TABLE OF CONTENTS in XaiXai District - English.pdf · i table of contents page acknowledgments........

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TABLE OF CONTENTSPage

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................................... iiiABBREVIATIONS................................................................................................................... vEXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ vii

1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11.1 Background of the Project EAF/5.............................................................................. 11.2 Project EAF/5 in Mozambique................................................................................... 31.3 Definition of the Xai-Xai District Coastal Area ......................................................... 31.4 District within the National and Regional Context .................................................. 5

2 ICAM GOALS AND STRATEGY FRAMEWORK.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 72.1 ICAM Goals and Objectives....................................................................................... 72.2 Development Opportunities, Constraints and Threats............................................. 92.3 Xai-Xai ICAM Strategy Framework ........................................................................... 112.4 Selected Management Issues ................................................................................... 16

3 COASTAL DUNES MANAGEMENT........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 173.1 Depositional Dynamics ............................................................................................. 173.2 Coastal Dunes - Environmentally Sensitive Areas .................................................... 173.3 Significance and Importance of Dunes .................................................................... 193.4 Management Strategy .............................................................................................. 213.5 Action Plan ................................................................................................................ 25

4 LIMPOPO LOWER VALLEY ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 294.1 Limpopo River ........................................................................................................... 294.2 Development Potentials............................................................................................ 334.3 Goals and Objectives ................................................................................................ 334.4 Management Strategies............................................................................................ 344.5 Action plan................................................................................................................ 37

5 BAIXOS DE INHAMPURA REEF............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 395.1 Preliminary Information ............................................................................................ 395.2 Summary and Recommendations............................................................................. 41

6 TOURISM DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 436.1 Demand and Accessibility ......................................................................................... 436.2 The Present Xai-Xai Tourist Services ......................................................................... 436.3 Tourism Development Initiatives .............................................................................. 446.4 Tourism Development Strategy ................................................................................ 466.5 Action Plan ................................................................................................................ 50

7 ARTISANAL FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 577.1 The Present Situation ................................................................................................ 577.2 Potentials .................................................................................................................. 577.3 Strategy ..................................................................................................................... 587.4 Action Plan ................................................................................................................ 62

8 PORT DEVELOPMENT .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 658.1 Background ............................................................................................................... 658.2 Requirements ............................................................................................................ 658.3 Development Opportunities ..................................................................................... 668.4 Goals, Objectives and Expected Benefits.................................................................. 678.5 Development Strategy .............................................................................................. 688.6 Action Plan ................................................................................................................ 70

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9 INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 739.1 Institutional Problems ............................................................................................... 739.2 Coastal Zone Management Framework ................................................................... 739.3 Programme of Coastal Resources Management ...................................................... 75

Annex: Recommendations on Management Strategy Issues and FinalConclusions of the Workshop ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 79

REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 83

List of Boxes

Box 1 The Main Geographic Features ................................................................................................ 4Box 2 The Main Physical Features ...................................................................................................... 6Box 3 State of the Dune Area............................................................................................................. 20Box 4 Limpopo River Basin ................................................................................................................. 31Box 5 Bio-Physical Characteristics of Inhampura Reef ....................................................................... 42Box 6 The Present Land Allocation for Tourism ................................................................................. 54Box 7 Contents of the Plan ................................................................................................................ 57Box 8 Coastal Zone Management Centre Tasks................................................................................. 78

List of Tables

Table 1 Share of the Population within Economic Activities................................................................ 5Table 2 Road Network........................................................................................................................... 16Table 3 Mean Flow at the Chókwè Gauge Station (1951/52 to 1994/1995)....................................... 32Table 4 Authorised Hotel Projects Along the Xai-Xai Coastline (in 1995) ........................................... 47Table 5 Tourism Development Sites...................................................................................................... 52Table 6 Present and Potential Fishing Catch for the Province of Gaza (in tons).................................. 60Table 7 Basic Port Location Characteristics ......................................................................................... 69

List of Maps After page

Map 1: Management Strategy Framework .......................................................................................... 16Map 2: Tourism Development Suitability Analysys .............................................................................. 22Map 3: Strategy Of Tourism Development........................................................................................... 62Map 4: Xai-Xai Beach Preliminary Land Use......................................................................................... 68

List of Photos

1. Limpopo Lower Valley Management ....................................................................................... 162. Coastal Dunes Management .................................................................................................... 223. Tourism Development Opportunities....................................................................................... 624. Port Development Opportunities ............................................................................................. 68

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The FAO, PAP/RAC and the experts fromMICOA would like to express their gratitudeto the Minister for Co-ordination ofEnvironmental Affairs, H.E. Mr. BernardoFerraz, for his continuous support and effortthat led to the preparation of thisdocument. Our special thanks go to Mr.Dixon Waruinge, FAO EAF/5 co-ordinator,Mr. Paul Akiwumi, UNEP Water Branch, andthe members and consultants of theMozambican working team, as well as tothe international team of experts for theirdedicated work, namely:

The MICOA Working Team:Mr. Francisco Mabjaia, Director, Co-ordinatorMs. Helena Motta, Marine Biologist,Assistant Co-ordinatorMr. Joao Mugabe, GeologistMs. Julia Ussy, Physical PlannerMr. Joao Mucavele, SociologistMr. Abilio Mahumane, EconomistMs. Suzana Saranga, HydrologistMr. Turque Abobacar, Physical PlannerMr. Abilio Murima, GIS expert

The PAP/RAC Working Team:Mr. Ivica Trumbic, DirectorMr. Srdjan Truta, Regional Planner, TeamLeaderMr. Ottavio Sayao, Civil EngineerMr. Leckram Joottun, Environmental PlannerMr. Slobodan Pavasovic, GIS ExpertMs. Branka Baric, Assistant to PAP Projects

The Team would like to express their thanksto all officials and individuals met in theGaza Province, the Xai-Xai District andMunicipal institutions for the kind supportand valuable information which theWorking Team received and which highlyfacilitated their work.

The views of the Working Team contained inthis report do not necessarily have torepresent the views of the FAO, UNEP or theGovernment of Mozambique.

MICOA - PAP/RAC XAI-XAI ICAM MANAGEMENT STRATEGY

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ABBREVIATIONS

CECX - Xai-Xai City Council

CNA - National Environmental Commission

DINAGECA - National Directorate for Geographyand Cadastar

DINATUR - National Directorate of Tourism

DNA - National Directorate for Waters

DNE - National Directorate for Statistics

DNFFB - National Directorate for Forestry andWildlife

DNP - National Directorate for Planning

DPAP - Provincial Directorate for Agriculture andFisheries

DPICT - Provincial Directorate for Industry,Commerce and Tourism

EAF - East African Action Programme

EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment

ESA - Environmentally Sensitive Area

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organisation

FRUTISUL - Association of Private Entrepreneurs

GBA-LBA - Global Programme of Action for theProtection of the Marine Environment fromLand-based Activities

GIS - Geographic Information Systems

GTA - Environment Working Group

ICAM - Integrated Coastal and Marine AreasManagement

ICRC - International Coral Reef Initiative (theEastern African Phase)

IDPPE - Institute for the Development of SmallScale Fisheries

IIP - Fisheries Research Institute

INAHINA - National Institute for Hydrographyand Navigation

INIA - National Institute for Agriculture Research

INPF - National Institute for Physical Planning

IUCN - International Union for Conservation ofNature

MAE - Ministry for State Administration

MICOA - Ministry for Co-ordination ofEnvironmental Affairs

MICTUR - Ministry of Industry, Commerce andTourism

NCSD - National Council for SustainableDevelopment

OIM - International Organisation for Migration

PAP/RAC - Priority Actions Programme/ RegionalActivity Centre

PSD - Programme Support Document

SAFMAR - Services for Maritime Administration

SIDA - Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency

SPFFB - Provincial Services for Forestry andWildlife

SPPF - Provincial Services for Physical Planning

SRBL - Sistema de Regadio do Baixa Limpopo

UEM - University Eduardo Mondlane

UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme

WIO - West Indian Ocean


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Project EAF/5

The coastal zone between the continentalstates of Somalia and Mozambique is homefor 25 million people. This represents 20%of the total population of continentalnations living on 12% of land. Thus, evenwith declining national population growthrates, there will still be a strong competitionfor the existing coastal resources. Thepressure on coastal resources will increaseas more people seek employmentopportunities around coastal centres, aswell as the right to the unrestricted accessto the seashore, the right to coastalrenewable resources, and the right torecreational activities.

Management of land-based activities incoastal zones has in turn become one of themost complex management challenges.Given the severity of the coastal zonedegradation, and the need for sustainabilityand effective national regulatoryinterventions, there is great demand ongovernments who limited financial resourcesto act. In many instances, whengovernments act, the interventions arereactive, weak and, at times, aggravate theproblems through sectorial policies thatconflict. Policies are implemented asprojects, in most cases in the form ofsectorial projects with finite life spans.Developed projects may have little or norelation to the programmes implementedearlier. As a result, most governments arelittered with half finished but relatedprojects, or finished projects without long-term support or recurrent budgetaryprovisions. In most cases, local support isalso lacking, such as:

• establishing policies that promote andenhance integrated planning andmanagement of coastal areas by

integrating the coastal zone into anational, economic and physical process;

• developing and implementing integratedplanning and management of coastalarea programmes, which addressenvironmental concerns, particularlyresources overexploitation, environmentaldegradation and loss of biodiversity, andemphasise action at the local level.

The project has secured funds from theSwedish International Development Co-operation Agency (SIDA) for the followingactivities in the Comoros, Kenya,Mozambique and Zanzibar State of theUnited Republic of Tanzania, namely:

I. Development and implementation ofnational public awareness strategies,campaigns and material;

II. Development of ICAM strategies forselected pilot sites;

III. Implementation of ICAM Demonstrationprojects (e.g., fish landing sites, dunerestoration, public beach facilityimprovement);

IV. Development and Implementation ofICAM priority bankable projectsidentified within ICAM strategiesdeveloped.

Project EAF/5 in Mozambique

Mozambique has a surface area of about800,000 km2, out of which 44% once beingunder maritime influence and now forminglittoral valleys not higher than 200 m. Thecoastline is about 2,700 km long, with 42Districts out of 110 Districts of the countrybeing coastal. About 40% of theMozambican population lives in coastalDistricts, causing a very high pressure overthe coastal ecosystems. These ecosystemsare, per se, very fragile and degradation hasalready been seen, particularly deforestation,


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mangrove depletion, acceleration of erosion,soil salinization and coral destruction.

The Ministry for Co-ordination ofEnvironmental Affairs (MICOA), giving thehighest priority to the coastal zone, decidedon the elaboration of the coastal zonemanagement programme of Mozambique.The District of Xai-Xai was chosen as a pilotarea in May 1995. A working team wasformed to work on the Xai-Xai ICAMaccompanied by the consultants nominatedby the Priority Actions Programme/RegionalActivity Centre (PAP/RAC) which wasselected by FAO as the executing agency.The tasks of the team include as follows:

1. Coastal Profile of a selected area;

2. Management Strategy for the selectedissues;

3. Implementation of a small DemonstrationProject;

4. Public Awareness Campaign;

5. National Workshop on the proposedmanagement strategy adoption andimplementation.

The Coastal Profile, which preceded thepreparation of the Management Strategy,gives a broad identification of physicalenvironment, natural resource base, socio-economic context, physical systems andinstitutional framework of the region,highlighting the main environmental anddevelopment problems and potentials, themajor physical processes and developmentpatterns, conflicts between different users,and specific coastal management prioritiesin the region.

For the purpose of the Xai-Xai IntegratedCoastal and Marine Areas Management(ICAM), the coastal area is defined asfollows:

• the near-shore sea or coastal waterextending several kilometres seaward;

• the coastal dunes belt extending up toten kilometres landward and along theentire coastline; and

• the Limpopo Lower Valley, up to the Xai-Xai Town.

Main Physical Features

The District of Xai-Xai is located in theProvince of Gaza, comprising the area of1,745 km2 and representing about 2.73% ofthe total area of the Province. The Districthas a central position within the coastalstretch of the Gaza Province. The length ofthe District’s coastline is 67 kilometres.

From a physical point of view, the District’scoastal area belongs to the southernMozambican region, classified as a parabolicdune coast. This coastal region stretchesfrom Ponta do Ouro at the border withSouth Africa to Bazaruto Island up north.The coastline of this physical region is 850kilometres long, and represents almost onethird of the entire Mozambican coast. Thecoast is characterised by high parabolicdunes and north-trending capes, and barrierlakes. At some points, particularly in the Xai-Xai segment, these systems attain heights ofmore than 120 meters and are consideredthe world's tallest vegetated dunes.

From the functional point of view, the Xai-Xai District is the northern pole of theIncomati-Limpopo region, located in themost important transportation corridor,namely, the National Road Number One,linking the south and the north of thecountry.

Continental shelf on the Xai-Xai coast isnarrower than in the Maputo Bay in thesouth and on the Inhabame coast in thenorth. The 100 meters isobath is on averageabout 15 km far from the shore. The tidalrange along the Mozambican coast is thehighest at Beira (6.3 m) due to the broadcontinental shelf in the Sofala Bay. At Xai-Xai, the tidal amplitude is lower, reaching3.2 meters of the mean high water.

The main physical feature characterising theXai-Xai District coastal area is a belt ofparabolic dunes extending up to tenkilometres landward and along the entirecoastline, except a couple of kilometresshort break at the Limpopo river mouth. Thebelt of coastal dunes comprises three mainphysical entities: a) sandy beaches, open orprotected by the beach rock; b) the dunehills, rarely flanked with smaller foredunes;

XAI-XAI ICAM MANAGEMENT STRATEGY MICOA - PAP/RAC

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and c) barrier lakes at the backset of thedune hills.

The Limpopo river basin has a total area of412,000 km2 and is shared by Mozambique(19%), South Africa (47%), Botswana (18%)and Zimbabwe (16%). The mean altitude ofthe whole Limpopo river basin is 840 m.Within the District, the Limpopo river coursemeanders about 70 kilometres through itslower valley, from the Xai-Xai Town to thesea. The alluvial valley, which is formedwithin the inland or interior dunes area, hasa circular shape with diameter of about 15kilometres. Before reaching the sea, the riverpasses through the belt of coastal dunesforming a small estuary only a couple ofkilometres wide.

ICAM Goals and Objectives

The process of applying ICAM to particularcultural and natural characteristics of theMozambican coast, requires identification ofa set of the overall goals and strategicobjectives that collectively set policies anddirect actions, and provide ongoingfeedback from all users of the coast. ICAM isnot a substitute for sectorial planning/plans,but focuses on the linkages betweensectorial activities to achieve morecomprehensive goals. The ICAM goals andstrategic objectives are the following:

Overall Goals

• to contribute to economic and socialconditions of the local population byidentifying available resources anddevelopment potentials;

• to ensure that natural resources arerationally exploited and equitably dividedbetween generations;

• to preserve ecological integrity throughestablishing ecologically sustainablelimits for resources use;

• to recognise and support a wide range ofvalues: ecological, economic and cultural;

• to encourage private/public partnerships;

• to provide a mechanism for capacitybuilding and planning; and

• to provide a mechanism for collecting,analysing and incorporating data, as wellas the ongoing feedback and review.

The Xai-Xai ICAM Strategy Framework

Based on the presented principles, the ICAMStrategy Framework for the Coastal Area ofXai-Xai should depart from the two majorpolicy decisions, namely:

1. Biodiversity protection of naturally themost valuable and environmentally themost sensitive areas of coastal dunes, theLimpopo river and the Baixos deInhampura Coral Reef, which, if preservedand maintained, would in turn benefitthe local population and nationaltreasury on a long-term basis;

2. Sustainable development ofenvironmentally less sensitive, physicallyand functionally appropriate areas andsites for the development of agriculture,fishery and, particularly tourism,including residential zones and therelevant infrastructure.

Biodiversity Protection

The following biodiversity protectionscheme is proposed (see Map 1):

• Managed Resource Protected Area(Terrestrial/Marine-Category VI): theentire coastal belt stretching beyond theDistrict’s boundaries, comprising ESAs: a)coastal dunes; b) the Limpopo river; andc) coral reef.

The average width of the coastal dunes beltis about 4.5 kilometres, and the averageheight of this chain is about 60 meters (thehighest peak has 126 meters). Being only asegment of the coastal dunes belt whichstretches into the neighbouring Districts(Provinces), the protected area shouldextend beyond the Xai-Xai Districtboundaries.

As it is proposed above, the entire coastaldunes ESA should be protected as theManaged Resource Protected Area(Terrestrial/Marine-Category VI). Specialprotection and conservation requirementsshould be designed for each of sub-areas(intertidal zone, dune hills, the area behind


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the dunes) consequently governing thechoice of compatible types of tourismdevelopment or other appropriate activity.Consequently, within the segment betweenthe Xai-Xai and Chongoene Beach, thedevelopment of housing and touristaccommodation capacities, the relatedinfrastructure and services should beallowed, but planned and controlled. Therelevant management proposals for sub-areas (protection, conservation, restorationand regime of the activities), as well as forthe entire segment dedicated to tourismdevelopment and comprising the elementsof all the three sub-areas, are elaborated inmore details within the Chapter 2.4.

Within this larger protected area, thefollowing two specially protected areasshould be established:

• Habitat/Species Management Area(Category IV): the Limpopo river; and

• Habitat/Species Management Area(Category IV): the Baixos de InhampuraCoral Reef.

The river mouth and its small estuary are asegment of the river course stretchingthrough the area of coastal dunes in thelength of about 6 km. Only the western sideof the river mouth bears distinctcharacteristics of the estuary (saltmarsh andmangroves). The area has already beenprotected (nature or forest reserve) butnotable improvements of environmentalconditions in the area have not beenachieved yet (signs declaring protection ofthe site have been removed by the localpopulation).

Although small in size, the estuary is notonly important as a nursery ground forshrimp and a habitat for mangrove crab,but is presently the only fishing ground(mostly sardines) that can be reached bylocal fishermen possessing only smallengineless canoes. Within the managementregime (IV Category) the activity should beallowed in the area, even the creation of asmall artisanal fisheries centre is possible,but planned and strictly controlled.Agriculture and felling should be restrictedin this area.

The river course, between the Town of Xai-Xai and the sea, meanders through thevalley, partially bordered by the dikes builtas a protection against flooding. Theexpected rehabilitation of the dikes,drainage and irrigation system in the LowerLimpopo Valley should be done fullyrespecting preservation and restoration ofthe riverine environment dominated bymangrove colonies along the river banks. Itis important to avoid pollution of the riverdischarging the future agricultural runoffoutside the river course and estuary. Theupstream pollution caused by the Xai-XaiTown urban liquid waste should beeliminated adequately by a proper wastewater treatment and disposal.

