TAM IB 2012 Intro & Tense
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Transcript of TAM IB 2012 Intro & Tense
TENSE, ASPECT, MOOD
Introduction
TAM
DOMAIN OF INQUIRY:
The temporal-aspectual system of English
Tense
Aspect
Modal verbs
Domain of inquiry
LINGUISTICS
= the scientific study of language
= scientific work is guided by:
empirical considerations (observation of data)
theoretical concepts
Domain of inquiry
“ In linguistics, as in other sciences, there is an essential interaction between data analysis and theory formation: an adequate analysis of the data of some particular language is impossible without some general theoretical insight into the principles underlying the structure and functioning of language in general.” (Dik 1989 in Haegeman 2005: 15)
Domain of inquiry
Our data:
Tense
Aspect
modal verbs
Domain of inquiry
Our general theoretical insight
for morpho-syntax < generative linguistics
for temporal-aspectual interpretation < a slightly changed version of Reichenbach(1947)
Syllabus
Part I: Tense and AspectThe theoretical frameworkTenseAspect
– Grammatical aspect– Lexical aspect– A unified analysis
A unified analysis of tense and aspect
Syllabus
Part II:
The temporal-aspectual system of English
Mid-term test
Syllabus
Part III : Modal verbs
morpho-syntactic characteristics
semantic properties
final test
Syllabus
Seminar
Seminar TEST I
the allomorphs of /z/ and /d/
Syllabus
Seminar
Seminar TEST II :
aspectual classes of predicates
Syllabus
Seminar test III:
Irregular verbs
Grading policy
Seminar tests: max. 30 p. [compulsory]
Mid-term test: max. 30 p. [written exam]
Final test: max. 30 p. [written exam]
Today
The theoretical framework
TAM: theoretical framework
(1) a. John arrived at the station.
b. A snake was hissing in the grass.
c. He has shown the pictures to all of us.
TAM: theoretical framework
Sentences are made of lexical and functionalelements
TAM: theoretical framework
Lexical Category Examples
NOUN (N) [+ N], [– V] Mary, book, courage, syntax
VERB (V) [– N], [+ V] dance, study, read, sleep
ADJECTIVE (A) [+ N], [+ V] kind, good, beautiful, intelligent
ADVERB (ADV) probably, certainly, noisily, incredibly
PREPOSITION (P) [– N], [– V] on, under, with, for, in
i.
TAM: theoretical framework
Functional categories Examples
i.DETERMINERS (Det) ii.the, a, this, that
iii.INFLECTION (I) (= umbrella term for Tense, Agreement, Aspect, Mood)
iv.Tense: -ed, Aspect: -ing, -en, Agreement: -s, infinitival to.
v.DEGREE (Deg) more, most, -er,-est
vi.COMPLEMENTISERS (Comp) that, whether, for
vii.
TAM: theoretical framework
lexical categories: substantive meaning
functional categories perform a grammatical function: they “glue” the content words together
TAM: theoretical framework
Functional categories:
“identify” / bind the referential argument of theirlexical complement
e.g. the referential argument of verbs: e(vent)
TAM: theoretical framework
Davidson (1966) = verbs have an event variable among their arguments
e.g. cut <1,2, e>
Inflection = the functional domain of the verb
= Tense identifies /”binds” e
TAM: theoretical framework
(4) a. He has written a book.
b. He is writing a book.
c. He has been writing letters since 4.00
(5) a. He has been here since 4.00.
b. He has noticed an error.
TAM: theoretical framework
(6) a. John entered the president’s office. The president sat behind a huge desk.
b. John entered the president’s office.
The president walked over to him.
TAM: theoretical framework
(7) a. Tom ran in the park (for two hours)
b. Tom ran to the park (in two hours)
c. Tom ran a mile (in two hours)
(8) a. Tom was dancing.
b. Tom has danced.
c. Tom has been dancing.
