in niche sectors.In an environment that does not encourage and foster economic opportunities for women and smallholder farmers, a major contributor to the cooperative’s success and longevity has been the ongoing support from its donors in Europe. However, the cooperative has had experiences where outside organizations try to help the coop-erative, but end up causing more damage than aid, because they do not truly understand the needs of the people. This has caused setbacks within the

cooperative’s business activities and has slowed the momentum that the group once had. Partnering organizations should avoid top-down approaches and try to build the capacity of members in the community based on the stated needs of the coop-erative.By giving the women in the community owner-ship over their own dairy cow, the Kalali Women’s Dairy Cooperative has been an effective way to empower women, enable livelihood security, improve quality of life, and positively impact women’s families and their community.

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OVER

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RECOMMENDATIONS TO GOVERNMENT

Policy-makers must make science and research-based policy actions in policies.Political interests must not over-shadow the needs of farmers and hinder policy-makers from creating appropriate policies that can positively impact the agricultural sector. Too often evidence-based solutions are not acted upon or are completely disregarded. This is unacceptable and governments need to be accountable to their citizens.

Policy making should be collaborative, inclusive, transparent and accountablePolicy making to meet the varied needs and challenges of the diverse communities that the research teams witnessed in the three regions can only be achieved by including farmers and other local social actors in the food system as partners in decision-making on agricultural development.

Create policies that support smallholder farming. Creating policies that support smallholder farmers through a collaborative process of de-cision making will act as a bridge in overcoming challenges that hold farmers back from succeeding. Policy areas should include, but are not limited to: Infrastructure, transpor-tation, market regulation, social safety net, land ownership and access to land, access to financing, irrigation and access to clean water, and technology.

Increase support and the number of extension officers.Extension officers provide a necessary service to farmers as a connection between them and the government, but they are being stretched to their maximum capacity. The gov-ernment should increase support to extension officers, as well we increase the number of extension officers in order to reach communities that are not currently being reached by extension officers and conduct more frequent follow-up. Also, there should be increased evaluation of the work of extension officers so that their duties and objectives remain consistent between regions.

Create and enforce regulations on middlemen. Middlemen often have the ability to take advantage of farmers who are less educated or do not have the proper resources to get their product to the end consumer. The govern-ment needs to create more regulations and parameters around the work of middlemen so that farmers are earning their fair share.

Improve and increase the number of storage facilities.One of the most obvious ways to reduce post-harvest loss and give farmers more control over their crops is to improve and increase the number of storage facilities. Improper storing of crops can cause molding and problems like aflatoxin. Storage also allows farmers more options in deciding who they sell their products to and when.

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Invest in food preservation and value-addition.Another way to reduce post-harvest loss and to add value is to invest in food preserva-tion. This can include techniques such as canning and sterilization. However, there are still barriers in engaging in food preservation and value-addition activities. The govern-ment should invest in initiatives that provide training, support the expansion of packag-ing and processing enterprises, and help create a supportive market for such products.

Invest in agro-technology and create incentives for innovation that can help smallholder farmers.

Investing in technology can be a huge burden to smallholder farmers. The government should invest more resources into current organizations in Tanzania that are working to create agro-technology that is specific to the needs of farmers in Tanzania. Also, farmers need more incentives and financial support in order to dedicate their own resources to creating innovative solutions in technology.

Adapt to climate changeFarmers are facing increasing challenges from climate change; therefore, it is crucial that farmers, research institutions and farmer service organizations work in collaboration to develop appropriate farming strategies to mitigate the impact of climate change. This is not just about technology development but developing ecologically-sound practices for managing water and soil resources to produce food, while conserving and strengthening natural resources.

School curriculums should put more emphasis on food literacy and agriculture.It is critical that food literacy and agriculture be taught to students from a young age and throughout secondary school by integrating it into school curriculums. Inclusion of agricultural topics in the classroom should be done in a way that sparks creativity and innovation. In order for students to start seeing agriculture in a new and exciting way, the subject needs to be taught with a holistic approach where students can see the opportu-nities within the food system as a whole, and not just in the traditional sense. It should also be emphasized that agriculture does not have to be a sole economic activity and that they can use their skills to participate in other economic activities simultaneously. One effective way to integrate agriculture in schools is to create community school gardens and after-school agriculture programs.

Conduct a nation-wide food literacy and nutrition campaign to educate the public. Education in food literacy and nutrition should not be limited to students’ classrooms, but should also be taught on a national level. One of the outcomes of such a campaign would be to improve eating habits and improve the nutritional status of Tanzanians.

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RECOMMENDATIONS TO FARMING ORGANIZATIONSReach out to farmers and provide relevant resources in an accessible language.Organizations need to always be mindful and intentional in how they communicate with farmers, which will differ from region to region. The majority of farmers are not fluent in English and communicate best in Swahili or their local dialect. This means that websites, brochures, reports, newsletters, radio broadcasts, television segments, text messages, live demonstrations, etc. need to be communicated in a language that the targeted audience can easily access and understand.

Launch a campaign on the importance of farmer-led advocacy.Farmers should be demand-oriented; most farmers will always wait for the extension officers to come and visit them; this is different to pastoralists who will find the solution to their problems by getting an expert like a veterinarian to check their livestock. So, it is advised to farmers to seek experts like exten-sion officers when they get problems such as crops diseases. This puts pressure on the extension service and then, they will come.