When applying the precautionary principle,the Baixos de Inhampura Coral Reef shouldbe at least protected as the Habitat/SpeciesManagement Area (IUCN Category IV). Lateron, if the necessary and envisaged survey ofthe reef proved its wider biodiversity, theprotection category could be raised even tothe establishment of a marine national park.

Sustainable Development

Development of agriculture, being essentialfor subsistence of the local population,should be directed towards the area of theLimpopo Lower Valley and interior dunes.Protection against flooding and restorationof the drainage and irrigation system as partof the integrated watershed management, isa prerequisite for the rehabilitation ofagriculture in this area. This project shouldbe designed in a way to preserve naturalecosystem of the Lower Limpopo,particularly mangroves growing along theriver banks. Agricultural activities on thecoastal dunes should be avoided.Development of agriculture in the valleysbehind the coastal dunes can be planned,taking into account importance andvulnerability of the relevant groundwateraquifer.

There are favourable but limited conditionsfor the development of an artisanal fisheriescentre in the Xai-Xai Beach and at theLimpopo river mouth where the fishermencolony already exists. Taking into account all


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these advantages and disadvantages, itseems reasonable to propose developmentof the artisanal fisheries centre at theLimpopo river mouth, if further surveysproved the possibility of entering the rivermouth. At the same time, the Xai-Xai Beachseems to be suitable for development of atourist port, including existence of a smallfleet of fishing boats to serve for gamefishing and excursions (including visits anddiving on the coral reef).

Within the 67 km long coastline of the Xai-Xai District, tourism, residential and relevantinfrastructure (roads) development shouldbe confined and concentrated at the placeswhere this activity already exists, namely, inthe area between the Xai-Xai andChongoene Beach. Any development oftourist accommodation capacities outside ofthis area should be prevented in order toprotect the remaining uninhabited andunspoiled environment of the coastal dunes.In such a way, the alteration of naturalenvironment is confined to a relatively smallsection of the coastal dunes (9 kilometres inlength or about 13% of the District’scoastline).

The future infrastructure investmentsshould, in general, serve the localpopulation and tourism development. It isimportant to ensure that the adequate shareof costs of infrastructure development willbe carried by investors involved in tourism.

Concentration of tourist capacities in thissection of the coastal strip will allowrational construction of adequateinfrastructure (water supply network, liquidwaste treatment and disposal, energysupply, feeder roads, boat landing andmooring facility, etc.).

Development of settlements within thecoastal dunes area, should be restrictedexcept within the segment of Xai-Xai toChongoene Beach. The most appropriatearea for this purpose are the interior dunesincluding the area behind the coastal duneswhere a chain of small villages alreadyexists.

The roads should be laid and constructedcausing the minimum damage to the fragile

dunes morphology and environment,particularly by avoiding the steep slopes andhilltops. In order to satisfy theserequirements, the proposed tourist resort(and villages) should be serviced by roadspassing through the area behind the coastaldunes and lateral valleys of the coastaldunes (see Map 3). The same principleshould be applied to linking the Limpopomouth with the national road.

Coastal Dunes Management

Conservation and sustainable developmentof the coastal dune areas is the overall goal.The dune should be in the first instanceprotected and preserved, and anydevelopment opportunities provided shouldbe judiciously used so as not to disrupt itsnatural characteristics and support system.

Within this general goal, particularobjectives are as follows (with reference toChapter 2):

1. Protection of the entire coastal dunesbelt as the Managed Resource ProtectedArea (Terrestrial/Marine - IUCN CategoryVI) stretching beyond the District’sboundaries, comprising intertidal area,the dune hills and barrier lakes;

2. Restoration of the eroded anddeteriorated segments of the coastaldunes area;

3. Sustainable development ofenvironmentally less sensitive, physicallyand functionally appropriate areas andsites, particularly, the development oftourism, housing and relevantinfrastructure in the Xai-Xai toChongoene coastal dunes segment; and

4. Selective approach in designating thedevelopment areas within the Xai-Xai toChongoene Beach Resort segment.

Limpopo Lower Valley

It should be noted that the Limpopo LowerValley is only the final and, probably,environmentally the most sensitive segmentof the vast Limpopo river basin. Onlyelaboration of the comprehensive Limpopowatershed management plan, what is anissue of the international co-operation,


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could give the answers related to flooding,pollution, salinization, erosion and otherbasic problems. In lack of thiscomprehensive plan, only the inputs forbiodiversity protection and relativelyconfined development issues are tackled inthe Xai-Xai ICAM Strategy.

Within the comprehensive framework ofsustainable development of the LimpopoLower Valley, two specific goals haveoutstanding importance, namely:

1. Sustainable development of agriculture,including rehabilitation and constructionof the systems for drainage, irrigation,and protection from flooding in theLimpopo Lower Valley;

2. Maintaining the productivity of theLimpopo estuary ecosystem, including:

• sustainable management of theestuarine resources, and protection ofits ecological assets;

• promotion of uses compatible withconservation and sustainabledevelopment objectives.

Baixos de Inhampura Reef

1. The reef is made up of base rock with avery incomplete veneer of coral growth.As such, it is not a coral reef, but rather acoral community. It appears to resemblethose reefs to the south of Maputosurveyed by the Oceanographic Instituteof South Africa.

2. The mapping of the reef flat indicatesthat there are three sub-habitat types,but this can only be a preliminaryobservation as mapping of the reefslopes was not possible.

3. The area appears to be important forturtles, because 5 were seen over aperiod of 4 hours with a very poorvisibility.

4. The reef is very exposed for much of theyear and this may be an important factorin trying to develop diving or artisanalfisheries industry.

5. A rapid assessment should be performedbefore any final recommendations are

made on which management option(s)should be considered.

Tourism Development

The coastal area of the Xai-Xai District,offers, among others, the following touristand recreational development opportunities(see Map 2):

• the space suitable for the development oftourist centres, resort villages and hotels,as already mentioned, between the Xai-Xai and Chongoene Beaches;

• protected lagoons for bathing andsnorkelling, and the possibility to developa small tourist port;

• marine environment suitable for marinesports, such as ocean game fishing,sailing and surfing, diving on the reef;

• bathing, walking and jogging along thedistant sandy beaches, and in the areabehind the coastal dunes;

• excursions and recreation (canoeing)along the Limpopo river, in the estuary,and on the freshwater lakes (LakeUalute); and

• developed urban centre, the Town of Xai-Xai, able to support the coastal touristarea with necessary services andinfrastructure.

Being part of the coastal dunes protectedarea of the Xai-Xai to Chongoene Beach, theproposed tourist resort should be developedrespecting as much as possible natural andlandscape aesthetic values, particularly thedunes’ indigenous vegetation andmorphology.

Following this principle, the least harmful tothe dunes environment and the mostsuitable for the development of touristaccommodation structures, are small valleyson the seaward side of the coastal dunes.Environmentally the most fragile sections,the steep hill slopes dividing these valleysshould be kept undeveloped and indigenousvegetation cherished (see Map).

Situated on the opposite sides of the coastalsegment proposed for tourismdevelopment, the sites of: a) Xai-Xai Beach;


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and b) Chongoene Beach, have prerequisitesto become the focal points or centres of thefuture tourist resort. The Xai-Xai Beach hasalready developed into a small tourist centrewhile the Chongoene Beach with therehabilitation of the existing hotel anddevelopment of a new accommodationcapacity on the eastern side, could have thesimilar function within the future resort.

Along the Xai-Xai to Chongoene Beachcoastline, several sites, mainly seawardoriented valleys, are designated toaccommodate hotels, tourist villages,camping sites, etc. These sites have thefollowing common characteristics andvalues:

• the highest altitudes are not over 40meters in order to avoid the unstablesteep slopes and visual exposure in thelandscape;

• the sites are serviced by roads on thelandward side, therefore allowing theattractive seaward side remainundisturbed by traffic (including parkinglots) and service activities;

• all the sites are shifted from the shorelineat the distance of about 100 meters toallow the creation of an attractive publicspace including beaches, foredunes (tobe protected), and a promenade withentertainment buildings (cafe',restaurants, etc.).

Artisanal Fisheries Development

The fish catch potential of the Province as awhole is very high and, with the exceptionof some species, it does not seem to havebeen fully utilised. The catch estimates forPenaeidae shrimp are approximately 950tons, for large demersal species (Sparidae,Serranidae, Lethrinidae) about 5,100 tons,for small demersal species (Scianidae,Sphyraenaidae, Mugilidae, etc.) about 5,400tons, and for small pelagic species(Engraulidae and Clupeidae) about 3,500tons a year. The small pelagic species aremostly caught between Monte Belo andPonta Zavora. In the area of mangroves,around the mouth of the Limpopo river, the

estimated catch potential of mangrove crab(Scylla serrata) is 950 tons per year.

With the development of the capitalinfrastructure (the national road) andparticularly tourism, the conditions fordeveloping fishing activity are slowlyimproving. The expected future tourismdevelopment is going to create the localmarket particularly interested in the highquality demersal fresh fish to be offered inhotels and restaurants. The new market andthe improvement of infrastructure in thearea (electricity, feeder roads, boat landingfacilities), followed with the growingeconomic potential of the nativepopulation, is going to create the new,favourable environment for the small-scaleor artisanal fisheries development.

The summary of the activities to beundertaken in the short term (up to threeyears), are as follows:

1. Support, facilitation and monitoring ofthe initial joint ventures betweenentrepreneurs (experienced foreign andnational fishermen) and local fishermen;

2. Construction of the basic infrastructure inthe Zongoene and Chilaulene areas(roads, electricity, etc.);

3. Elaboration of the basic studies regardingharbour development in the Limpopoestuary and a basic study relevant to theartisanal fisheries potential; and

4. Improvement of the existing conditionswithin the Limpopo estuary (marking thepass, small peer construction, installingof modest freezers, etc.) for thedevelopment of small-scale fisheries.

Outcomes of the mentioned studies, resultsof a co-operation between the localpopulation and experienced fishermen, theattained level of tourism development, andrelevant market demand, should give aproper scope of the project to be realised inthe second phase. If the results werepositive, then the programme for theestablishment of fisheries centre, includingfunding proposals, should be elaborated inthe second phase.


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The summary of the activities to beundertaken within the medium term (up tosix years), are as follows:

1. Assessment of market potentials andfunding sources;

2. Elaboration of projects for thedevelopment of a small harbour; and

3. Elaboration of a programme and projectsfor the development of a small artisanalfisheries centre in the Limpopo estuary.

Construction of the artisanal fisheriescentre, if proved to be viable, and physicallyand environmentally appropriate, shouldtake place after the studies and projects arecompleted. In the construction phase, theengagement of governmental institutionswould be significant, particularly facilitatingin the provision of funds, issuing thebuilding permits, and surveying ofconstruction.

Port Development

In the framework of the given physicalconditions of the high energy andunindented District’s coastline, and evidentopportunities for the development ofartisanal and sport fisheries, and particularlytourism, development of a harbour thatcould provide shelter for small boats is thegeneral goal. Within the expected timelydevelopment and given locationopportunities, particular objectives are thefollowing:

1. Development of a harbour at theLimpopo estuary with a primary functionto accommodate artisanal fisheries boats;

2. Development of a small harbour in theXai-Xai Beach Lagoon primarily to giveshelter for a limited number of smalltourist boats.

Recently, the boat launching facility wasconstructed in the Xai-Xai lagoon, behindthe detached beach rock formation. Thisarea, the cove in front of the Halley TouristComplex, is the only location suitable for asmall boat shelter. The cove is narrow,extending about 1 km and fringed by thebeach rock and the beach. The beach issurfacially exposed during the mean sea.

With tourism development in the Xai-Xaicoastal area, mooring facilities should beprovided for boats which would be used forgame fishing, as well as for bringing touristsoffshore for boating. Taking intoconsideration the size constraint, the boatmooring facilities should be designed in away that part of this cove could be used formooring of boats, and part of it for bathing.The section west from the bollard should beused for bathing, pedallo, kayaking, and theother part for berthing and mooring ofboats. Depending upon the size of theboats, about 20 normal size boats couldsafely be moored if the facility were properlydesigned. During rough seas, these boatswould be towed up the beach by the winchsafe from wave uprush. In no circumstancesany boat should move to the bathing areasite.

The site may be developed further for asmall harbour with permanent moorings. Infact, this is the only site in the lagoon thatin the long run, with growing of touristcapacity, may be developed as a marinecentre.

The primary function of the Limpopoestuary harbour is to accommodate smallartisanal fishing boats that will develop inthe area. The harbour requirements forartisanal fisheries would include a modestmarginal quay, and a slip for hauling upcrafts for repairs and maintenance insheltered waters. Artisanal fishing boats aregenerally shallow draft small crafts whichare put out to the sea in the morning andreturn before dusk. The catch is usuallyoffered for immediate sale, and therefore, asmall market place is required. Probably, it isconvenient to provide also for a small sizefreezer.

The proposed harbour development on bothsites should be implemented in severalphases. It is obvious that these phasesshould be interlinked and harmonised withtourism and artisanal fisheries developmentin the area. The most important is the firstor preliminary phase being implementedwhen the presumed inputs to thisManagement Strategy (such as bathimetry,data on currents and waves, fish stocks,


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etc.), were examined through sectorialscientific expertise, studies and projects. It ispossible that some of these studies giveresults, what calls for a significantmodification of the proposed harbourdevelopment in this Strategy.

The preliminary or planning and designphase, should, among others, include thefollowing basic surveys and expertise:

1. Xai-Xai Beach Lagoon

• bathymetry and land survey maps ofthe lagoon and the relevant littoralarea;

• climate, currents and tidal conditions;

• coastal engineering survey (littoralmovement of sand, waves);

• preliminary project of the harbourincluding marine and land area;

• environmental Impact Assessment(EIA) study; and

• cost estimate and feasibility study.

2. Limpopo River Estuary

• bathymetry and land survey maps ofthe river mouth and estuary;

• climate, currents, hydrodynamic andtidal conditions at the river mouth;

• coastal engineering survey (littoralmovement of sand, waves, feasibilityof dredging free channel accessthrough the river mouth);

• study of a navigation link between theLimpopo estuary mouth and the Xai-Xai Town;

• survey and estimates of the offshorefish catch and market potentials;

• development programme definingservices and capacity of the artisanalfisheries centre;

• location selection and a preliminaryproject of the harbour includingmarine and land area;

• environmental Impact Assessment(EIA) study; and


The construction phase should followplanning and design phase. However,

having in mind a relatively high cost of thesuggested expertise for both potentialinvestments (3% to 6% of the constructioncosts), and the need for urgentimprovement of the existing conditions,particularly in the Xai-Xai Beach lagoon,some minor improvements should be doneon the basis of a preliminary coastalengineering expertise. These improvementsshould be limited in scope and time in ordernot to become an obstacle for further majorinvestment.

Institutional Strengthening

Some positive steps have been takentowards the protection and sustainable useof natural resources in Mozambique, likeestablishing of the Ministry for Co-ordination of Environmental Affairs(MICOA). This Ministry has alreadyelaborated the National EnvironmentalManagement Programme (NEMP), andenvironmental legislation, of which themost important environmental “umbrella”law is in the process of approval, is beingelaborated.

At the Xai-Xai District level, there is mainlylack of technical human resources for goodcontrol and management of naturalresources and environment. Besidestechnical capacity, resources and equipmentfor the control of sensitive and protectedareas, or other areas of concern, are alsolacking.

The coastal inter-institutional managementgroup consisting of MICOA, DPAP, DPICTMarine Administration representatives wasformed in the course of this ICAMelaboration. Its aim is to guarantee theregion’s sustainable development throughthe implementation of a tough discipline onthe use of resources. Owing to this group,sectorial pronouncements as regards socio-environmental impact of investmentprojects, are now being taken into account.

Within MICOA, the department responsiblefor the coastal area is assisted by anintegrated team of professionals, the CZMUnit, and is responsible for all activitiesrelated to coastal area management,


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including studies, planning, programmemanagement, and co-ordination.

In order to guarantee coherent, uniform andharmonised practices, the process oflegislation production is also beingundertaken by a multi-sectorial group co-ordinated by MICOA.

In order to develop training, research andmonitoring activities on the coast, theestablishment of the Coastal ZoneManagement Centre in Xai-Xai is consideredto be of paramount importance.

The general tasks of the Centre are thefollowing:

1. To conduct research, surveys and datacollection of the coastal zone, and itsmanagement and related issues at thelocal, provincial and regional level,including the establishment of a databank;

2. To secure technical assistance to localgovernments, institutions, organisations;

3. To promote and implement popularawareness campaigns, and to empowerthe community in the field of naturalresources management and sustainabledevelopment;

4. To carry out short-term training courseson natural resources management andsustainable development for civilservants, private sector, NGOs andgeneral public;

5. To perform Environmental ImpactAssessment (EIA) of activities developingin the region;

6. To promote and implement experimentaland demonstrative activities in the fieldof coastal natural resources managementand sustainable development;

7. To support the Provincial Directorate ofMICOA in coastal Provinces in the CZMarea;

8. To co-ordinate all CZM activities inMozambique, including shores of thelakes and reservoirs;

9. To co-ordinate the preparation andimplementation of the National CoastalZone Management Programme; and

10. To participate in the preparation of theNational Biodiversity Programme.

1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Project EAF/5

The nine Eastern African Nations are indifferent states of both political andeconomic development. The diversity in thedevelopment process in both island andcontinental states is exemplified byMauritius and Seychelles at one end, of bothpolitical and economic stability with a GNPof $3500 per annum, Comoros/Kenya with$500, and Mozambique with less than$100.

The coastal zone between the continentalstates of Somalia and Mozambique is homefor 25 million people. This represents 20%of the total population of continentalnations living on 12% of land.

The main Eastern African coastal cities areexperiencing dramatic growths: Dar-es-Salam, 6.7%, Maputo, 7%, and Mombasa,5% per year. The trends indicate doubling ofthe population in coastal urban centres bythe year 2025.

Thus, even with declining the nationalpopulation growth rates, there will still be astrong competition for the existing coastalresources. The pressure on coastal resourceswill increase as more people seekemployment opportunities around thecoastal centres, as well as the right to theunrestricted access to the sea shore, theright to coastal renewable resources, andthe right to recreational activities.

Coastal Area Management in the EasternAfrican Region

The coastal area management programmesin the Eastern African Nations areimplemented within the weak frameworksthat poorly coordinate cross-sector activitieswith little or no reference to the river basins.