TAM: theoretical framework
our understanding of events is compositionally determined by the content of the verb-related functional categories and the lexical conceptual structure of the verb constellation/ at the level of the clause
TAM: theoretical framework
The Principle of Compositionality: the meaning of a complex expression is determined by the meanings of its constituent expressions and the rules used to combine them (its structure)
TAM: theoretical framework
The Principle of Compositionality
entails that the whole expression is built from constituents combined by syntactic rules
= what each part means + how they are put together
= syntax together with lexical semantics determines the entire meaning of the complex expression
Gottlob Frege (1848-1925)
Mathematician
Logician
philosopher
“Uber Sinn und Bedeutung”
(On Sense and Reference, 1982) –
TAM: theoretical framework
Important:
The meaning of a constituent part = the meaning which that part always contributes to an expression, regardless of context
TAM: theoretical framework
e.g. arrived , combed, danced
/d/ = past tense
e.g. arrives, dances
/z/ = 3rd person singular of the present tense of the indicative
TAM: theoretical framework
(9)
I have just talked to John. He asked about you.
I have just talked to John. He has asked about you.
TAM: theoretical framework
I have just talked to John. He asked about you.
*He has asked about you.
TAM: theoretical framework
(10)
A: Have you read “Love and Summer”?
B: Yes, I have. But I didn’t like it.// I haven’t liked it.
TAM: theoretical framework
(10)
A: Have you read “Love and Summer”?
B: Yes, I have. But I didn’t like it.
*I haven’t liked it.
TAM: theoretical framework
Temporal interpretation
< the integration of
the event(s) of a sentence in the event structure of
the preceding text.
Important
We will be studying the temporal-aspectual system of English at the interface between morpho-syntax and semantics
+ discourse
TENSE (I)
The framework
Outline
1. The police arrested many young people.
2. Foreign journalists are not allowed to enter the country.
3. He was a dictator. He will be punished for his deeds.
TAM: TENSE
TENSE
Temporal meaning
morpho-syntactic formatives which carry tense information
the tense feature (relevant for the computational system)
TAM: TENSE
Tense: locates events in time
TENSE
ST = speech time// UT= utterance time
(4) You studied Phonetics and Phonology on the first semester.
= [e] is located ....to ST/UT
= [e] is located prior to ST/UT
TENSE
(5) We will meet again next Thursday.
[e] located ... ST/UT
[e] located after ST/UT
The event is located in time relative to....
The event is located in time relative to ST
TENSE
ST =
a central point for temporal interpretation
TENSE
TENSE= a deictic category
< Gr. deiktikos= able to show
e.g. past tense = before ST (=NOW)future tense = after ST (=NOW)
PAST NOW FUTURE
TENSE
Compare to:
(i) this/that
(ii) here/there
(iii) Personal pronouns (1st and 2nd person)
(iv) yesterday, tomorrow, today
TENSE
(6) John arrived.
(7) John lives in Bucharest.
How do you know whether the event is located at/before/after ST?
TENSE
John arrived. /d/ = past tense morpheme
John lives in Bucharest/z/ = present tense morpheme
Tense
In English there are distinct morphological markers for PRES and PAST
TENSE
MORPHEME
A minimal atomic unit endowed with meaning
// the smallest individually meaningful element
TENSE
MORPHEMES:
(i) Bound
Arrived // playing
(ii) Free
the book / has left
TENSE
Morphemes:
(i) Inflectional: arrives/ arrived
(ii) Derivational : nicely
TENSE
Morphemes:
(i) Inflectional: arrives/ arrived
Lexemes have a fair number of word forms
the set of word forms that belongs to a lexeme= paradigm
TENSE
Tense has grammatical markers in English, i.e. it is grammaticized.
Q: So far: /z/ and /d/
TENSE
is there a future tense marker in English as well?