Provide farmers with resources to self-mobilize and form farming groups.There is a need to increase linkage among smallholder farmers and formation of self-support groups so that farmers have a collective voice and greater bargaining power in marketing their commodities and putting pressure on government to support them. Service organizations also need to lobby for small-holder farmers so that government places more value on their contribution to national economic health and food security.

Identify and mentor youth groups who are interested in engaging in agriculture.Firstly, organizations need to identify youth groups in their region, who may not necessarily be cur-rently involved in agriculture, but are willing to be trained and mentored in engaging in entrepreneur-ship within their local food system. Such youth groups should have strong group cohesion, mobilization capacity, commitment, and willingness to learn collaboratively. Organizations should consult and seek advice from other farming youth groups on how best to reach out to other youth groups and create more interest and excitement around agriculture. When working with a youth group, organizations should ensure that they are matching the skills and talents of the group with complementary entrepre-neurial opportunities in the food system.

Profile successful youth farmers who can become advocates and role models. Attracting more youth into the agricultural sector in Tanzania requires overcoming negative perceptions of the industry and convincing youth that it can be a profitable and respectable livelihood. Identifying successful youth farmers to be ‘champions’ of change has the potential to influence other youth and change the narrative around youth in agriculture. Simultaneously, these profiled youth farmers would be given a platform to become a voice for youth in agriculture on the policy stage. Create a platform and different opportunities for farmers to share their best-practices.Farmers possess an incredible amount of indigenous knowledge and experience that should be shared and used to contribute to policy making. Farming organizations should facilitate forums and brain-storming sessions where knowledge can be exchanged farmer-to-farmer; farmer to scientist; and farmer

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to government decision makers, etc. Such learning spaces for social actors to come together who would not normally do so, creates opportunities to develop innovative strategies to deal with the complex chal-lenges of the smallholder farming sector.

Invest in long-term development projects and use indicators to measure their impact.Many farmers have become frustrated with short-term development projects that generate hope for change in the community, only to see little to no results or follow-up. Before organizations decide to invest in a project within a community, they must consider their long-term commitment and commu-nicate their full intentions with the community. They also need to have the community as partners in setting project goals and actions to achieve them; this local buy-in is more likely to result in sustainable improvements in the livelihood and food security of rural communities.

Conduct more effective and efficient training sessions, seminars and demonstrations.Many organizations are offering training and educational services to farmers. However, many farmers want to keep learning and want more training opportunities. Training sessions should also allow par-ticipants to provide evaluation of the training and provide constructive feedback, so that organizations can continue improving their services and assess their effectiveness and efficiency. Topics of interest for farmers include: chemical and fertilizer use, efficient land use, market price negotiation, best seed germination practices, coping with the effects of climate change, intercropping, soil preservation, pest management, and the difference between organic and conventional farming techniques.

Provide training sessions and farming education that is accessible to women.Due to societal norms and expectations, women do not always have the same opportunities and ability to attend training sessions. Organizations should create training programs that women can access and that address issues specific to women’s interests and needs.

Launch a campaign that addresses gender roles and the importance of empowering women.To promote and raise awareness on how women’s involvement in agriculture and household deci-sion-making can positively impact families and communities, organizations should launch a campaign that brings gender issues to light. One of the goals of this campaign would be to create a constructive dialogue that challenges the barriers that women face in comparison to men.

Conduct food literacy and nutrition seminars that are accessible to entire communities.Conducting food literacy and nutrition seminars could have a significant impact in increasing overall health and wellness of Tanzanians of all ages. Organizations could identify respected leaders within communities, sometimes referred to as “community champions,” that can educate and influence percep-tions on food literacy and nutrition.

Educate smallholder farmers on diversifying crops for sustenance farming.The majority of smallholder farmers are also subsistence farmers, meaning that they have a lot of control over the types of foods they eat and their nutritional intake. By educating farmers on how to diversify their crops at home and how to prepare meals with new foods, it could significantly impact the health status of Tanzanians.

Scientists and researchers must work in collaboration with farmers and disseminate findings with them.Scientists and researchers have to work in cooperation and collaboration with farmers, who have their own indigenous knowledge and experience to bring to the table. Working alongside farmers is a way to ensure that subsequent technologies and future research is locally appropriate and meets the needs of farmers.

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CONCLUSIONIn each region, farmers of all ages and levels of expertise were willing to share with us their experiences, opportunities, challenges and aspirations for the future. It is important to be aware of farmer needs when making executive de-cisions that affect their livelihood. Therefore, we hope that this document will be helpful for the future development of programs and policies that support smallholders in Tanzania and encourage youth to become active in agriculture. Across all regions, farmers faced challenges in the wake of climate change, policy implementation, and globalization. The gap that currently exists between agricultural institutions and farmers has hindered the positive impact that these institutions can have on farmers and their livelihoods. In order to improve relationships with farmers and meet their needs, institutions must continue their work in accordance with our findings. In doing this, we believe that farmers will have better opportunities to achieve sustainable a livelihood and reach food security across Tanzania. Given the information that has surfaced from our research, we urge Uniterra and WUSC Tanzania to take our recommendations into consideration as they continue their work in the field of agricultural development. We also encourage all other partners to use these findings as a basis in evaluating, expanding, and improving their work, and further strengthen their relationship with farmers.

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