Management of land-based activities incoastal zones has in turn become one of the

most complex management challenges.Given the severity of a coastal zonedegradation and a need for sustainabilityand effective national regulatoryinterventions, there is great demand ongovernments who limited financial resourcesto act. In many instances, whengovernments act, the interventions arereactive, weak and, at times, aggravate theproblems through sectorial policies thatconflict. In most cases, policies areimplemented as projects in the form ofsectorial projects with finite life spans.Developed projects may have little or norelation to the programmes implementedearlier. As a result, most governments arelittered with half finished but relatedprojects, or finished projects without long-term support or recurrent budgetaryprovisions. In most cases, local support isalso lacking.

Institutions

Most institutions have limited financialresources, and a limited pool of experts andmanagers. Despite limitations, theseinstitutions are mandated to train managersand seek balance between the everincreasing need for economic developmentand a conflicting demand made on thecoastal environment. Since the intensity ofthe coastal resources use increases, mostinstitutions are unable to cope. Attempts toensure sustainable capacity of coastalresources are not exceeded without muchsuccess. Predictably, the health of coastalresources will decline further beforesignificant reversal in depletion andenvironmental degradation can becontrolled through improved managementinterventions.

The model to guide development plannersfrom sectorial approach towardsmultipleuse ecosystems-based mode of


2

management was proposed by UNEP, FAO,IOC of UNESCO and IUCN for Eastern Africain 1981. This initiative was further givensome impetus by the Governments of theregion through policies that called for thedevelopment and implementation of theIntegrated Coastal Zone ManagementProgrammes, especially in Mozambique,Zanzibar and Seychelles.

In a series of workshops organised at thehigh level, and sponsored by the WorldBank, SIDA/SAREC, UNEP, FAO, namely: theMinisterial Meeting held in Arusha in 1993,and in Seychelles in 1996; Practitioners’Meeting held in Tanga in 1996; and in-country ICAM workshops held in Tanzania,Mozambique, Seychelles and Madagascar,the Governments of the region have furtherrealised the need for ICAM.

Through joint declarations from thesemeetings, the Governments are, amongothers, committed to:

• establishing policies that promote andenhance integrated planning andmanagement of coastal areas byintegrating the coastal zone into anational, economic and physical process;

• developing and implementing integratedplanning and management of coastalarea programmes which addressenvironmental concerns, particularlyresources overexploitation, environmentaldegradation and loss of biodiversity, andemphasise action at the local level;

• strengthening management capabilitiesof relevant agencies, particularly at thelocal level, for effective management ofthe overall environment, especiallycoastal areas;

• implementing and rigorously enforcingeffective legislative instruments, andsupporting incentives to reduce resourcesuse conflicts, as well as to prevent andcontrol environmental degradation incoastal areas; and

• investing in public education andawareness programmes to create broaderand stronger constituency for a propermanagement of coastal areas.

Objectives

In 1993, the countries of the region agreedto embark on the EAF/5 project. The projectis interlinked to other Eastern African ActionPlan projects, namely: Eastern African andMarine Environment Resources Databaseand Atlas (EAF/14), Global Programme ofAction for the Protection of the MarineEnvironment from Land-based Activities(GBA-LBA), International Coral Reef Initiative(ICRC) - the Eastern African Phase.

The project's main objective is to enhancemanagement capabilities within relevantgovernmental agencies, particularly at theregional and local level, aimed at thecreation of the effective coastal areasmanagement. The project design recognisedthe need for the incremental learning-basedapproach, with the three main properties inthe Pilot Phase approach, namely:

• an interactive participatory learningprocess: Practical on the job exercisesprovide experiences and comprehensiveinformation base from which the processtowards holistic approach to coastalresources management is developed. Theprocess involves design andimplementation of demonstrationactivities;

• a few defined issues, modest finances,attainable objectives, short-termmanagement actions: The process isadaptive enough to reconcile the alreadyconflicting and diverging interests overresources - fisheries, forestry, tourism,etc. in heavily developed sites (e.g., inKenya - Nyali - Bamburi - Shanzu and inMoroni in the Comoros area), and pro-actively evolving into a management toolthat is dynamic to facilitate resourcesallocation in developing sites (e.g., theChwákà Bay in Zanzibar and Xai-Xai inMozambique);

• the process is continuous consisting ofdistinct phases: The three distinct phasesinclude: the preparatory phase from 1993to 1995; the planning phase from 1997to 1998; and the implementation phaseafter 1999. The phased approachprovides the planning teams the


3

opportunity to consider and reassessprogramme strategies in theimplementation phase. The project hassecured funds from SIDA for thefollowing activities in Comoros, Kenya,Mozambique and Zanzibar State of theUnited Republic of Tanzania, namely:

I. Development and implementation ofnational public awareness strategies,campaigns and material;

II. Development of ICAM strategies forselected pilot sites;

III. Implementation of ICAMDemonstration projects (e.g., fishlanding sites, dune restoration, publicbeach facility improvement);

IV. Development and Implementation ofICAM priority bankable projectsidentified within ICAM strategiesdeveloped.

1.2 Project EAF/5 in Mozambique

The Ministry for Co-ordination ofEnvironmental Affairs (MICOA), giving thehighest priority to the coastal zone, decidedon the elaboration of the coastal zonemanagement programme of Mozambique.

Taking this into consideration, UNEPtogether with FAO, initiated a projectentitled “Protection and Management of theMarine and Coastal Areas” at the level ofthe Eastern African Region (EAF-5) co-ordinated by OCA/PAC (Ocean and CoastalArea/Programme Activity Centre)1 in Nairobi.This project started by selecting pilot areasin February 1993. A training programme onGIS (Geographic Information Systems)applied to the coastal zone took place inMay 1993, followed by more training on thecoastal zone emanate in July 1993.

The expected main outputs of ICAM inMozambique, as specified in theMemorandum of Understanding, are thefollowing:

1. Coastal Profile of a selected area;

1 Presently UNEP Water Branch

2. Management strategy for the selectedissues;

3. Implementation of a small DemonstrationProject;

4. Public Awareness Campaign;

5. National Workshop on the proposedmanagement strategy adoption andimplementation.

The District of Xai-Xai was chosen as a pilotarea and in February 1994, the first versionof the “Perfil da Area Costeira do Distrito deXai-Xai” (The Coastal Area Profile of the Xai-Xai District) was elaborated and publishedin Portuguese. In this profile, someinformation were outdated or missing,particularly those on marine environments,coastal dunes belt, water resources, andtourism.

In May 1995, a new working team wasformed to work on the Xai-Xai ICAMaccompanied by the consultants appointedby the Priority Actions Programme/RegionalActivity Centre (PAP/RAC) which wasselected by FAO as the executing agency.The first mission of the joint team wasorganised in Maputo and Xai-Xai, in May1995.

1.3 Definition of the Xai-Xai DistrictCoastal Area

At the beginning of the elaboration of theCoastal Profile, the entire District of Xai-Xaiwas estimated as the relevant coastal area.With progressing of work, it became evidentthat for the purpose of the Xai-XaiIntegrated Coastal and Marine AreasManagement (ICAM) the coastal area shouldbe defined as follows:

• the near-shore sea or coastal waterextending several kilometres seaward;

• the coastal dunes belt extending up toten kilometres landward and along theentire coastline; and

• the Limpopo Lower Valley, up to the Xai-Xai Town.

The terrestrial area of the Xai-Xai Districtconsists of the three basic geographic


4

entities, namely: (1) the belt of coastaldunes; (2) the Limpopo river valley; and (3)the area of inland dunes. By all means, thefirst two entities are a typical physical andsocio-economic environment of the coastalarea, while the third one, extending beyondthe District’s boundaries has a deficiency oftypical coastal activities in spite of somephysical elements of the coastal area.

The near-shore sea and the belt of coastaldunes are fragile environments whosenatural resources are constantly beingexploited by the local population andvisitors. Having in mind that the pressureupon this precious coastal resource will be

significantly increased in the future,particularly with the development oftourism, this ICAM was mainly directedtowards this area.

The Coastal Profile concerns also theLimpopo river course, influenced by theocean tide, with saline water intrusion farbeyond the Xai-Xai District. Particularattention is paid to the area of the rivermouth, and to a small estuary. Sincemanagement of the flooding occurring inthe Limpopo Lower Valley is a problem farexceeding the scope of this project, itshould be elaborated in the framework ofan adequate watershed management plan.

Box 1The Main Geographic Features

Mozambique has a surface area of about 800,000 km2, out of which 44% once beingunder the maritime influence and now forming littoral valleys not higher than 200 m. Thecoastline is about 2,700 km long, with 42 Districts out of 110 Districts of the country beingcoastal. About 40% of the Mozambican population lives in coastal Districts, causing a veryhigh pressure over coastal ecosystems. These ecosystems are, per se, very fragile anddegradation has already been seen, particularly deforestation, mangrove depletion,acceleration of erosion, soil salinization, and coral destruction.

The District of Xai-Xai is located between the latitudes 25°18' South and longitudes 33°19'East in the Province of Gaza, comprising the area of 1,745 km2, and representing about2.73% of the total area of the Province. The District has a central position within thecoastal stretch of the Gaza Province, bordering on the following Districts:

• the coastal District of Mandhlakazi to the East;

• the coastal District of Bilene-Macia in the West;

• Districts of Chokué and Chibuto in the North; and

• the Indian Ocean in the South.

The length of the District’s coastline is 67 kilometres.

According to data estimate2, the population of Mozambique in 1994 was 16.6 million,with a share of the Gaza Province estimated at about 1,115,000 inhabitants or 7% of thecountry’s population. The District’s population was estimated at about 210,000, while theTown of Xai-Xai, the capital of the Province and the District, had about 103,000inhabitants living in the urban and rural area on 131 square kilometres, all in 1994.

As far as the administrative division of the territory is concerned, the District has beendivided into three administrative units (postos administrativos), namely: Zongoene,Chicumbane, and Chongoene.

2 DNE (National Directorate of Statistics)


5

Agriculture, being the main activity in thearea of inland dunes, has presently a limitedimpact upon coastal resources. Thedevelopment of drainage and irrigationschemes, as well as an appropriate land usein this area, were the subject of anotherproject dealing with environmental issues.Also, it should be noted that there is noother significant economic activity in thisarea exploiting the coastal resources, orhaving impact upon them. The only seriousenvironmental threat is a municipal liquidwaste of the Xai-Xai Town which is beingdischarged into the Limpopo river. Theelaboration of an adequate liquid wastetreatment and disposal project should bepart of a Master Plan of Xai-Xai, which farexceeds the scope of this ICAM. The abovementioned were the main reasonsexplaining why this ICAM, particularly whenelaborating the management strategy, paidless attention to the area of inland dunes.

1.4 District within the National andRegional Context

Being one of the least developed countriesin the world, the Mozambican GDP (GrossDomestic Product) is only 100 US$ percapita, although it could be supposed thatthe level of the economic development inthe Gaza Province is slightly higher. As it canbe presumed, agriculture is a predominanteconomic activity both in the country and inthe Province. The figures in Table 1 showdistribution of the population within themain economic activities at the country'slevel.

The share of agriculture in the Xai-XaiDistrict is probably much lower than at thenational level due to high percentage of thepopulation living in urban centres (about60%).

From a physical point of view, the coastalarea of the District belongs to the southernMozambican region, classified as a parabolicdune coast. This coastal region stretchesfrom Ponta do Ouro at the border withSouth Africa to Bazaruto Island up north(see Map 1). The coastline of this region is850 kilometres long and represents almost

one third of the entire Mozambican coast.The coast is characterised by high parabolicdunes and north-trending capes, and barrierlakes. At some points, particularly in the Xai-Xai segment, these systems attain heights ofmore than 120 meters and are consideredthe world's tallest vegetated dunes.

Laterally, the region is crossed by severallarger rivers forming alluvial valleys.Although with the largest watershed of412,000 square kilometres, the Limpoporiver does not form a delta mouth, and atypically riverine coastal environment isconfined on a relatively small coastalsegment.

From a functional point of view, the Xai-XaiDistrict is a segment of the Incomati-Limpopo region, which is, due to the capitalof the country Maputo and the vicinity ofSouth Africa, one of the most dynamicregions of Mozambique related to economicactivities and movement of the population.Actually, the Xai-Xai District is the northernpole of this region owing to its location inthe most important transportation corridor,namely, the National Road Number One,linking the south and the north of thecountry.

Table 1. Share of the Population withinEconomic Activities

(Source: National Directorate of Statistics, 1991)

Activity %

Agriculture and Fisheries 82.0

Mining 1.5

Energy Production 0.2

Industry 4.0

Construction 1.0

Transports and Communications 1.6

Commerce 2.7

Financial Services 1.0

Administration 6.0

Total: 100.0


6

The central functions of the Xai-Xai Districtand the town itself in political, economicand cultural sense, as well as its particularrole within provincial and the nationalcontext are the result of the following:

• the Xai-Xai Town is not only the capitalof the Gaza Province, but is also itspolitical, economic, social and culturalcentre;

• owing to its location along the mainnational road, it has relatively goodcommunications with other Districts andProvinces;

• in comparison with other Districts, it hasmore social and economic infrastructure,

giving it more opportunities for the fastdevelopment and growth;

• owing to its central function and capacityto receive and reproduce the giveneconomic and social inputs, it has apriority within the Government policy;

• the District's natural resources base, theLimpopo Valley (irrigation system with alarge potential for agriculture andlivestock production) and the coastline(tourism and fisheries) being the mainassets, are development potentialdistinguishing it from the majority ofother coastal Districts.

Box 2The Main Physical Features

Continental shelf on the Xai-Xai coast is narrower than in the Maputo Bay in the south andon the Inhabame coast in the north. The 100 meters isobath is on average about 15 km farfrom the shore. The sea bottom slope is steeper, and a 400 meters isobath is at thedistance of 20 to 25 kilometres from the shore.

The salinity is uniform, ranging from 35.33‰ at the surface, and 35‰ at a 400 m depth.The sea water temperature ranges from 27ºC at the ocean surface to 20ºC in the near-shore sea in cold periods. The colour of the water is generally green and clean. However,during the rainy season, some turbidity can be observed due to the exceptional volume ofsediments brought by the Limpopo floods.

Although direction of the current in the Mozambican Channel is from the north to thesouth, the prevailing current along the Xai-Xai coast is in the opposite direction. Therefore,the water and suspended particles from the Limpopo river influence more frequently thecoast of the Xai-Xai Beach than Bilene.

The tidal range along the Mozambican coast is the highest at Beira (6.3 m) due to a broadcontinental shelf at the Sofala bay. At Xai-Xai, the tidal amplitude is lower reaching 3.2meters of the mean high water.

The main physical feature characterising the Xai-Xai District coastal area is the belt ofparabolic dunes extending up to ten kilometres landward and along the entire coastline,except of a couple of kilometres short break at the Limpopo river mouth. The belt ofcoastal dunes comprises three main physical entities: a) sandy beaches, open or protectedby the beach rock; b) the dune hills, rarely flanked with smaller foredunes; and c) barrierlakes at the backset of the dune hills.

The Limpopo river course meanders about 70 kilometres through its lower valley, from theXai-Xai Town to the sea. The alluvial valley, which is formed within the inland or interiordunes area, has a circular shape with diameter of about 15 kilometres. Before reaching thesea, the river passes through the belt of coastal dunes forming a small estuary only acouple of kilometres wide.

7

2 ICAM GOALS AND STRATEGY FRAMEWORK

2.1 ICAM Goals and Objectives

The process of applying ICAM to particularcultural and natural characteristics of theMozambican coast, requires identification ofa set of the overall goals and strategicobjectives that collectively set policies anddirect actions, and provide ongoingfeedback from all users of the coast. ICAM isnot a substitute for sectorial planning/plans,but focuses on linkages between sectorialactivities to achieve more comprehensivegoals. The ICAM goals and strategicobjectives are the following:

Overall Goals

• to contribute to economic and socialconditions of the local population byidentifying available resources anddevelopment potentials;

• to ensure that natural resources arerationally exploited and equitably dividedbetween generations;

• to preserve ecological integrity throughestablishing ecologically sustainablelimits for resources use;

• to recognise and support a wide range ofvalues: ecological, economic and cultural;

• to encourage private/public partnerships;

• to provide a mechanism for capacitybuilding and planning; and

• to provide a mechanism for collecting,analysing and incorporating data, as wellas the ongoing feedback and review.

Strategic Objectives

1. Conservation objectives: creation ofprotected areas; application of aprecautionary principle in development;protection and restoration of importantbiological areas and species; prevention

of ecosystem loss; and supporting ofecosystem rehabilitation.

2. Resources management objectives:preparation and implementation of site-specific and industry-specificmanagement plans; use of research andmonitoring in the ICAM andmanagement planning processes; andinvolvement of stakeholders in theplanning process.

3. Education and public awarenessobjectives: gaining of betterunderstanding by stakeholders and,therefore, giving support to relevantactions; development of appropriateprogrammes and feedback opportunitiesfor diverse target groups.

4. Research and monitoring objectives:encouragement of environmentallyenhancing activities; determination ofecologically sustainable levels of inputand change; monitoring of activitiesapplication; encouragement ofinformation exchange process; use ofareas and activities as a basis forprescription; and evaluation of the ICAMprocess and management plans.

5. Integrated planning objectives:encouragement of consistency,complementarity, and co-ordination inplanning and actions aimed atachievement of conflict resolution andecologically integrated approaches,respecting on- and off-site areas, as wellas transboundary areas; andestablishment of a timely reviewmechanisms.

6. Legislative objectives: creation ofstreamlined procedures and regulationsfor enforceable implementation;establishment of means for stakeholders’input, review and amendments regardingboundaries, management goals and


8

permitted use; respecting of localcommunities as the most closely affectedstakeholders.

ICAM Strategy Principles

Development of the ICAM strategy requiresrespecting of certain underlying principlesthat guide the ICAM process over time, andensure that the coastal and marineenvironment will continue to provide goodsand services on sustainable basis. Suchprinciples are especially important duringperiods of economic transition in order toensure that social and economic problems(such as over-population, poverty, etc.) donot justify short-term actions causingenvironmental degradation whichundermines the resource base and hope fora long-term prosperity.

The following principles illustrate how ICAMcan facilitate positive integration of sectorialinterests, productive co-ordination ofinstitutions, resource compatibility andequity of values between different users:

• development should not degrade theresource base upon which it depends;

• precautionary and anticipatory approachshould be used in the case of lack ofclarity;

• to strive after achievement of maximumcultural, ecological and economicdiversity;

• to maximise uniqueness of productsauthenticity;

• to prevent short-term benefits fromtaking priority over long-term costs;

• economic benefits should be reasonablydistributed;

• development activities should be basedon local value systems;

• direct and indirect economic leakageshould be minimised;

• the use of local resources should bemaximised to benefit the local people;

• developers should cover all costs ofnegative impacts;

• development should be implementedwithin regulatory framework.