TENSE
A1: will
The temporal system of English is a three-term system:
/z/ =present
/d/ = past
will = future
TENSE
A2: no, there is no future tense morpheme in English
will = always a modal verb
The temporal system of English: a two-term system:
/z/ present
/d/ past
Last week...
Tense locates events in time
Tense is a deictic category ( ST!)
Tense is a grammatical category in English
/d/ = past tense
/z/ = present tense
will= ?
Today
Tense markers in English cont.
The role of time adverbials
A framework of analysis (<Reichenbach1947)
Tense morphemes
So far...
/d/ = PAST
/z/ = PRESENT
One morpheme = one meaning
TENSE
TASK1: Consider:
(9) a. leaves
b. talks
c. teaches
TENSE
a. leaves /z/
b. talks /s/
c. teaches /iz/
/z/, /s/,/iz/ = variants of the morpheme /z/
allomorphs
TENSE
Allomorphs = phonologically conditioned alternants of a morpheme
TENSE
Task 2:
(10) teach, catch, reach
wish, blush, flush
lose, rise, buzz, seize
face, crease, hiss
judge, budge, manage
TENSE
teach, catch, reach /ʧ/wish, blush, flush / ʃ /
lose, rise, buzz, seize /z/face, crease, hiss /s/judge, budge, manage /ʤ/
After /ʧ/ /ʃ / /ʤ/ /z/ /s/ /iz/
sibilants
TENSE
Task 3:
(11) paints, hates, dates
talks, sinks, barks
laughs, coughs
wipes, keeps, peeps
TENSE
paints, hates, dates /t/
talks, sinks, barks /k/
laughs, coughs /f/
wipes, keeps, peeps /p/
After /t/, /k/,/f/,/p/ = /s/
voiceless segments
TENSE
Task 3:
(12) leaves, sings, refers, digs, cries
TENSE
/z/ = elsewhere
rises, hates, loves+ the same tense morpheme, i.e. the same meaning, the same function BUT different pronunciation
TENSE
Task 4
(13) started, skidded, mended
TENSE
/id/ after /t/ and /d/
TENSE
Task 5
(14) pushed, slipped, asked, laughed, hissed, watched
TENSE
/t/ after
/f/, /k/, /p/, /s/, /ʧ/, /ʃ/
TENSE
/d/ : elsewhere
loved, weaved, stayed, rowed, banned.
TENSE
Q: is tense information conveyed by the tense morpheme alone?
TENSE
(15) John leaves tomorrow.
(16) World War II begins in 1939.
(17) We have a seminar at 4.00 today.
(18) We have a lecture every Tuesday.
TENSE
a proper interpretation of the temporal value of an utterance presupposes an analysis of the relation between tense inflection and the time adverbial (if any)
TENSE
TIME ADVERBIALS
Adverb phrases: today, yesterday, the day before yesterday…
Preposition phrases which encode temporal information: after…, before…, at…, in….
Adverbial clauses of time
TENSE
(19) He met a nice girl yesterday.
(20) They met in 1912.
(21) They left Sinaia [after they talked to John].
TENSE
Q: what happens if a sentence lacks a time adverbial?
(22) John is my brother. He is in London.
(23) His mother was an engineer.
TENSETime adverbials:(i) Anchored time adverbials (deictic//ST-
oriented) now, yesterday, tomorrow, the day before yesterday, the day after tomorrow, next year, last year
They are ST-oriented i.e. their interpretation is determined
relative to ST
TENSE
They have explicit relations to ST
They cannot co-occur with any tense
(24) *They left tomorrow.
TENSE
(ii) Unanchored time adverbials
in June, on Friday, in a week
They do not have explicit relations to ST
They can co-occur with various tenses
TENSE
Compare:
(25) They arrived yesterday.
*They arrived tomorrow.
(26) They arrived in June.
They will arrive in June.
TENSE
They behave differently when SOT applies
(27) “ I am leaving tomorrow”, he said.
He said he was leaving the following day.