The approach towards realisation ofsustainable development of the coastal areaof Mozambique requires a strategy to bedeveloped bringing together coastal issuesand problems, the ICAM methodology,goals and objectives, and the ICAMprinciples into a cohesive strategy that willguide the scope, scale, and siting ofdevelopment and conservation activities.This will lay foundations for all proposalspresented in chapters that will follow. Theseproposals will be based on the followingcriteria:

Biodiversity and Environmental Protection

Given the important role of the coastal andmarine habitats, biodiversity andenvironmental protection should beconsidered first, and then, the level ofdevelopment the area could withstand,should be determined. It is essential toaccount for the upstream impacts, as well asfor impacts of the adjacent activities.Criteria for the establishment of“environmentally sensitive areas” (ESAs)should be conducted first, allocatingthereafter different ranges of protectedareas. This should be done in the form of anoverall coastal biodiversity strategy thattakes into account the role of the existingand potential pollution loads. It is importantto prevent the process of privatisation andtendency to create small development areasfrom the inhibiting large-scale areas neededfor the dunes and wetland managementand conservation.

Tourism and Conservation

Tourism is increasingly recognised as animportant source of foreign exchange. Givena relatively good health of naturalenvironments, the environmentally-basedtourism, being not only sensitive to coastaland marine habitats, but also enhancingtheir quality, is the most compatibledevelopment option for the Xai-Xai coastalarea. Tourism should be organised inspecific clusters offering a range ofinterventions that enhance the environmentand provide a variety of economic


9

opportunities to local communities. Theintegrity of the coastal marine environment,the dunes hillside ecology and aesthetics,should be maintained.

Protected areas (nature reserves, marinereserves, scenic landscapes) are focal pointsthat could attract people, therefore funds,to both local communities and nationaltreasuries. Linking tourism with natureconservation, through the establishment ofthe protected areas, provides not only theincentive for environmental standards forfacilities, but ensures also the protection oflarge areas of nature. Conservation andtourism need integration of cultural eventsor other important local traditions into bothplanning and activity stages of all projects.

2.2 Development Opportunities,Constraints and Threats

The coastal area of the Xai-Xai District iseconomically the most productive,aesthetically the most beautiful, andenvironmentally the most vulnerable area.By virtue of the three major energy forcesenacting in this zone (marine, fluvial and theEolian) it is extremely sensitive to extraneouspressure. Disruption of the equilibrium hasconcatenated a chain reaction, and if urgentmitigate measures are not undertaken, theareas will get irreparably degraded. Suchdegradation is discernible in many coastalregions of the world. Natural disruptiveforces do cause such harm, but if humaninterference is controlled, natural healingand resetting of dynamic equilibrium will beachieved. Unfortunately, because of theirrational ill planning of coastaldevelopment, and avid utilisation of thecoastal marine resources, lots of harm havebeen caused to these areas.

The Xai-Xai District coastal area that waspristine and natural in the recent past, isnow in the process of degradation. Sincethis region is due to be under pressure of arapid development in the near future, thecoastal area management plan willeffectively control the haphazard andreactive development, and save it fromenvironmental degradation.

2.2.1 Opportunities

Consolidation of political situation in thecountry has created much better conditionsfor the development within the District ofthe Xai-Xai coastal area. Having in mind theunfavourable national and provincialeconomic and social heritage, the onus ofthe development expectations will be put onnatural resources. With its valuable naturalresources, such as unspoiled beaches,abundance of water and fish stocks, thecoastal area of the Xai-Xai District isamongst the first to benefit from the freeflow of capital, goods and visitors. Theprospects of some of these resources couldyield results in the short run (fishery), whilesignificant benefits of the others will be feltonly in longer run (tourism). The mostsignificant opportunities for thedevelopment are within agriculture, fisheriesand tourism.

Although being a predominant activity inthe District, agriculture has a very lowoutput with a tendency of farmers toproduce for their own subsistence needs.Presently, the main agricultural areas arelocated within the area of interior dunes.The most fertile land of the Limpopo Valley,and longitudinal valleys between coastaland interior dunes are presently used only aspastures due to constant flooding. With therehabilitation of the dikes and irrigationsystem these areas could provide a surplusof agricultural products to be sold on themarket, and/or what is most profitable, tosatisfy the growing needs for food bytourism.

Fisheries, almost barely present in theDistrict, could become a notable economicactivity. Although the District's coastalwaters are not the most abundant fishinggrounds of Mozambique, they offer theopportunity for the development ofsignificant artisanal fisheries. Supposed thatthe necessary facilities, tools and trainingwere provided for the local population,fisheries could provide a steady source ofincome, either the catch is sold within thecountry, or exported (South Africa), or likeagricultural products, delivered directly tohoteliers and tourists.


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Very soon, tourism is likely to become themost profitable activity in the District. TheXai-Xai coastal area has the advantage ofbeing reached by car in one-day travel, andcould even serve as a weekend destinationfor visitors from South Africa, which is arelatively large tourist emitting market. Notonly the strip of coastal dunes with virginbeaches and exuberant vegetation, but alsothe points of interest like the Limpopomouth, small lakes in the area behind thedunes, and the Baixos de Inhampura coralreef, make this area a highly attractivenatural environment for tourismdevelopment. Besides opportunities for thedevelopment of a traditional beach tourism,which is limited to the beaches in smalllagoons, there are great potentials for gameand sport fishing, diving and other marinetourist activities in the near-shore and off-shore waters, including visits to theimmediate 20 kilometres long Baixos deInhampura coral reef.

Development of tourism in Xai-Xai could, asan option, bring positive impacts on thearea and on the country as a whole. Suchimpacts could be summarised as follows:

• direct economic benefits from providingemployment, income and foreignexchange, which would lead to theimprovement of the living standard ofthe local population of Xai-Xai andregional development, as well;

• development of tourist activities impliesthe increase of government revenues,through various types of taxation ontourism, which could be used for thedevelopment of community’s facilitiesand infrastructure, and economicdevelopment, in general;

• as indirect economic benefit, tourism inXai-Xai could be a catalyst for thedevelopment of other activities, such asfisheries, agriculture and industry (mainlythe beverage factory and ceramics)through supplying of goods and services.The improvement of transportationfacilities and services, and otherinfrastructure necessary for tourism,which will also serve the social and

economic needs of the community, hasbeen envisaged;

• stimulus for conservation of importantelements of cultural heritage as tourismis expected to finance them partially astourist attractions.

The existing infrastructure and touristcapacities, although modest and of lowquality, are the additional factors alreadyattracting tourists and developers. Ifdeveloped on sustainable basis, the futuretourism, which in the beginning shouldcount on visitors from South Africa, couldhave an extremely positive impact on thedevelopment of other activities, and,consequently, on the employment in theDistrict. Besides the already mentioneddevelopment of agriculture and fisheries,the development of construction and foodindustry, and a wide range of serviceactivities, is to be expected.

2.2.2 Constraints

Constraints to the future development aregenerally originated in the low level ofdevelopment (poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition,and unemployment) being worsened by theconsequences of the war and political,economic and social transition of thecountry. The problems which may constrainthe expected development process are thefollowing:

• loss of fertile land caused by floodingand salinization in the Limpopo riverplain;

• high growth and concentration ofpopulation and refuges within theDistrict’s coastal area resulting inpressure and over-exploitation of naturalresources;

• low level of housing and lack of theadequate infrastructure and facilities,such as secondary and feeder roads,water supply, electricity in the rural area;

• lack of traditional skills, tools andequipment for exploitation of abundantfish and shrimp stocks in the area;

• lack of port or landing facilities forfisheries and tourist boats; and


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• lack of the adequate hotelaccommodation due to ruined hotels inthe Xai-Xai and Chongoene Beach.

2.2.3 Threats

The low level of development and the abovementioned population concentration havecreated a number of environmentalproblems which may seriously threaten theneeded and expected development withinthe coastal area of the Xai-Xai District. Theyare the following:

• deforestation caused by felling forcharcoal production, fuelwood andconstruction material;

• soil erosion caused by deforestation andagriculture practice in the area of coastaland interior dunes;

• erosion of coastal dunes caused byclearing the dunes vegetation for touristpurposes (camping sites and bungalows)and fuelwood;

• extinction of wildlife caused by loss ofhabitats (deforestation) and hunting; and

• over-harvesting of mussels and oysters onthe beach-rock barrier by ruralpopulation in order to satisfy the basicneeds for food.

It is to be expected that the futuredevelopment could bring additional threatsto natural resources, such as fishing anddiving in the protected areas (nurserygrounds and coral reef), semi-artisanalfishing practised by tourists, degradation ofthe coastal dunes vegetation caused bydevelopers and visitors, pollution of theprotected beaches and lagoons, etc. Inorder to avoid these negative impacts uponenvironment, some of the existinginstitutional and management problemsshould, among others, be eliminated at first,namely:

• lack of the adequate development andmanagement plans and projects;

• lack of control (licensing, taxation) overexploitation of natural resources bytourists and local population;

• lack and overlapping responsibilities andcompetencies of the local authorities inthe management of coastal issues; and

• lack of data, control and management ofwildlife and marine life.

Nevertheless, it is worth noting that if notwell planned and controlled, it could beexpected that tourism in Xai-Xai wouldgenerate negative impacts that might bedifficult to control. These impacts could beas follows:

• the loss of potential economic benefitsfor the locals, and resentment ofresidents if tourist facilities were ownedand managed without involvement of thelocal community;

• without integrated developmentplanning following the development oftourist activities, foreign exchangeearnings could not be substantial sincemany goods and services would beimported from outside;

• the pre-emption of beaches and otheramenity areas intended for exclusivetourist use without access for residents,will certainly lead to local resentment andconflict, and loss of amenities. It isimportant to stress that in some areas ofthe southern coast of Mozambique thesekinds of conflicts have already beenregistered. Therefore, it is important toprevent or to reduce them to a minimumin the Xai-Xai area.

2.3 Xai-Xai ICAM StrategyFramework

The sand dunes are classified in Category IIIof IUCN and, consequently, they needprotection by virtue of their specialcharacteristics, importance of nationaluniqueness, and opportunities provided forinterpretation, education and publicappreciation. In addition, they have bothrecreational and tourist values, and shouldbe managed in a way to be relatively free ofhuman interference.

Based on the presented principles, the ICAMStrategy Framework for the Coastal Area of


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Xai-Xai should depart from the two majorpolicy decisions, namely:

1. Biodiversity protection of naturally themost valuable and environmentally themost sensitive areas of coastal dunes, theLimpopo river and the Baixos deInhampura Coral Reef, which if preservedand maintained, would in turn benefitthe local population and nationaltreasury on a long-term basis.

2. Sustainable development ofenvironmentally less sensitive, physicallyand functionally appropriate areas andsites for the development of agriculture,fisheries and particularly tourism,including residential zones and relevantinfrastructure.

The belt of particularly high coastal dunesstretching all along the coast andinterrupted only by a very narrow Limpoporiver mouth, should be entirely protected. Adegree of protection can vary for differentsections, particularly for areas of the existingand future development.

Apart from a strong commitment ofbiodiversity protection of the coastal dunesbelt, it is also necessary to propose theappropriate area and managementframework for the needed economicdevelopment. It is obvious that tourismdevelopment and related infrastructureconstruction will bring alterations toparticular segments of coastal dunesenvironment. The task of this ICAM and theprojects that will follow, is to propose andimplement a concept of sustainable tourismdevelopment, in order to minimise negativeimpacts on immediate site and to avoidnegative impacts upon environment in themajority of the Xai -Xai District coastal area.However, it is also to expect that thedevelopment of the mentioned activities,particularly tourism, could, if properlymanaged, bring significant improvement tothe state of the environment in the alreadydegraded areas (coastal dunes vegetation,beach rock depletion).

2.3.1 Biodiversity Protection

Three important Environmentally SensitiveAreas (ESAs) and the relevant sub-areas canbe recognised in the Xai-Xai District coastalarea. They are characterised by thefollowing:

a) Coastal dunes in the Xai-Xai coastal areaare only a segment of the world's highestvegetated dunes range, extending fromThe Republic of South Africa to the Bay ofSofala. The strip of coastal dunes of Xai-Xai incorporates three major sub-areas:

• an intertidal zone including thenarrow belt of beach rocks and sandybeaches whether open to the oceanwaves action or confined withinlagoons;

• densely vegetated or partially erodeddune hills covering a wide area of 2 - 5km; and

• the area behind coastal dunesrecognised as temporary floodedlongitudinal valleys or a chain of smallmainly fresh water lakes.

b) In view of the management requirements,the Limpopo river, although a uniqueecosystem, could be divided in twospatial units:

• the river mouth which forms a smallestuary including wetlands on its rightbank; and

• the river course and lower valley,including mangroves on the riverbanks.

c) Baixos de Inhampura Coral Reef, asubmerged reef parallel to the coastline.

The biodiversity protection scheme - to befurther developed into detailed action plansof environmental conservation andrestoration for each identified area - willalso provide the basis for planning tourismdevelopment and related infrastructurescompatible with the protection of marine,wetland, and terrestrial environments. Theabove identified environments could beclassified according to the IUCNclassification system into the followingcategories:


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• Category II: National Park

• Category III: Natural Monument

• Category IV: Habitat/SpeciesManagement Area

• Category V: Protected Landscape/Seascape

• Category VI: Managed ResourceProtected Area (Terrestrial/Marine)

Besides selecting the adequate category ofprotection, a question arises whether topropose each of the above listed ESAs to beestablished as an autonomously protectedarea or as a segment of the unique largercoastal protected area. Since the coastaldunes belt stretches far beyond the District’sboundaries and comprises other ESAs (e.g.,the Bilene lagoon), it seems reasonable topropose the following protection scheme(see Map):

• Managed Resource Protected Area(Terrestrial/Marine-Category VI)3: theentire coastal belt stretching beyond theDistrict’s boundaries, comprising ESAs: a)coastal dunes; b) Limpopo river; and c)coral reef;

Within this larger protected area, thefollowing two specially protected areasshould be established:

• Habitat/Species Management Area(Category IV)4: Limpopo river; and

• Habitat/Species Management Area(Category IV): Baixos de Inhampura CoralReef.

Special protection and conservationrequirements should be designed for eachof these categories consequently governingthe choice of the appropriate managementframework and types of activitiescompatible with the area (e.g., tourismdevelopment).

3 Alternative could be the following: Category V -

Protected Landscape/Seascape4 Alternative could be the following: Category VI -

Managed Resource Protected Area(Terrestrial/Marine)

Coastal Dunes

The average width of the coastal dunes beltis about 4.5 kilometres, while the averageheight of this chain is about 60 meters (thehighest peak has 126 meters). Being only asegment of the coastal dunes belt whichstretches into the neighbouring Districts(Provinces), the protected area shouldextend beyond the Xai-Xai Districtboundaries.

As it is proposed above, the entire coastaldunes ESA should be protected as theManaged Resource Protected Area(Terrestrial/Marine-Category VI). Specialprotection and conservation requirementsshould be designed for each of the sub-areas (intertidal zone, the dune hills, thearea behind the dunes) consequentlygoverning the choice of compatible types oftourism or other appropriate activitydevelopment. Consequently, within thesegment between the Xai-Xai andChongoene Beach, the development ofhousing and tourist accommodationcapacities, the related infrastructure andservices should be allowed, but planned andcontrolled. The relevant managementproposals for the sub-areas (protection,conservation, restoration and regime of theactivities), as well as for the entire segmentdedicated to tourism development andcomprising the elements of all the threesub-areas, are elaborated in more detailwithin Chapter 2.4.

Limpopo River

The Limpopo river ESA should be protectedas a Habitat/Species Management Area(IUCN Category IV), which includes bothmentioned spatial units: a) the river mouth;and b) the river course.

The river mouth and its small estuary are asegment of the river course stretchingthrough the area of coastal dunes in thelength of about 6 km. Only the western sideof the river mouth bears distinctcharacteristics of the estuary (saltmarsh andmangroves). The area has already beenprotected (nature or forest reserve) butnotable improvements of environmentalconditions in the area have not been


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achieved yet (signs declaring protection ofthe site have been removed by the localpopulation).

Although small in size, the estuary is notonly important as a nursery ground forshrimp and a habitat for mangrove crab,but is presently the only fishing ground(mostly sardines) that can be reached bylocal fishermen possessing only smallengineless canoes. Within the managementregime (IV Category), fishing activity shouldbe allowed in the area, even the creation ofa small artisanal fisheries centre is possible,but planned and strictly controlled.Agriculture and felling should be restrictedin this area.

The river course, between the Town of Xai-Xai and the sea, meanders through thevalley partially bordered by the dikes built asa protection against flooding. The expectedrehabilitation of the dikes, drainage andirrigation system in the lower Limpopovalley should be carried out fully respectingpreservation and restoration of the riverineenvironment dominated by mangrovecolonies along the river banks. It isimportant to avoid pollution of the riverdischarging the future agricultural runoffoutside the river course and estuary. Itshould be also noted that the upstreampollution caused by the Xai-Xai Town urbanliquid waste should be adequatelyeliminated by a proper waste watertreatment and disposal.

Baixos de Inhampura Coral Reef

The Baixos de Inhampura barrier reef issituated at 25°10' southern latitude and laidalong the coastline at the average distanceof about 3 kilometres from the shoreline.The reef is approximately 20 kilometreslong, stretching in the ENE-WSW direction,almost from Chongoene Beach to some 8kilometres from the Limpopo river mouth.The reef rises from 20 meters (seaward side)up to 1.5 meters at the highest point withthe average 5 meters depth of the reef flatfrom the lowest neap tide. In its centralpart, the reef is built up of three parallelridges. According to scarce and partial

information available, there is the presenceof abundant coral colonies on the reef.

In all available bibliography and the listedreferences, there is no single informationabout the reef, nor it was available duringthe mission, except the navigation chart in a1:200,000 scale. There is an evident need forthe identification of the main characteristicsof this reef, among others, to answer thecrucial question whether the reef is entirelybuilt up by corals or that there is only thepresence of coral colonies on the rockyground like on the beach rocks along theshoreline.

When applying the precautionary principle,the Baixos de Inhampura Coral Reef shouldbe at least protected as the Habitat/SpeciesManagement Area (IUCN Category IV). Lateron, if the necessary and envisaged survey ofthe reef proved its larger biodiversity, theprotection category could be raised even tothe establishment of a marine national park.The basic necessary activities in providingreliable information on the reef, arepresented in Chapter 5.

2.3.2 Sustainable Development Strategy

Agriculture

Development of agriculture, being essentialfor subsistence of the local population,should be directed towards the area of theLimpopo Lower Valley and interior dunes.Protection against flooding, and restorationof the drainage and irrigation system as partof the integrated watershed management, isa prerequisite for the rehabilitation ofagriculture in this area. This project shouldbe designed in a way to preserve naturalecosystem of the lower Limpopo,particularly mangroves growing along theriver banks. The agricultural activities withinthe coastal dunes could be avoided.Development of agriculture in the valleysbehind the coastal dunes can be plannedtaking into account importance andvulnerability of the relevant groundwateraquifer.


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Fisheries and Harbour Development

There are favourable, but limited conditionsfor the development of the artisanalfisheries centre in the Xai-Xai Beach and atthe Limpopo river mouth, where thefishermen colony already exists. Both ofthese two locations have some advantages,but also disadvantages. In spite of only fewadvantages, the third possibility to developthe artisanal fisheries centre somewherealong the “open” coast seems unreasonable,because of many disadvantages (the roughsea, high cost of breakwater construction,no available infrastructure, no fishermencolony at the site etc.).

Taking into account all these advantagesand disadvantages, it seems reasonable topropose development of the artisanalfisheries centre at the Limpopo river mouth,if further surveys prove the possibility ofentering the river mouth. At the same time,the Xai-Xai Beach seems to be suitable forthe development of a tourist port, includingexistence of a small fleet of fishing boats toserve for game fishing and excursions(including visits and diving on the coralreef).

Tourism and Housing Development

Within the 67 km long coastline of the Xai -Xai District, tourism, residential and therelevant infrastructure (roads) developmentshould be confined and concentrated at theplaces where this activity already exists,namely, in the area between the Xai-Xai andChongoene Beach. Any development oftourist accommodation capacities outside ofthis area should be prevented in order toprotect the remaining uninhabited andunspoiled environment of the coastal dunes.In such a way, alteration of naturalenvironment is confined to a relatively smallsection of the coastal dunes (9 kilometres inlength or about 13% of the District’scoastline). Besides, the advantages ofconcentrating the future tourism andresidential development along this segmentof the coastal strip, are, among others, thefollowing:

• along the entire coastal strip, only twolagoons offer protected beaches being

most suitable for bathing and practisingof other marine activities;

• the existing tourist centre in the Xai-XaiBeach and a hotel in the ChongoeneBeach will facilitate development andoperation of the nearby future touristsites;

• some of the existing infrastructurefacilities at the site (road, gasolinestation, boat landing facility) will helpstart the new tourism development;

• concentration of tourist capacities in thissection of the coastal strip will allow therational construction of the adequateinfrastructure (water supply network,liquid waste treatment and disposal,energy supply, feeder roads, boat landingand mooring facility, etc.).

Development of settlements within thecoastal dunes area, should be restrictedexcept within the segment of Xai-Xai toChongoene Beach. The most appropriatearea for this purpose are the interior dunesincluding the area behind the coastal duneswhere a chain of small villages alreadyexists.

Infrastructure Development

The existing infrastructure cannot meetdemands and requirements of the proposedtourism and settlements development. Thestrategy of the necessary infrastructuredevelopment should be based upon thefollowing:

• the future infrastructure investments, ingeneral, should serve the local populationand tourism development. It is importantto ensure that the adequate share ofcosts of infrastructure development willbe carried by investors involved intourism;

• demand for energy will be highlyincreased and it should be provided fromthe sources at the provincial (national)level. The main efforts are expected to bemade in developing distribution network;


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Table 2. Road Network

Road Necessary improvements Distance (km)

Zongoene to national road major improvements 33.0Limpopo mouth to Xai-Xai major improvements 26.5Chongoene to national road minor improvements 4.0Longitudinal backset road construction 7.0Tourist resort service roads:

• western lateral road• eastern lateral road

constructionconstruction

2.53.0

• the existing road linking the Xai-Xai Townand Beach will satisfy the needs for thelong period. Minor improvements of theroad linking the Chongoene Beach andthe main national road are necessarywhile major efforts should be directedtowards construction of the feeder roads(see Table 2).

• the roads should be laid and constructedcausing minimum damage to the fragiledunes morphology and environment,particularly by avoiding the steep slopesand hilltops. In order to satisfy theserequirements, the proposed tourist resort(and villages) should be serviced by roadspassing through the area behind thecoastal dunes and lateral valleys of thecoastal dunes (see Maps). The sameprinciple should be applied to linking theLimpopo mouth with the national road.

• demand for potable water, which will behighly increased, should be satisfied fromthe abundant groundwater sourcesavailable in the area. The needs oftourism and residential populationshould be taken into account in futureinvestments in water supply network.

• construction of the adequate liquidwaste treatment and disposal facilitiesshould be the obligation of tourismdevelopment. The most appropriatealternative is to build an integral system(with separate network for liquid wasteand drainage) for the whole touristresort. It is necessary to ensureconstruction of this system in phases.

2.4 Selected Management Issues

Within the ICAM course, and particularlybased on the findings of the Coastal Profileand the above elaborated ManagementStrategy Framework, several importantissues to be managed have emerged. Theywere selected having in mind the naturalresource base and its potential forsustainable development, the existing socio-economic conditions, and the need forbiodiversity conservation and protection.They are the following:

1. Management of the coastal dunes andintertidal area (beach rock and beaches,the coastal dunes and barrier lakes)developing appropriate conservation,protection, rehabilitation and monitoringpractices;

2. Assessment of agricultural potential ofthe Limpopo Lower Valley and the basicmanagement proposals in harmony withthe wetland environment (the Limpoporiver course);

3. Identification of the main characteristicsand appropriate protection measures forthe Baixos de Inhampura reef;

4. Managing tourism development in theenvironmentally fragile coastal andmarine area, having in mind the inheritedlow level of development and transitionperiod in the country;

5. Managing fisheries development in orderto utilise the available marine resources,including, among others: (a) educationand training of the local fishermen andrural population; (b) providing fishingboats, tools and equipment; and

6. Providing harbour and (or) landingfacilities for fishing and tourist boats.

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3 COASTAL DUNES MANAGEMENT

3.1 Depositional Dynamics

The dune deposits represent geneticpopulation influenced entirely by the Eolianprocesses. They are the product of theelastic filtrate derived from the adjacentback-shore by the onshore wind. Theycomprise fine textured sand due to the lowcompetency of the wind, having the narrowenergy regime. The windowing of fines andtheir deposition on dunes producespopulation that has a relatively high degreeof positive skewness. The dune sand hasbeen transported by the onshore wind of15-20 km/hr speed (threshold). Finer sandsfrom the beach or ridge have been filteredout and transported onshore. Theentrapment of these sands could have beena small barrier or even grouting, whentransportation drops down. Gradualentrainment of sand has given rise to theextensive feature with predominant windface and slip face, the former having theslope of 15°-22° and the latter 22°-28° atmany places. Once the supply of sand hasdwindled and transportation of energyslacked, the vegetative colonisation creepsgradually in.

The very important point that should benoted is that the dune formation started bythe onshore wind brings sand from thebeach and the back-shore as a filtrate, andthe offshore wind retransports some sand asfew back. Once the stable morphology hasbeen attained in relation to width, heightand slope, and sand movement hasdecreased significantly, the vegetativecolonisation starts. Any modification in themorphology, such as height and slope ofboth faces, would give rise to seriousinstability and the whole area would be in achaotic disequilibrium, unless reactive costlymeasures were undertaken. Since the dunesand has particular grain size (3.0 to 4.0)

diameter, rounded in nature, well sortedand clean from other particles, the dunedeposit is highly sensitive to energy fluxes,as well as to outside interference. Once thepacking fabric is disturbed, the entire dunearea will be reactivated energetically, givingrise to sediment cataclysm. The avalanchingeffect would be disastrous for theenvironment in general, and human inparticular. When designing anydevelopment on the dune, these naturaldune intricacies should be taken inconsideration. It is worth noting that theinland dunes being of greater scale andhaving undergone longer stabilisationperiod, are comparatively less sensitive thanthe foredunes.

3.2 Coastal Dunes - EnvironmentallySensitive Areas

The coastal dunes in the Xai-Xai coastal areaare only a segment of the world's highestvegetated dunes range extending fromSouth Africa to the Bay of Sofala. The stripof coastal dunes of Xai-Xai incorporatesthree major sub-areas:

a) an intertidal zone including the narrowbelt of beach rocks and sandy beacheswhether open to the ocean waves actionor confined within lagoons;

b) densely vegetated or partially erodeddune hills; and

c) the area behind the coastal dunesrecognised as temporary floodedlongitudinal valleys or a chain of smallmainly fresh water lakes.

The average width of the coastal dunes beltin the Xai-Xai District is about 4.5kilometres, while its average height is about60 meters (the highest peak has 126 m).Being only a segment of the coastal dunesbelt which spreads into the neighbouring


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Districts (Provinces), the protected areaneeds to be extended beyond the Xai-XaiDistrict boundaries.

Intertidal Zone

The beach rock is distinct by virtue of itslocation and extent. It is not a typicalcalcarenite or calcirudite deposit, but in fact,it is a type of calcareous sand stone. Fromhand analysis megascopically it seems tocomprise sub-rounded to rounded quartz,small percentage of felspar and some heavyminerals, such as titanium, zirconium, ironoxide, rutile, etc. Cementing materials, asper some information, are calcareous. Sandgrains are generally coarse to very coarse,and high packing and lithification haveimparted tough characteristics with hightensile strength.

The provenance of the beach rock materialsis from the hinterland, brought down by themajor rivers such as the Limpopo, andreworked by waves. Fresh water from theseapage or resurgence in the coastal areascontributes to the formation of the beachrock. Cementing materials could have beenderived from sea water and interacted byfresh water. The coastal retreat is conduciveto this formation and the extensive depositin the tropical region is due to this effect.

The intertidal zone, particularly the belt ofbeach rocks, runs parallel with thebeachline. Some segments of the beach rockbelt, particularly the segment between Xai-Xai and Chongoene, are not visible sincethey are covered by sand forming a barrierwhich encompasses small lagoons. Parts ofthe barrier are scored, and partially orcompletely submerged. The beach rockformation is a very important coastalattribute of the Xai-Xai ecosystem whichplays a preponderant role in its stability.Actually, it is a natural endowment whichenables the ecosystem to withstand energyfluxes while allowing certain coastalactivities. The beach rock formation in thearea of Xai-Xai holds out against the forceof attacking waves protecting the incipientlagoon ideal for recreational activities. Thebeach rock is a habitat of and a nursery formany marine species (mussels, oysters,

lobsters) of which some are seriouslythreatened by over-harvesting. The maincharacteristics of the intertidal zone (beachrock) are as follows:

• the sea of Xai-Xai is open and there ishigh incidence of swells and storm waveson the beach. The beach rock acts as anatural breakwater to dissipate waveenergy protecting the beach and coastaldunes. Because of the availability of largevolume of sand from the adjacentforedunes, any scouring of beach depositis replaced by sand from the dunes;

• position of the beach rock belt off theXai-Xai - Chongoene Beach enabled thecreation of small coves along it which areused by local residents and even bytourists for swimming, and as shelters forboats;

• the beach rock is also a favourablehabitat for many species of marine floraand fauna. The predominant faunaspecies are: oysters (Sacostrea cucullata),mussels (Perna perna), limpets (Patellassp.), barnacles, starfish, sponges, etc. Theover-harvesting of mussels affectssignificantly coastal ecology bydecreasing the rock lobster populationand thereby disrupting the food chain,and by felling trees growing on stabilisedstabilised dunes for cooking the mussels;

• besides providing shelter, and feedingand breeding ground for some marineorganisms, the beach rock maintains thereef biodiversity and food chain linkages;

• the beach rocks also provide theprovenance to beach sand deposits, bybeing broken and abraded by waveaction. The gradual wave reworking ofthis deposit produces a limited amountof coarse-grained sand being importantfor the beach stability of this area;

• they are also used by some residents asplatforms to fish and by tourists to walkover them. This will have the negativeimpact on the beach rock ecology, withpronounced trampling in the long run;


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Coastal Dunes Belt

The coastal dunes that lie adjacent to thebeach (foredune) are smaller in height andwidth, but the grain size is more or lesssimilar to that of the inland dunes. Becauseof the proximity to the beach, they aresubject to an excessive trampling and evenmining of sand for construction. As a result,the sand deflation and blow-away areclearly visible. The wave reworking has alsoscoured the deposit, swirling back on thebeach, creating admixture of both fine andcoarse sand, and a flatter topography withfine grains of sand plastered on the beachface.

These foredunes are in some sectionsmissing giving way to immediate rise of amass of transversally running 100-metre-high inland dunes extending severalkilometres landward at the right angle (N-S)to the direction of the prevailing wind,which provides abundant supply of sand.The well sorted and fine-grained sand ismostly quartz formed by the wind effect.The provenance of sand is from thehinterland. It is brought down by rivers,reworked by waves and transported to formthe dunes. Most of these dunes are coveredwith grasses, shrubs and trees.

Barrier Lakes and Longitudinal Valleys

Barrier lakes and longitudinal valleys (mainlyfreshwater) stretch all along the backset ofthe coastal dunes. The altitude of thisgeomorphologic formation varies from thesea level up 15 meters above it in somesections. The soil, which is peaty in most ofthese narrow and often flooded valleys, isquite favourable for agriculture. This stretchof valleys and lakes is the immediaterecharge area of the rich ground wateraquifer, meaning that any soil or surfacewater pollution (e.g., sewage or agriculturerun-off) will contaminate it. The excessiveuse of ground water in this area, which,however, is not the case presently, maydisturb the equilibrium between the sea andground water resulting in the intrusion ofsaline water into the aquifer.

Clearing of the dunes’ vegetation hasserious impacts on this area. The sand from

the adjacent denuded dunes is blown awayinto the valleys disturbing the naturalvegetation cover and agriculture areas. Itshould be also noted that the ecosystems ofthese small lakes are very sensitive andfragile, in particular their fauna (fish) whichis vulnerable even to comparatively smallhuman impacts (fishing with nets, increasedsalinity, etc.).

The coastal dunes are perhaps the mostsensitive and threatened areas in the Districtof Xai-Xai. They have been depleted in someareas, such as Chongoene, for wood andconstruction material for tourist facilities.Actually, there is a link between thedepletion of dune forests and over-harvesting of mussels on the beach: themussels are cooked and their meat isprocessed for the market right on the beach.As a result, not only the dunes aredeforested and mussel depleted, but largeareas of the beach and dunes are strewn bydiscarded shells.

At several places, deforestation and burninghave been observed disturbing the dunes’stability. Any change of the morphology(height and face of the dunes) by deliberateacts, may disturb the equilibrium of theentire area, unless appropriate measures areundertaken.

3.3 Significance and Importance ofDunes

The dune plays a very important role in theeconomy of the Xai-Xai District. It has beenpresent there before colonisation, growing,changing and being stabilised by naturalforces. Human interference has significantlymodified its morphology and it hasrelentlessly been responding to suchchanges by resetting to a new equilibrium.It provides a high potential for tourism,agricultural and residential development,requiring intensive care and implementationof the huge mitigation measures. Some ofthe major values of the dune are:

Economic Values

The dune provides great economic valuesfor the local people, such as wood for fuel,


20

grasses for animals, land for agricultural, aswell as place for shelter. Even game animalsare hunted for food. The inland (Palaeo)dune has been cultivated for food crop, fruittrees and vegetable, and is supporting manypeople, and supplying food for manyvillages. Besides residential units, manyinfrastructure services, such as roadnetwork, power lines, and telephone lineshave been placed on the dune. In addition,bungalows, hotels, and sports facilities arebeing developed on it.

Ecological Values

The dune is an ecological 'niche' where amutty of flora and fauna is living. It provideshigh biodiversity and habitats for manycoastal communities, particularly birds. Adetailed ecological survey could revealgenetic diversity and even plant species thathave great values in the pharmaceuticalfield.

Water Resource

It has been observed that the dune valleyshave potential groundwater reservoirs andat some places, lakes are also noted. Some

of the prominent lakes are: Pave, Sane,Coloantique, Nhamanjene, Leanule,Magangane, Sauce, Chiboene, Giné, Chissura,Bussalene, Chouze, Chacolnane, Nhoncuana,Funguine, Matchive, Gagoe, Chunhule, Mino,Sauzative, Chance, Chimboe, Chilachive,Mahambué, Nhamagonhave, Chinginze,Dâmbue, Paquelane, Malembue, Masseque.The coastal segment of Xai-Xai gets potablewater from groundwater.

Sand Reserve

By its physical characteristics, the dune is anexcessive sand reserve that has beendeposited by nature, to be revised in thecase of difficult situation. The beacherosion, which is a common phenomenon inthe coastal area, is the offset from sandderived from the dune and the coastal ridge.Despite strong reaction, no evidence ofbeach erosion can be noted at ChongoeneBeach, because the scarps formed areobliterated by sand derived from the dune.On the other hand, the coastal segmentlacking such a reserve, is in a very poorcondition.

Box 3State of the Dune Area

A quick glance on the dune field reveals that except for some spots adjacent to thecoastline, it is in the undisturbed state. The large road network on the inland (Palaeo) dunecrest, housing units all along it, and agricultural activities practised on the flanks andtrough, have not shown signs of significant detrimental degradation. The dune field hassupported such development since a very long time. Successive colonisation of differentplant communities since thousand of years has provided a relatively fertile soil, which givesgood agricultural yield. The structural framework of the dune has also been stabilised byrainfall and physical pressure. The size being massive and destructive energy less, this dunehas not witnessed any significant damage. However, some at the coastline are witnessingserious degradation. This has been caused by anthropogenic activities, such as burning,walking over, deforestation, construction, creation of track and trails, and even driving.

Aerial photos have revealed many blowouts south of Xai-Xai. Near Chongoene, some dunecrests and limbs have been denuded. Pelling and gullying by rainfall have given rise to adisastrous slumping of sand. Some of the vegetation at the crest have their roots exposed.The daily huge amount of sands are rolling down the hill and a cascading effect isdestroying the whole dune flank. Passing of vehicles, animals and people could aggravatethe problem. The incidence of the rain impact and strong wind on such a degraded sitecould annihilate the whole region, unless mitigation measures were urgently implemented.

Other problems encountered are mining of sand and levelling of the dune for construction.Mining of sand from the dune face has been noted at one km East of the Halley Complex.Some people were caught red handed removing sand from the dune with the help of alorry. Also, other vestiges have been observed. On the other hand, west of the HalleyComplex, the dune surface has been levelled down for the construction of residences.


21

National Heritage

The dune has been used since manyhundreds of years for residential,agricultural and recreational activities.People were born, lived and died on it. Itwas a shelter and a source of food. It wasthe dune where people searched forinspiration to struggle and fight the dailylife. Many philosophies and cultures tooktheir roots there. In other words, it is acultural place and hence it should bepreserved as the national heritage.