(28) “I am leaving on Monday”, he said.
He said he was leaving on Monday.
TENSE
but not in FIS
(29) Tomorrow was Monday! Monday, the beginning of another school week!
(30) He had gone to bed perfectly well. Still, he was feeling dizzy now.
TENSE
Time adverbials also convey information about the internal structure of events:
(i) Durational time adverbials
(31) For three days, Mary awoke at noon.
He slept from 1 to 3.
TENSE
(ii) Frequency adverbs: usually, often, twice, frequently, sometimes
Indicate the recurrent pattern of a situation
(32) He drinks coffee every day.
?? He is tall every day.
TENSE
Also known as adverbs of quantification
The fog usually lifts before noon here.
Riders on the Thirteenth Avenue line seldom find seats.
TENSE
(iii) Completive/resultative adverbials: in an hour, within an hour
(33) Bill drove to his office in an hour.
?? She slept in an hour.
TENSE
(34) * Bill was walking in the park in an hour.
In an hour, Bill was walking in the park.
TENSE
Temporal adverbials contribute to temporal location and to the aspectual meaning of the sentence.
TENSE
(35) John left on Friday, in the afternoon, after lunch, at 3 p.m.
= a multiple adverb
= acts like a single time adverbial
=it simply yields a more exact temporal specification
Tense
So far:
Temporal interpretation : tense morphemes and time adverbials (if any).
Temporal interpretation : relative to ST
ET before ST = past
ET at ST = present
ET after ST = future
Tense
BUT:
Does temporal interpretation rely only on the relationship between ST and ET?
Tense
(36) Next Friday I will have worked here for a week.
ST= now
ET after ST (next Friday) = future
(37) Next Friday I will work here.
Tense (38) Yesterday I fixed the computer.
ST= now; ET before ST = past
(39) Yesterday I had fixed the computer for two days.
ST= now; ET before ST = past
Tense
Temporal interpretation is incomplete if we take into account only ST/ET
(40) At 2.00, John had left for two hours.
at 2.00 = ?
for two hours = ?
Tense
at 2.00 = the time of reference (RT)the time interval which the speaker has chosen as the time relative to which the situation is located in time
RT= the time about which a specific claim is made/TOPIC time (Klein 1992)
Tense
RT=ST [ PRESENT]
RT before ST [PAST]
RT after ST [FUTURE]
RT = ?
< tense marker (+ time adverbial)
Tense
(41) I like movies now.
ST= now
RT=ST [ /z/ and ‘now’]
(42) At 5.00 I had already handed in the essay.
ST= now
RT before ST [ /d/ and ‘at 5.00’]
Tense
(43) Tomorrow in the morning I will have killed the pig.
ST= now
RT after ST [will and “tomorrow”)]
Tense
ET = the time when the situation obtains
ST= anchored in the speech situation
RT= the point in time relative to which the event is located in time.
The temporal interpretation of Ss mirrors the relations between these time intervals (Reichenbach 1947)
Tense
ST/ET : mediated by RT.
Each tense is analyzed in terms of :
Tense
A. The “tense” component (ST/RT)
B. The “aspect” component (RT/ET)
The EXISTENTIAL STATUS of a sentence (ET/ST) derives from A and B.
Tense is interpreted COMPOSITIONALLY
Tense
A. The REFERENCE COMPONENT (ST/RT)
B. The RELATION COMPONENT (RT/ET)
The EXISTENTIAL STATUS of a sentence (ET/ST) derives from A and B.
Tense is interpreted COMPOSITIONALLY
Tense
So far...
RT/ST < tense morphemes (+ time adv)
tense relates RT to ST
i.e. tense meanings are relations between a RT and a ST
Conclusions so far...
Tense relates RT to ST:
(i) RT prior to ST : past tense value
(ii) RT after ST: future tense value
(iii) RT simultaneous with ST: present tense value
Tense
ET/RT= ?