Aesthetic Beauty

The form of the dune, its setting andlandscape with crests and valleys aboundsin beauty. The green vegetation, chirpingand frolicking of birds and butterflies,hissing of wind on the leaves, akaleidoscopic scenery with the incidence ofsunrays on the vegetation are enchanting. Astroll in the late afternoon or early morningcannot be better refreshing. The dune is stillpristine and its natural beauty is ineffable.This natural asset should be protected andpreserved.

3.4 Management Strategy

3.4.1 Development Opportunities

Tourism is the most important developmentopportunity that demands planning. Byvirtue of its location at the coastline, thecoastal segment between the HalleyComplex and Chongoene provides a goodopportunity. However, care should beexercised to undertake only rational andsustainable development. Because of thesite constraint and a statutory requirementof buffer of 100 m, a very limited land isavailable for tourism. At some places alongthis segment there are areas available fortourism, but unless a well defined plan wereprepared, and carrying capacity assessmentundertaken and backed up byenvironmental impact assessment, tourismcould not be developed.

Unfortunately, many haphazarddevelopments are coming up at the StudySite, and no rational use of the site has beennoted. In some valleys fringing the coastline,

bungalow complexes have beenconstructed. This site could sustain muchmore, if the development were wellplanned. Some houses have also beenconstructed around the dune vegetation onthe flank. The land clearing at this spot isgiving rise to dune’s degradation.

Development Guiding Principles

The following guiding principles are to beconsidered when devising tourismdevelopment at the project site:

• the inland (Palaeo) dune is comparativelyless sensitive than the Sore dune;

• The dune’s natural recovery istremendous, and damage caused bynature or humans could be self heeled, iffurther human interference werecontrolled;

• since the dune has limited developmentopportunities, carrying capacityassessment of a particular site should beperformed prior to any development;

• development should not be haphazard,but planned, and it should be fullyintegrated into the local environment;

• the stable site should be optimally andrationally used;

• pollution of groundwater and the seashould be taken care of;

• during development, no introduction ofexotic species, either plants or animals,should be allowed;

• since there is a trend of sea level rise,each development should have requiredset back, and should be put up at a safelevel. Building structures should bedesigned in a way to take care of therising sea;

• the setting and building architectureshould be compatible in the natural'cachet'. Many coastal structures wouldbe proposed by hotel developers. Onlythose indispensable should be allowedafter submission and proper assessmentof the environmental impact statement;


22

• ecotourism should be promoted, and thesite's natural attributes should beexploited;

• since the site will bear tremendousdrinking water pressure, provision shouldbe made to counteract it. Waterconservation should also be practised;

• road construction should be adapted tothe dunes morphology in order toachieve the maximum stability of dunehills. Public transport with non-pollutingvehicles should be considered in themature phase of resort development;

• due to the existing potential of the Eolianand solar energy, the maximal utilisationshould be realised in the future;

• the stakeholders, local residents, NGOsand local authorities should have theirrepresentatives, who would discusscoastal development. However, thelicense granting authority should makejudicious balance between sustainabledevelopment and protection of theenvironment;

• all projects that require EIA need postproject monitoring and auditing to becarried out. The monitoring team shouldbe very active, and if negative impactsbecame evident, immediate rectificationshould be made by the projectproponent;

• the management of marine resourcesshould be given high priority. Depletionof resources, loss of biodiversity,pollution of the sea from land-based andmarine sources, such as oil spill andchemical spill, should be underpermanent control;

• besides socio-economic also culturalvalues should be considered and givendue importance in the framework oftourism development.

3.4.2 Goals and Objectives

Conservation and sustainable developmentof the coastal dune areas is the overall goal.The dune should be in the first instanceprotected and preserved, and anydevelopment opportunities provided should

be judiciously used so as not to disrupt itsnatural characteristics and support system.

In principle, the entire dune area should beprotected and preserved, and nodevelopment other than conservationshould be allowed. However, taking intoconsideration size constraints in the coastalzone, various tourist attributes present inthe area, and tourist development trend, itis thought wise to prepare tourismdevelopment plan with selected touristactivities based on sustainable developmentprinciples. Development control should berigorously exercised at all stages throughthe EIA processes, where the prediction ofnegative impacts is undertaken, mitigationmeasures should be designed andimplemented, and post developmentmonitoring and auditing should be carriedout. In this way, less harm will be caused tothe area with the proactive planning andmanagement. Perhaps, this will be one ofthe few sites in the African region, if not theonly one, where such a development planhas been prepared for an area which isrelatively pristine but highly sensitive.

Within this general goal, the particularobjectives are as follows (with reference toChapter 2):

1. Protection of the entire coastal dunesbelt as the Managed Resource ProtectedArea (Terrestrial/Marine - IUCN CategoryVI) stretching beyond the District’sboundaries, comprising intertidal area,the dune hills and barrier lakes;

2. Restoration of the eroded anddeteriorated segments of the coastaldunes area;

3. Sustainable development of theenvironmentally less sensitive, physicallyand functionally appropriate areas andsites, particularly the development oftourism, housing and relevantinfrastructure in the Xai-Xai toChongoene coastal dunes segment;

4. Selective approach in designating thedevelopment areas within the Xai-Xai toChongoene Beach Resort segment, basedon carrying capacity assessment (asreferred in Chapter 6).


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3.4.3 Management Strategies

Intertidal Area - Beach Rock

The beach rock is more or less flat, with aslight southern dip, carved by the sea actionin the past. Impact of waves on this featurehas given rise to the sea abraded platform,the crest of which is 5-20 m wide at places.The seaward face or the reef slope hassuffered pronounced rills and, at a fewplaces, blocks of this reef have crumbleddown. This phenomenon is also observed inthe back reef areas. Besides physical impactscaused by waves and tides, the solutioncavitation, as well as boring by sedentaryinvertebrates inhabiting this feature, havecarved out a typical reef morphology. Inaddition, collapse of blocks has also givenrise to underwater cavities. The crashing ofwaves on the reef during high tide gives riseto lots of salt sprays.

By virtue of its particular ecological,scientific, educational and strategicimportance, the beach rock has beenclassified in the category III of IUCN. The siteis of the outstanding national significance,and it should be protected because of itsuniqueness and ecological significance. Itshould be managed in a way to make itrelatively free of human disturbance.

Protection and management of the beachrock and its resources include two tasks:

1. Assessment of the beach rock vulnerabilityin relation to beach protection:

• survey of the beach rock on theproject site, and transposition of dataon a map of appropriate scale 1:5,000.The length, width, thickness,composition, etc. should be examined;

• investigation of the associated marinelives;

• carrying capacity assessment of thevarious exploitable resources (fish,lobster, mussels);

• assessment of the beach rock undererosion identifying wavehydrodynamics and transformation,current direction, tidal amplitude,wind effects, beach morphology, grainsize distribution, sediment transport,

assessment of energy impacts on thebeach rock, ripcurrent etc.; and

• providing of regulation to control theuse in this area, with well definedinstitutional framework for properenforcement;

2. Assessment of the beach rock in relationto its ecological function, andmaintenance of biodiversity, comprising:• survey of all marine flora and fauna;• investigation of their health, growth

rate, concentration, productivity; and• carrying capacity assessment of the

beach rock and environs.

In the short term, exploitation of musselsfrom segments of the beach rock should bebanned, depending on the recommendationof the team to be set up for the preparationof the assessment studies. The decisionshould be made by the local population,stakeholders and relevant authorities.

Once the studies have been completed andthe appropriate recommendations made,the Government should immediatelyformulate and proclaim the necessarylegislation, and put in place the appropriateinstitutional framework to manage thebeach area. A regular monitoring shouldalso be undertaken to take stock of itshealth, vitality and adverse impacts.

Coastal Dunes Belt

The Xai-Xai dune fields are an importantfeature of the coastal landscape of the area.The programme of the dune managementand preservation should be developed aspart of the ICAM plan. Because of a dynamicnature of sand dunes, and theirinterdependence with beaches and the near-shore processes, the dune managementcannot be considered in isolation. In someareas, “over-management” is also aproblem, since the dunes become fixed andvegetated preventing the necessarysediment movements for continuingdynamic equilibrium.

Human activities affecting the Xai-Xaicoastal dunes include damage caused tovegetation cover by grazing, opening of


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access pathways, vehicle traffic, andgarbage accumulations.

Several modes of construction within thedunes area, such as dune fencing, beachaccess, tracks and pathways, walkovers, andspecial vehicles access to the beach, may beconsidered in this area. If the main roadwould be set through the back side of thedunes, then perpendicular access to thebeaches should be provided. With respect tothe dune stabilisation and planting, theinventory of the native vegetation used inthis area should be carried out. Thus, anyfurther stabilisation could be done usingnative material.

The long-term monitoring of the coastaldunes area should include monitoring of theshoreline, including the near-shore beach,the beach rock and the intertidal area.Monitoring of both cross-shore andlongitudinal profiles should be carried out.In the Chonguene hotel beach area, wherethe dune field is moving towards the hotelproperty, the longitudinal movement isimportant due to wind action. However, thedune front location seems to be stable.

Several houses and similar constructions arefound on the foredunes, in the Xai-Xaibeach front. The baseline should beestablished along the shore at this locationin order to implement effective setbackrestrictions for the future construction.

In Mozambique, the setback line of 100 mhas been regulated by law. Historic erosionrates of the coastal area should beexamined, and the setback line should beestablished to move development back fromthe shoreline. No construction should beallowed seaward of the baseline. Onlylimited development should be allowedbetween baseline and the setback line,subject to case by case evaluation.

The potential hazard caused by the wind-blown sand should be given considerationduring the preliminary phase of this project.Coastal sand drifts may cause burying ofroads and other infrastructure. They couldblock drainage facilities and accumulatenear houses and hotel accommodations.Moderate wind speeds of about 10 m/s are

capable of moving unconsolidated sands onthe beaches, and sand drift problems tendto become nuisance and chronic. Strategiesshould be developed to minimise thepossibility of inconvenience caused by thewind-blown sand.

The dune usage management subjectsshould include the following:

• the dune usage for coastal protection;

• methods for re-establishment of thedunes;

• the dune stabilisation and planting;

• description of dune plants in Xai-Xai;

• the need for applying seedling nurseriesand fertiliser programmes;

• dune fencing, beach access, tracks andpathways, walkovers; and

• vehicle access to beaches.

Public education and awareness should beneeded to encourage the managementprocedures aiming at protecting theintegrity of the dunes in the long term. Also,the long-term monitoring of the dunesshould be needed, including the location ofthe baseline which should be establishedalong the shoreline.

Barrier Lakes

The characteristic feature of the southerncoastal area of Mozambique are largecoastal lakes, swamps and temporary rain-filled pans which occur behind the dunesystems. The most important coastal lake inthe Bilene - Xai-Xai region is Lake Uembjeo/Bilene (32 km2). Unlike other coastal barrierlakes, Lake Bilene is occasionally linked tothe sea via a channel which getsoccasionally closed by the formation of sandbar. The other barrier lakes, by contrast,have no links with the sea. This explains theexistence of typical freshwater/brackish fishspecies that occur in these water bodies.

The Mozambican coastal plain was formedby marine transgression in the Pliocene. Inthe succeeding regression, the sea left aseries of long-shore dunes running as sandyridges parallel to the shoreline. The coastal


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lakes now appear as stranded water bodiesbehind the coastal longshore dune system(Boane, 1996).

The setback of coastal dunes within theboundaries of the Xai-Xai District,comprising barrier lakes and longitudinalvalleys, is relatively densely inhabited. Thelakes serve as a water source for populationand livestock, while the valleys with fertilesoil, if not flooded, are intensivelycultivated. Presently, groundwater is asource for water supply of the Town of Xai-Xai and Xai-Xai Beach. Groundwater is usedfor commercial and industrial activities. Oneof the industries, which is expected todevelop rapidly, is tourism, especially in theXai-Xai Beach area.

Due to the physical origin of the lakes thereis a high level of adherity with theassociated groundwater aquifer. As aconsequence, groundwater, being animportant source for the future watersupply, could be easily polluted from humanactivities within the lakes area. To avoid this,the following management strategy shouldbe applied in the area:

• character, capacity and potential forwater supply of the groundwater aquifersshould be studied in details;

• vulnerability of the aquifer to pollutionshould be assessed, and human activitiesin the area, particularly agriculturepractising, housing and tourismdevelopment, should be controlled, andappropriate protection measures shouldbe implemented.

3.5 Action Plan

3.5.1 Long-term Actions

The following activities should be includedin the long-term management strategy:

a) Legal

• to establish the Managed ResourceProtected Area (Terrestrial/Marine - IUCNCategory VI) for the entire coastal dunesbelt;

b) Management Plans

1. In the first instance, the whole dune areashould be surveyed and assessed asfollows:

• state of the vegetation and placeswhere it has been denuded,identifying the cause;

• degradation sites, extent, causes, andrestoration measures, and programme;

• extent and potential agricultural land,fertility status of soil, availability ofwater;

• assessment of groundwater and of thepotential of the adjacent lakes fordrinking and irrigation purposes;

• size, form and slope of the coastaldune valleys, the degree of theirsensitivity;

• state of vegetation, degree and causesof erosion;

• geotechnical studies of these valleyareas to assess parocity, permeabilityof soil, load bearing capacity so as todetermine type of structures theground can sustain; and

• monitoring of the lagoon water aimedat establishing the presence ofcoliform bacteria, phosphate, turbidity,heavy metals, etc.

2. Elaboration of the Protection andConservation Management Plan for theprotected area including, among others,the preparation of Working Guidelines tocontrol the degradation of the coastaldunes. Some relevant points to beconsidered are:

• the dune vegetation should not beremoved or damaged;

• burning of the dune vegetation shouldbe declared illegal and punishable;

• no development, such as permanentbuildings - services, should be allowedwithout prior approval of the relevantauthorities. For major developments,the EIA license should be required;

• cutting of trees on the dune should beprohibited. Special areas should be


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developed as plantations for fodder,timber and construction;

• construction of roads and tracks onthe dune should be controlled, andtraffic of vehicles on undeclared roadsshould be stopped;

• mining of sand from the foreduneshould be stopped;

• hunting of animals and birds,especially endemic, should be banned;

• abstraction of water should bemonitored and controlled to preventsea water intrusion.

3. Rational development of the coastal dunefor tourism industry considering thefollowing criteria (the proposalelaborated in detail in Chapter 6):• to develop tourist facilities taking into

consideration the various siteconstraints and environmentalsensitivity;

• to promote ecotourism that involvesobserving, enjoying and respecting thenatural environment and local culture;

• to promote inland tourism in order tospread the development inland, and torelieve pressure on the beach andlagoon;

• to ensure that tourism does not havenegative impacts on the naturalenvironment;

• to meet adequately the recreationalneed of the local inhabitants; and

• to integrate tourism and recreationaluses with other objectives in this area.

c) Institutional

• to establish the management frameworkfor the Managed Resource ProtectedArea.

3.5.2 Short-term Actions

Sustainable Exploitation of CoastalResources - EU Sponsored Project

Mussels (Perna perna) are collected from thebeach rock by the population coming frominland areas as far as 40 km away. About400 to 500 men and women, collect, asestimated, around one ton per month. Theycollect mussels of any sizes (sometimes very

small) and boil them on the beach for theirown consumption, or dry and sell them inthe market of Xai-Xai. As they use fuelwoodavailable around, the dune vegetation hasbeen depleted for many years, thus allowinglarge areas to erode.

The wind-blown sand from these erodedareas affects and deteriorates agriculturalland at the backset of the coastal dunes,and even the inland dunes. Firewood hasalso been collected from these areas.Farming, being practised in some areas ofthe coastal dunes, is a serious cause oferosion. These harmful activities arepractised by population from the adjacentcommunities, such as the Xai-Xai Beach,Macamwine and Chinunguine.

Objectives

In order to reverse the existing practice ofnon-sustainable use of coastal resources,such as mussels and oysters over-harvesting,and cutting and burning the forest, theEuropean Union is financing the project(250,000 ECU) aimed to introducesustainable management of coastalresources in the Xai-Xai coastal zone, and,at the same time, to improve the socio-economic conditions of the localpopulation. The immediate objectives of theproject are:

• to identify and implement thealternatives to mussel collection; and

• to recover depleted forestry resources byplanting the trees to be used as afuelwood source.

Expected Results

1. The local coastal communitiesimplementing proper management ofcoastal resources with support oftraditional authorities;

2. Fruit trees planted and growing inpredetermined areas of the inland dunes.During growing period of the fruit trees,creeping plants of different types will beplanted (such as water melon andmelon);

3. A number of bee-hives producing honey,its packaging and commercialisation;


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4. Indigenous creeping plants planted forthe purpose of recovering land-hills;

5. Trees planted for the purpose of dunerecovering, and also for timber andfuelwood.

Strategy of the Project

The non-governmental organisation “Grupode Trabalho Ambiental” (GTA) –Environmental Working Group is theexecuting agency, while MICOA issupervising the project. The plants are to besupplied by the Association of PrivateEntrepreneurs (FRUTISUL) and ProvincialServices for Forestry and Wildlife (SPFFB).FRUTISUL will also provide training andequipment for honey production.

The communities will be organised in Bairros(settlements). 450 families have alreadybeen identified in Chinunguine, 250 inMacamuine and 175 in the Xai-Xai Beach,giving a total of about 5,000 people. Thecommunities will appoint theirrepresentatives to work on the project. Avery important part of the budget andactivities of the project is related toenvironmental education.

The project started already in January 1997.

Rehabilitation of the Eroded Dunes

Coastal dune being very sensitive andunstable, with the exertion pressure withoutgiving time for its recovery, has given rise toblow outs, sand creep, sand slump andwind deflation. Aerial photos reveal a largenumber of such degradation behind thecoastline, being more prominent west of theLimpopo mouth. In the Eastern segment,the degree of degradation is relatively lesspronounced, but still exemplified by barevegetation and pronounced rills and gullies.As mentioned before, human activities haveinitiated the degradation process, andnature is accelerating the same. Everysecond, millions of sand grain are rollingdown the hill.

The dune foot and the crest are the twoareas that are more stable when comparedto the limbs, because sand grains lie at highangle of repose generally in excess of 25º.

The vegetative colonisation increases,through anchoring by the roots of sand, thedune face roughness with concomitantdecrease in wind erosive power. Diminutionof rain impact with the presence of canopyand cover of humus, and the increase ofhumidity and wetability under the canopy,have all contributed to the increase of thedune’s stability. As the dune field is aharmonised system comprising the variouswell knit facets, disruption of any segmentwill bring about avalanching effect. Thisphenomenon is precisely being noted nearChongoene. The dune limb in some areashas suffered serious erosion. Thousands oftons of sand have fallen down the dune hill.Crests and the foot are still protected withgrasses.

In order to stop erosion process and torehabilitate the most affected areas, thelocal authorities should undertake simpleand relatively low-cost restoration ofindigenous vegetation.

Options

There is a number of practical measures thatcould be put in place to halt furtherdegradation. The most common ones arefences and vegetative arrest.

Fences could be of any type in wooden,plastic, rubber, textile fabric, entangledcoconut choir, etc. The most common onesare wooden and fabric. The wooden fenceshould be secured fixed in sand, the heightshould match the result to be achieved, andspacing should be made in a way thatneither sand turbulence and scouring couldoccur, nor large amount of sand could befiltered out.

Fabric fences have also been used in manycountries. They need to have porosity of 40 -50%. They are lighter, less bulky, moredurable and easier to handle, but moreexpensive. With accumulation of sand inlarge quantity, these fences get easilydamaged and, at the same time, attractvandals.

The said fence would, by its own, beeffective for a short period of time. Heavyrainfall may erode these parts of the dune.


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The vegetative colonisation programme withpost plantation management includingwatering, application of fertiliser, recruitingand maintenance, would afford doublestability.

The vegetative colonisation of the dunesurface is perhaps the most effective, thecheapest and the easiest method ofrehabilitation. The vegetative species arereadily available at the site. Their plantationand regular management, till plants cansustain growth on their own, would be thebest option. The sites that have beenrecommended for rehabilitation are locatedon the limbs, 5 m from the foot to 40 m ormore. The recommendations are thefollowing:

Recommendations

• the vegetation to be planted should be ofspecies dominant at the site. For thatpurpose, it is recommended to getseedlings of shrubs (potted) 40 cm x40 cm black polythene bags. The soilshould be humus and sandy top soil.These should be planted along thecontours dug in holes of 60 cm whichshould be 75% filled with humus. Theplanting distance should be 2m x 3m. Inaddition, local grasses should be plantedbetween the rows. These grasses shouldbe planted in tufts at the distance of30 cm x 30 cm, and in the upper reach50 cm x 50 cm so as to cause minimaldisturbance.

• the regular watering and fertiliserapplication programme should beexecuted. Watering should be done everyday for at least one month and everyalternate day for at least 3 months,depending upon rainfall. After thisperiod, a bi-weekly watering for further 6months would be sufficient to allow thevegetation to colonise the site. Theauthor recommends that drip irrigationbe designed and provided. This will savethe burden of regular climbing up anddown the fence, causing furtherinstability. The irrigation pipes and valvesare very cheap. A tank made up of plasticor metal drums connected together with

pipes would be adequate to irrigate thesite for two to three months. This willalso control loss of water.

As for fertiliser, Triple Super Phosphateand Ammonium Nitrate 50 kg/150 kg pertrench, respectively, would be ideal.These could be cast through the dripirrigation system.

The provision of drip irrigation may seemexaggerated, but it is the only practicalsolution to make this project a success.Prior to putting the fences andvegetation, the irrigation system shouldbe designed and placed during theimplementation. Working on the dunewould cause more harm to its stabilityand this should be disallowed.

• the adjacent vegetation should also begiven additional care in the form offertilisers and, if possible, irrigationduring the dry period. This will reactivatetheir growth and the inlaying erodedzone would be protected from furtherdamage. Provision of mulch on thesurface retained by forked woodenpickets would abate entrainment of sandduring the strong wind condition andheavy rainfall.

Management

To manage the rehabilitation of the dunethe following steps need to be taken:

1. Preparation of cost estimate to thisproject;

2. Identification of financing source;3. Preparation of works programme;4. Setting up of monitoring team.

It is also recommended that therehabilitated sites should be fenced fromthe road site, and appropriate notice shouldbe placed to inform people of the measuresthat are being taken against dunedegradation, and that the protectiveinstruments should not be tampered orremoved. In this context, a sensitisationcampaign should be launched, and the localpeople and stakeholders should be invitedto participate.

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4 LIMPOPO LOWER VALLEY

4.1 Limpopo River

The District of Xai-Xai contains considerablesurface and groundwater resources whichare essentially a segment of the Limpoporiver basin, except for two relatively narrowstrips along the coast. These two strips arelocated on both sides of the Limpopo river

mouth and constitute the catchment areasfor several lakes that can be found in inter-dunal depressions along the coast. However,it is important to note that, because themajority of surface water resources of thisDistrict are generated upstream, descriptionhas necessarily to be extended beyond thephysical boundaries of the District itself.

Box 4Limpopo River Basin

The Limpopo river is the main water course crossing the District. It is formed afterconfluence of the Notwane (flowing from Botswana) and the Marico and Crocodile rivers(flowing from South Africa). The main tributaries of the Limpopo river in Mozambique arethe Elefantes river (the right bank) and the Nuanetzi river (the left bank). These twotributaries are international rivers, and have their sources in South Africa and Zimbabwe,respectively. Other important tributaries are the Changane (the left bank) and the Lumane(the right bank), both entirely in Mozambique.

The Limpopo river basin has a total area of 412,000 km2, and is shared by Mozambique(19%), South Africa (47%), Botswana (18%) and Zimbabwe (16%). The mean altitude ofthe whole Limpopo river basin is 840 m. Most of the Mozambican part of the basin liesbelow the altitude of 400 m. However, the altitude varies considerably from 1,200 m in theupper reaches of the Elefantes river sub-catchment to 150 m in the Changane river sub-catchment. The lower Limpopo, which includes the District of Xai-Xai, is, in general terms,poorly drained and subject to inundation during the occurrence of floods.

The most important storage facility in the Mozambican part of the Limpopo rivercatchment is the Massingir dam (Elefantes river), which was commissioned in 1978, withdesign life-storage capacity of 2,840 MM3. For safety reasons, this facility cannot yet beimpounded to design capacity due to serious leakage problems appearing in itsfoundations. Meanwhile, the Southern Regional Water Administration (ARA-Sul) ispreparing a project for the rehabilitation of the dam.

The Limpopo river has a regime dependent on precipitation. The flow is characterised bygreat annual distribution variation, being very high in the rainy season, and low in the dry.The flow downstream of confluence with the Elefantes can be characterised by that at theChókwè Gauge station (see Table 3). The means in the Table show the annual variation,and it can be noted that the flow in the wet season (December-April) contributessignificantly to the mean annual runoff (4169.06 MM3).

Studies carried out indicate that flow characteristics of the river are strongly affected bysignificant water abstractions in the upstream countries. This situation tends to deterioratedue to further developments in both South Africa and Zimbabwe.


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Table 3. Mean Flow at the Chókwè Gauge Station (1951/1952 to 1994/1995)Source: (Monografia Hidrográfica da Bacia do Rio Limpopo, 1996)

Month Flow (m3/s) Month Flow (m3/s)

January 289.89 July 21.76

February 556.98 August 13.17

March 327.56 September 8.85

April 131.60 October 15.40

May 65.22 November 36.96

June 31.43 December 87.55

Mean Annual per Month: 132.2 m3/s

Mean Annual Runoff: 4169.06 MM3

The water quality of the river is, in general,good. However, some salinity problemsaffect the usefulness. Salt intrusion from theocean in the estuary causes salinization,which under normal flow conditions doesnot pose problems upstream from Xai-Xai,but in dry years causes problems up to 80km from the river mouth and makes thewater inappropriate for irrigation (Matola,1995).

According to studies carried out in 1980 and1984, the salinization problem in the LowerLimpopo is also related to inflow of salinedrainage water, which originates from theChókwè Irrigation Scheme (SIREMO).Besides, the base flow from the ChanganeRiver might be saline due to salinity ofgroundwater. Salinity up to 1 g/l has beenmeasured downstream of the Chókwèirrigation scheme (Promexport, 1983).

4.1.1 Floods in the Limpopo River Basin

The floods in the Limpopo river basinoriginate from occurrence of high rainfallvolumes in South Africa, Botswana andZimbabwe, representing 80.7% of the totalbasin area. The floods in the Lower Limpopoare immense causing high economic andhuman losses when the Limpopo andElefantes peak flows coincide afterconfluence. During floods, the Limpopo riveroverflows and floods from Chókwè andfurther downstream to Xai-Xai. Someprotection dikes exist along the river,protecting principally the irrigation schemes.The maximum flow of 7,800 m3/s was

registered during the flood in 1955. Duringelaboration of the present profile, one moreflood occurred in the Limpopo river, inFebruary-March 1996 with the maximumflow of 4,300 m3/s registered at the Chókwèstation. From the preliminary analysis byDNA, it could be concluded that damagescaused by this flood were less than theothers that occurred in this river. Particularmention goes to reduction in human losses.

The experience obtained from the 1981flood has taken DNA to improve the FloodWarning System including correction of theModel coefficients, in order to reduce theimpact of floods of the Lower Limpopo.Adding to that is the rehabilitation of theMassingir dam to be carried out soon,which will improve regulation of the floodsin the Elefantes River. This experience alsoshowed that special attention should begiven to the construction of floodprotection dikes and embankments toprotect irrigated areas as they could haveserious consequences for the floods due toreduction of the flood river bed.

The improvement of co-operation with theupstream countries, the Flood WarningSystem of DNA, and the skills to deal withnew technologies for the treatment ofhydrologic data, allowed earlier prevision ofthe peak flows. This output was an essentialtool for the water authorities, because theywere able to issue information in time to thepopulation settled in the areas susceptibleto be inundated.


31

The measurements of the suspended solidstransport on the Limpopo river in Xai-Xai arenot carried out on the daily basis. However,from the observations made during theperiod from 1973 to 1978, the highestmean load concentration was 9,680 g/m3

and the minimum 80 g/m3. Seven droughtsoccurred within the basin from 1961 to1966 and also in 1982/1983. It has beenreported that during dry period the tidalinfluence reaches 80 km upstream and thisincreases salinity of the fresh water, as wellas of land and aquifer.

Taking into account the annual flow and thefigures on suspended solids, one mayspeculate that sediment transport of theLimpopo river is at least 10 milliontons/year. This figure indicates thepossibility of high influence of the riverdeposit on the adjacent marineenvironment, particularly corals growth onthe nearby Baixos de Inhampura reef.

4.1.2 Groundwater

The two main hydrological features of watersupply in this area are: a) the alluvial valleys;and b) the dune valleys.

The alluvial valleys are formed in the mainvalleys of the Limpopo river where 40 holeshave been bored for water. The specific flowin these boreholes varies from 0.12 m3/h/mat Chiarre to 15.6 m3/h/m at Zongoene. Theaverage productivity is 1.0 to 4.0 m3/h/m.The water quality is good with EC valuesbelow 1500 MS/cm.

The water from the Limpopo river is mainlyused for irrigation. This water is also usedfor urban and rural supply, energyproduction, control of saline intrusion andflood control. The consumption fordomestic use is almost insignificant, becausethe largest urban centres,

Xai-Xai and Chókwè, are supplied bygroundwater. Presently, groundwater is asource for water supply of the Town of Xai-Xai and Xai-Xai Beach. Groundwater is usedfor commercial and industrial activities. Oneof the industries, which is expected todevelop rapidly, is tourism, especially in theXai-Xai Beach area.

As pointed out earlier, there is a problem ofthe sea water intrusion and the resultingpoor quality of water. This problem could besolved by releasing water from theMassingir dam and thereby “pushing” salinewater back. It is estimated (Matola, 1995)that 7,5 m3/s would be needed for thatpurpose. This would make possible the useof water from the river for irrigation in theLower Limpopo, upstream of Xai-Xai.

The use of water for flood control cannot beconsidered to be relevant because there isno storage infrastructure to retain the peakflow in the Limpopo river. However, theMassingir dam (the Elefantes River), oncereconstructed, can be used to reduce theimpact of flood downstream of confluence.

4.1.3 Environmentally Sensitive Area(ESA)

The whole Limpopo Lower Valley isenvironmentally very sensitive, but in theview of management requirements,although a unique ecosystem, it could bedivided in two spatial units:

• the river mouth which forms a smallestuary including wetlands on its rightbank; and

• the river course and the lower valley,including mangroves along the riverbanks.

During drought periods, the sea waterpenetrates as far as 80 km into the Limpoporiver, while flooding of the lower valleyoccurs frequently during the rainy season.The last major flooding was in February-March 1996 when the entire lower valley,including a number of settlements,farmlands and roads, were under the water.

Mangroves, exclusively Avicennia marinagrow on both banks of the river. Some areasalong the right bank of the Limpopo rivermouth were completely cleared ofmangroves in the past. The remainingmangrove areas are in a very goodcondition. However, along some stretchesthey are still cut down for the constructionor cleared for agriculture.


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The River Mouth - Estuary

The river mouth and its small estuary are asegment of the river course which extendsthrough the area of coastal dunes in thelength of about 6 km. Only the western sideof the river mouth bears some distinctcharacteristics of the estuary (mangroves).Although small in size, the estuary is notonly important as a nursery ground forshrimp and a habitat for mangrove crab,but is presently the only fishing ground thatcan be reached by local fishermenpossessing only small engineless canoes.

The River Course

The river course between the Town of Xai-Xai and the sea, meanders through thevalley (about 65 kilometres in length)partially bordered by the dikes built as aprotection against flooding. The expectedrehabilitation of the dikes, the drainage andirrigation system in the lower Limpopovalley should be done fully respectingpreservation and restoration of the riverineenvironment dominated by mangrovecolonies along the river banks. It isimportant to avoid pollution of the riverdischarging the future agricultural runoffoutside the river course and estuary. It mustbe also noted that the upstream pollutioncaused by the Xai-Xai Town urban liquidwaste should be eliminated adequately by aproper waste water treatment and disposal.

The Limpopo estuary has the followingresource value:

• area that is significant for diversity ofecological communities found in thishabitat;

• area of a significant biologicalproductivity;

• area with ecologically important marinespecies;

• area important for species maintenance;

• area characterised by special ecosystemstructure;

• area important for artisanal andrecreational fishing;

• area important for tourist and recreationalactivities other than fishing; and

• area of a research opportunity.

The major concern of the Limpopo Estuaryare:

• over-harvesting of the estuarineresources, especially fish and shrimp;

• cutting of mangroves;

• pollution of the estuarine water fromsewerage, pesticides, and inorganicfertilisers coming from the upland;

• excessive amount of silt and other toxicsubstances;

• saline water ingress inland; and

• tourist accommodation capacitiesdevelopment (hotels).

4.1.4 Mangroves

Aerial photos and maps reveal that thebanks of the Limpopo river supportimpressive mangrove vegetation. Accordingto the information available (M. Saket andR. Matusse), there were 387 ha ofmangroves in the Gaza Province in 1990, ofwhich majority could be attributed to theLimpopo river. The line patches ofexclusively Avicenia Marina mangroves arestretching along the river banks more than30 kilometres upstream5. However, in someareas the mangrove plants are being cut forconstruction and the land is being clearedfor farming. This is a serious harm caused tothe Limpopo ecosystem. The Limpopomangroves are very important ecologicalassets and need protection. Some of thefunctional utilities are:

1. They are prime breeding, feeding andnursery grounds for the juvenile fish,shrimp, crabs, etc.;

2. They are protecting the adjacent areasfrom damage caused by storm surgesand flooding;

3. They retain terrigenous sediments thatwould otherwise go into the sea.

5 Observed during the boat trip from the river mouth

to the Xai-Xai Town.


33

Through this function, they stabilise theland and also build the same;

4. They support the host of wading birdsand provide uniqueness to thewilderness;

5. They can be utilised as scenic,educational and tourist values;

6. They are primary food producing agentsfor the aquatic food chain.

Cutting down of mangrove vegetationwould not only cause discharge of lots ofterrigenous sediments but, would alsodecrease productivity of the estuary.

4.2 Development Potentials

Agriculture

The lower Limpopo valley (area downstreamof the Xai-Xai Town of about 200 km2) isflat, characterised by the river meanderinghabitat, huge flood plain and oxbow lakes.During the heavy rain, the flood waterincurs on the adjacent low lying areascausing havoc. During the dry season, therising tide transgresses about 80 km inland,contaminating the fresh water and floodplains with saline water. It has been notedfrom records that salinity is a seriousproblem; saline soil occupies 8% of the totalproductive area in the High Limpopo Valley,30% in the Median Limpopo Valley and 70%in the Lower Limpopo valley. The problem iscompounded by the lack of drainagecausing water logging, thereby decreasingthe crop yield tremendously. It has alsobeen reported that salinity in the lowerLimpopo is related to the inflow of salinedrainage water which originates from theChókwè Irrigation Scheme (SIREMO). Valuesof 1g/l have been measured down stream ofthe Chókwè Irrigation Scheme.

The two major constructions in the Limpoporiver basin within Mozambique are theMassinger dam on the Elefantes river, andthe Macarretane weir at the inlet of theChókwè Irrigation Scheme. The Massingerearth dam is about 5 km long and 40 mhigh, with storage capacity of 2,800 mm³.However, because of leaks and positioning

of sluice gate, the storage capacity does notexceed 1,400 mm³. If these problems wereresolved, the problem of drought could bemitigated in the short term.

Other proposals made are the constructionof earth dam at Mapai, near the border withthe RSA, on the Limpopo river, with storagecapacity of 10,000 mm³, and two otherdams on the Chongoene and Lumane rivers.200 boreholes have also been earmarked inthe lower Limpopo river basin. The LowerLimpopo Valley has lots of irrigationpotential, because there is enough wateravailable, but its quality should becontrolled and the saline land reclaimed.

Artisanal Fisheries and Harbour

There is an evident opportunity for thedevelopment of an artisanal fisheries centreand a small port within the Limpopo rivermouth without causing serious threat to theestuarine ecosystem. These issues areelaborated in detail in Chapters 7 and 8.

Tourism and Recreation

The picturesque estuary and the LowerLimpopo river course, although prone toflood and with both banks quite denselypopulated, are excellent tourist recreationalarea, particularly for boating and canoeingdownstream from the bridge to the estuary.The river mouth, the whole estuary andparticularly the old lighthouse, areextraordinary excursion points which attractthe visitors. This and other relevant touristdevelopment opportunities are elaboratedin Chapter 6.

4.3 Goals and Objectives

It should be noted that the Limpopo LowerValley is only the final, and, probably,environmentally the most sensitive segmentof the vast Limpopo river basin. Onlyelaboration of the comprehensive Limpopowatershed management plan, what is anissue of the international co-operation,could give answers related to flooding,pollution, salinization, erosion and otherbasic problems. In lack of thiscomprehensive plan only the inputs forbiodiversity protection and relatively


34

confined development issues are tackled inthe Xai-Xai ICAM Strategy.