Tense
(45) They had already left at 5.00.
ST= now
RT before ST [ past tense]
ET before RT [ perfect/ closed situation]
ET before ST [historical ES]
Tense
ET: different from RT
< the auxiliary HAVE + -en
< already
Tense
PPs
(46) I left before 2.00.
ST= now
RT before ST [past]
ET before RT [before 2.oo, i.e. closed]
ET before ST [ historical ES]
Tense
(47) It was 1991; they would get married two years later.
ST= now
RT before ST [ past]
ET after RT [ two years later; prospective]
Tense
ET/RT
information about the INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EVENT.
Tense
The internal structure of events takes up intervals of time in different ways:
(i) Presented as a WHOLE
(ii) Focus on their progressiveness
(iii)Focus on their iterativity
etc.
Tense
(48) John has built a house.
John is building a house.
John is jumping up and down.
John builds a house every year.
Tense
The internal structure of events: ASPECT
“What I am proposing concerning the semantics of the aspect forms is that they specify the relation between reference time and event time in an utterance.“ [Johnson 1981, 153]
Tense
ET/RT : Aspect
John has left.
ET before RT [perfect]
John is running.
ET at/around RT [progressive]
Tense TASK
John is here now.
ST =
RT ST
ET RT
ET ST
Tense
(22) John is here now.
ST = now
RT= ST [Present ]
ET = RT [“neutral’]
ET = ST [ situation on-going at ST]
Tense
John leaves tomorrow.
ST=
RT ST
ET RT
ET ST
Tense
John leaves tomorrow.
ST= now
RT after ST [future]
ET = RT [“neutral”]
ET after ST [non-historical ES]
Tense
John came home at midnight.
ST=
RT ST
ET RT
ET ST
Tense
John came home at midnight.
ST=now
RT before ST [past]
ET = RT [neutral]
ET before ST [historical ES]
Tense
John has already left.
ST=
RT ST
RT ET
ET ST
Tense
John has already left.
ST=NOW
RT = ST [ present/ “has”]
ET before RT [perfect]
ET before ST [historical ES]
Tense
At 10.00 John had already left.
ST =
RT ST
ET RT
ET ST
Tense
At 10.00 John had already left.
ST = now
RT before ST [past]
ET before RT [“perfect”]
ET before ST [historical ES]
Tense
Next week John will visit London.
ST =
RT ST
ET RT
ET ST
Tense
Next week John will visit London.
ST = now
RT after ST [ future]
ET = RT [neutral]
ET after ST [non-historical ES]
Tense
Next week John will have visited London.
ST =
RT ST
ET RT
ET ST
Tense
Next week John will have visited London.
ST = now
RT after ST [future]
ET before RT [perfect]
ET after ST [non-historical situation]
Tense
Temporal interpretation is COMPOSITIONAL.
= it is the mirror of the relations which obtain between three time intervals: ST/RT/ET.
Aspect
= ST/RT < tense morpheme + time adv.
= ET/RT < aspect markers + the meaning of the predicate
Tense
Tense relates RT to ST
RT = ST
RT prior to ST
RT after ST
Conclusions
Aspect relates ET to RT
(i) ET prior to RT : perfective
(ii) ET includes/encompasses RT : imperfective
(iii) RT prior to ET:prospective
Conclusions
Existential status relates ET to ST
(i) ET prior to ST: historical status
(ii) ST prior to ET: non-historical status
(iii) ST = ET : semi-historical status (?)
Conclusions
A. RT/ST = TENSEB. ET/RT = ASPECT C. ET/ ST = the existential status of the
sentence
Conclusions
The existential status is given by the whole “chain”, as a composite of the information provided by the two links: TP and AspP
Each link in the functional layer can host specific morphological markers which encode information relevant for the temporal interpretation of the whole clause:
Conclusions
T-Operator(=ST)
TP (=RT/ST)
AspP ( = ET/RT)