Within comprehensive framework ofsustainable development of the LimpopoLower Valley two specific goals haveoutstanding importance, namely:

1. Sustainable development of agriculture,including rehabilitation and constructionof the drainage, irrigation, and floodprotection systems in the Limpopo LowerValley;

2. Maintaining the productivity of theLimpopo estuary ecosystem, including:

• sustainable management of theestuarine resources and protection ofits ecological assets; and

• promotion of uses compatible withconservation and sustainabledevelopment objectives.

4.4 Management Strategies

4.4.1 Agriculture and Irrigation

Presently, the Lower Limpopo Valley ismainly utilised as a grazing area. The crops,mainly maize and rice, can be found at themargins of the valley. There is no doubt thatwith the implementation of adequatereclamation measures, the major part of thevalley could become important agriculturalarea.

The larger part of the valley was eitherdrained to allow movement of excess water,or developed for irrigation during colonialperiod and after independence. Most of thedrainage channels do not functioneffectively, because of the lack ofmaintenance. Most of them are overgrownwith reeds and weeds, which are trappingsand and mud. The principle channels arevery deep, and need mechanical equipmentto be cleaned. The Sistema de Regadio doBaixa Limpopo (SRBL), the publicorganisation in charge of construction andmaintenance of the drainage structures inthe District, lacks funds to maintaining theprincipal channels. The land users do notcontribute materially, financially or morallyto the maintenance of the principal

channels. However, they maintain smallchannels bordering their fields.

Most of the principal collectors cannot copewith the volume of drainage waters,because they were underdesigned. Thedrainage network has expanded withoutcorresponding increase in the capacity ofthe collectors. This results in flooding duringheavy rains. Some closing and openingsystems at the exit to the Limpopo are nolonger in function, maintaining the closedposition. These systems are in the lowposition, so when the Limpopo water level isvery high, there is no effective netmovement of water from the drainagesystem.

Although it appears that some majorstudies6, and even limited construction ofirrigation and drainage network, have beencarried out, some strategic tasks are to beperformed, namely:

• analyses of water quality and itssuitability for irrigation to be performedon regular basis;

• assessment of water availability forirrigation during different periods;

• assessment of the area under irrigationand of potential agricultural land thatneeds irrigation;

• investigation of fertility status of landand different crops that could be grown;

• investigation of the area waterloggedand drainage network that should beconstructed;

• assessment of land that could bereclaimed, creating appropriate measureswith cost benefit analysis;

• investigation of the area affected bysaline intrusion, identification of thecauses, preparation of rehabilitationprogramme with cost benefit analysis;

6 National Family Sector Agricultural Development

Programme (PRE-Programme) under UNDP, FAO andMinistry of Agriculture and Fisheries.


35

• assessment of irrigation and fertiliserimpact on the river water with regard topollution and environmental degradation;

• re-allocation of people living in the floodprone areas with appropriate interventionof the State;

• installation of the effective flood warningsystem; and

• designing and construction of dykes,dams, spill gates, drainage channels, etc.to control flood release of water. Someproposals have already been made by therelevant authorities.

4.4.2 Limpopo Estuary Conservation andProtection

The Limpopo estuary is semi-enclosedhaving free circulation with the open sea.The sea water in the Limpopo estuary ismeasurably diluted with fresh water derivedfrom the land drainage.

This estuary is critical and vulnerable, butimportant ecological niche. It is a bufferzone between the silt laden freshwater ofthe river system and the sea. It supports avariety of fresh water and marineorganisms, and provides filtering media andsettling basin for silt brought down by theriver. It is a very important habitat formarine fish and crustaceans. The Limpopoestuary provides fishing ground forhundreds of fishermen. In the upperreaches, hippopotamus (Hippopotamusamphibius) and crocodiles have beenreported. There is potential of 950 tons ofmangrove crabs (Scylla serrata) per year inthe estuary. The mangrove swamp that lieswithin the estuary plays a preponderant rolein maintaining high production of foodlevel, besides affording protection fromstorm surges and floods.

The exceptional natural value of theestuarine type of system derives fromcombination of physical properties thatseparately, or combined, perform a uniqueset of functions beneficial to the biota. Themore important properties are:

• Confinement - from wave action enablingplants to root and shell fish larvae to

attack, and permitting the retention ofsuspended life and nutrients;

• Nutrient storage and recycling - Theestuary has high capacity for energystorage. Marsh grass and submergedgrass convert and store nutrients for lateruse. Physical conditions promoteretention and rapid recycling of nutrientsto animal tissues;

• Depth - Shallowness permits light topenetrate to plants over much of thebottom, improving flushing anddiscourage oceanic predators;

• Salinity - Because of change in salinity,fostering rich and varied biota, oceanicpredators are kept off and encourageestuarine forms;

• Circulation - Fresh water outflow, tideand salinity create together a beneficialsystem of water movement and transportfor suspended life;

• Tide - Tidal energy provides an importantdriving force; tidal flow transportsnutrients and suspended life and dilutesand flushes wastes; tidal rhythm acts asan important regulator of feeding,breeding and other functions.

Land Reclamation Threats

Taking into consideration the abovecharacteristics of the estuary, anymodification of biota, circulation patternand water quality would have deleteriouseffects on the estuarine ecosystem. Themost notable land reclamation is cuttingdown of mangrove vegetation and puttingland into agricultural use. This reducessignificantly breeding, nesting and sheltergrounds of many juvenile marine organisms,and also promotes entrainment of hugeamount of sediments into the estuary, thateventually could get discharged into the seacausing immense ecological damage. It isrecommended that mangroves should beprotected, and other surrounding bare areasshould be planted with them to increaseyield of fish, shrimp and crabs, etc.

Other land reclamation that could beundertaken is polderisation of a saline flood


36

plain achieved by providing a drainagechannel all along the area to be reclaimed,and to allow rainwater to leach graduallydown the salt content. In a few years, highlycontaminated saline soil is treated andrendered suitable for growth of normalcrops. If land were reflooded orcontaminated by saline water, thistreatment should be resumed. Hence it isimportant that the land to be reclaimedshould be at least 1 m above the flood lineto prevent saline contamination throughdirect contact or through capillary action.

If this activity were undertaken in theupstream, it would not pose anyenvironmental problem. However,subsequent use of inorganic fertilisers andpesticides would affect the estuarine waterquality down stream.

On the other hand, regular and excessiveuse of irrigation water forms saline crust inthe soil and, in the long run, decreasesproduction field. Fresh water contaminatedwith saline water would accelerate thesaline crust formation. It is, therefore,recommended that irrigation should bejudiciously effected, and water use shouldbe rationalised.

It is also recommended that fertiliser costingand pesticide application on the Limpopoflood plain should be rigorously controlled.Consultations with stakeholders, NGOs andlocals should be undertaken prior todecision making on limitation of catch, useof seasonal nets, etc.

Estuary Management Strategy

As it has already been suggested in Chapter2, the Limpopo Estuary is designated as theHabitat/Species Management Area (IUCN -Category IV).

The natural conditions should be ensured toprotect nationally significant species, groupof species, biotic communities, or physicalfeatures where they require specific humaninterference for their perpetuation. Scientificresearch, environmental monitoring andeducational use should be the primaryactivities associated with this category.

The objectives of the estuary managementstrategy could be summarised as follows:

1. Maintaining the productivity of the areaas feeding, nursery, breeding and nestingground for artisanal, recreational andcommercial fisheries;

2. Preserving natural character and scenicvalue of the site;

3. Protecting quality of the estuarine water;

4. Controlling up-stream activities that maydegrade or destroy part of or the wholevalue of the area to undergo conservationand sustainable development.

To achieve the above mentioned objectives,the following activities should beundertaken:

• preparation of monitoring programme toestablish water quality, bathymetry,species diversity, concentration quantityand health of the estuary;

• preparation of carrying capacityassessment of the estuary in relation tofisheries and other harvestable species;

• provision of fish landing facilities, chillingplant, transport, security, insurance, softloan, advice, social aids for schoolchildren, etc.;

• preparation of a plan to control theestuarine resources exploitation. Controlpermits, limitation of catch, use ofseasonal nets, etc. should be envisaged;

• necessary legislation and institutionalarrangement should be formulated tocontrol and enforce the law;

• effluent discharge from land-basedsources should also be monitored,especially sewerage, pesticides andfertilisers.

It is also important to mention the activities,which may have serious adverse impacts onestuarine ecosystem and which, in principle,should not be permitted. They are asfollows:

• discharge of effluents, toxic substancesor any harmful wastes into the estuary;


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• use of unauthorised fishing methods,such as explosives, poisons, nets withmesh undersize, etc.;

• fishing during unauthorised period,catching undersize fish, or catchingduring spawning;

• cutting down vegetation, such asmangroves;

• construction of houses, hotels, structuresor any other development not being incompliance with the management plan,or lacking mandatory permits and licensefrom the relevant authorities;

• blocking of the estuary passage, ortampering with flow rate or circulation;

• opening of the estuarine mouth,dredging it without plans, detailedprojects, or particularly environmentalimpact assessment studies;

• construction of structures withoutauthorisation, such as setties, causeways,piers, fishlanding platforms, etc.;

• reclamation of industrial, urban,aquacultural, agricultural or portdevelopment, without plans, detailedprojects and, particularly, environmentalimpact assessment studies and thenecessary permits of the relevantauthorities;

• hunting birds, particularly endemic; and

• use of strong outboard motors ordefective motors causing oil spills.

Mangroves

Mangrove swamps are the most preciousand thus vulnerable asset within theestuary. This area should be managed in away to protect natural resources andecological systems so as to contributesignificantly to economic, social andmaterial needs of the people. There are nodelimited boundaries but this area toinclude the mangrove swamps and theestuarine areas to extend 80 km inland. Inorder to restore and properly manage themangrove areas within the estuary, thefollowing activities are recommended:

1. To assess the productivity of the estuarythrough evaluation of the differentharvestable sea foods.

2. To evaluate the significance ofmangroves in increasing and maintainingthe food chain.

3. To assess the area and sites to bereforested, and to prepare reforestationplan of action.

4. To designate the area and sites ofmangrove swamps to be given specificand more strict protection.

4.5 Action plan

a) Legal

To establish the Habitat/Species ManagementArea (IUCN - Category IV) for the Limpopoestuary.

b) Management Plans

1. Initiating the elaboration of thetransboundary Watershed ManagementPlan of the Limpopo river through theregional associations, involving the RSA,Botswana, Zimbabwe and relevantinternational organisations (UNEP, FAOand others).

2. Formulation of comprehensivemanagement strategy of the LimpopoLower Valley including:

• preparation of the permanent floodprevention plan, including floodwarning and control systems;

• preparation of the land reclamationprogramme for agriculturaldevelopment; and

• preparation of the drainage andirrigation management plan.

3. Preparation of the estuarine resourcemanagement plan including:

• investigation in the productivity of theLimpopo Estuary through assessmentof the exploitable estuarine resources;

• preparation of carrying capacityassessment and environmental impactassessment;


38

• preparation of guidelines forsustainable resource use practice;

• preparation of management plan formangroves restoration and protection:

• putting up appropriate structures forcontrolling damage to mangroveswamps;

• formulation of appropriate legislationto control cutting of mangrovestands;

• assessment of mangrove vegetationextent, their state and condition;

• identification of areas whereafforestation should be undertaken;

• providing of alternate farming areas.

• preparation of appropriate legislationand rigorous enforcement of thesame;

• holding regularly sensitisationcampaigns to explain and convincethose involved in mangrovesdestruction; and

• declaring mangrove swamps asprotected area with controlledaccess;

c) Institutional

• to establish management framework forthe Limpopo Estuary Habitat/SpeciesManagement Area;

The actions recommended are exhaustiveand would require funds and consultancyservices. Also, those issues that have notbeen taken care of should be given priority.Governmental institutions such as DNA,MICOA, INAHINA, INPF, DRN, UniversityEduardo Mondlane, Ministry of Agriculture,etc. should be involved.

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5 BAIXOS DE INHAMPURA REEF

5.1 Preliminary Information

In an early stage of the Xai-Xai ICAMpreparation, the Baixos de Inhampura reefwas outlined as an important natural assetof the coastal area. While trying to identifythe reef origin and bio-physicalcharacteristics, information collected withinthe framework of this ICAM were sufficientjust for the following conjecture:

• although divers’ guides (South-Africanrent-a-boat owners) reported onabundance of corals, position and shapeof the reef, and presence of the extensivebeach rock formations along thecoastline suggest the possibility that thebase of the reef is built of submergedbeach rock formations;

• natural conditions are not veryfavourable for extensive growth of corals.Due to personal observations, theLimpopo river is not significantlypolluted. The main constraint to thegrowth of corals could be suspendedsediment brought by currents from thenearby Limpopo mouth. During immenseflooding in February/March 1996, thewhole reef area was exposed to a veryturbid water from the Limpopo river;

• since now, the reef has not been seriouslythreatened by human activities. Humanpresence on the reef is very scarce andlimited due to absence of fishermen andboats in the area. Presently, there is onlya couple of fishermen rarely fishing onthe reef while divers’ visits aretemporarily and organised on request bya couple of South-African rent-a-boatowners;

• development of fisheries and tourism atthe Xai-Xai to Chongoene Beach couldbring serious threats to the Baixos deInhampura reef. The reef is highlyattractive for fishing and diving. Eventhough it is not an extensively developedcoral reef, the need for protection andappropriate management is evident;

• local population (fishermen andauthorities) favours the idea ofestablishing the reef as a speciallyprotected area. They see the lack of anecessary equipment, such as a boat foreffective surveillance of the activities onthe reef and along the shore, as the mainproblem in protecting the marineenvironment.

These and other relevant information on thesurrounding environment, such as surveyedconditions (Limpopo flooding and waterturbidity, beach rock formations along thecoastline) were reported to the UNEP andFAO with a proposal to apply theMethodology for a Rapid Assessment ofCoral Reefs developed for the West IndianOcean (WIO).

A proposal to survey the reef was accepted,and in May 1997 a mission was organised,composed of bio-physical and socio-economic group to survey the reef.Unfortunately, due to bad weatherconditions during the mission, and limitedtransparency of water, diving took placeonly one instead of five planned days.Anyhow, the collected results gave the firstreliable data about the Baixos de Inhamurareef, as presented below.


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Box 5Bio-Physical Characteristics of Inhampura Reef

Baixos de Inhampura (Inhampura Reef) is located in the Xai-Xai District of the GazaProvince in Mozambique. The British Admiralty Chart No. 42633 gives the position of thereef as 25º10’ South stretching approximately 20 km in the East-North East-West South-West direction from Praia de Xai-Xai to within approximately 8 km from the mouth of theLimpopo river. The mean distance of the reef from the shore was calculated as 3 km.According to the chart, the reef rises quite steeply from 20 m to 1.5 m above the ChartDatum at the highest point with three distinct shallower (less than 5 m) sections. Meantidal ranges are 2.4 metres and 0.4 metres at spring and neap tides, respectively. Apreliminary look at the reef by one of the first mission members reported on abundance ofcorals on the reef (Mission Report).

Mean Tidal Height above Chart Datum (in metres)

Mean High Water (MHW) Mean Low Water (MLW)

Spring Tide 3.2 0.8

Neap Tide 2.3 1.7

Source: British Admiralty Chart 42633.

According to information from the socio-economic survey, the main users of the reef,in order of frequency of use, are: 1) sportsfishing charter boat owners; 2) recreationalfishermen that bring their own boats.

One of the charter boat owners who catersfor fishing and diving charters informedthat:

1. The shape of the reef is close to thatgiven by the British Admiralty Chart, butthat there is a spur that runs at 45º anglein the north-western direction toward theshore from the southern section of thereef.

2. The reef is approximately 20 km long.

3. There are abundant corals on the reef;

4. There is a series of other deeper reefs thatrun parallel to Inhampura Reef, which aremore extensive than given in the chart.

5. There is a list of target fish species.

Data to be collected by the bio-physicalcomponent of a rapid assessment wereidentified through analysis of the proposedmanagement options and identified threatsto the reef. The management options were:

a) development of tourism. Two scenariosfor the development of tourism wereconsidered, namely: non-extractive

snorkelling and diving, and sports fishing(including spearfishing);

b) development of the marine protectedarea;

c) development of artisanal fisheries.

Identified threats were: pollution (fromagriculture and sewage) and sedimentationborne by the Limpopo River; and coralpredators.

Results

The results of the mapping indicate thatthere are three sub-habitat typesrepresented on the reef, namely:

• the northern section seems to bedominated by the rock and macro-algaewith very little hard or soft corals;

• the mid section is still dominated by therock and macro-algae, but has more hardand soft corals;

• the southern section has no corals, butincreased cover of sponges and corrallingalgae;

• there was no evidence of structuraldamage or of any ecological imbalances(e.g., high densities of urchins). A total of5 turtles were recorded even with thepoor visibility.


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5.2 Summary and Recommendations

1. The reef is made up of base rock with avery incomplete veneer of coral growth.As such, it is not a coral reef, but rather acoral community. It appears to resemblethose reefs to the south of Maputosurveyed by the Oceanographic Instituteof South Africa;

2. The mapping of the reef flat indicatesthat there are three sub-habitat types,but this can only be a preliminaryobservation as mapping of the reefslopes was not possible;

3. The area appears to be important forturtles, because 5 were seen over aperiod of 4 hours with a very poorvisibility;

4. The reef is very exposed for much of theyear and this may be an important factorin trying to develop diving or artisanalfisheries industry;

5. A rapid assessment should be completedbefore any final recommendations aremade on which management option(s)should be considered.


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43

6 TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

6.1 Demand and Accessibility

The road distance between the Xai-Xai andMaputo International Airport is about 210kilometres. It is 831 km from Johannesburg,458 km from Nelspruit, and 872 km fromDurban, the three of the nearest SouthAfrican cities which are the main areas ofgeneration for tourists visiting Mozambique.

The southern Mozambique, in particular theBeach of Xai-Xai, is traditionally known andpopular in South Africa because of thenatural beauty of its beaches which, unlikebeaches in South Africa, are as yetunsaturated. On the other hand, diversity ofthe marine resources, and excellentpotential for diving and fishing, are lastingattraction for tourists from the hinterland,in general and the RSA in particular. Hereare also included tourists from overseas whoused to come to experience wildlife in thecountries such as Zambia, Zimbabwe,Malawi and South Africa. They are nowtending to extend their sojourn and toinclude more tourist areas of different offerin their programmes.

The easiest access to the coastal area of Xai-Xai is by road from Maputo which is 212 kmfar from the area. The main entrance routesare Maputo-Namaacha and Maputo -Ressano Garcia. These roads are beingimproved owing to the Government’sprogramme of roads rehabilitation andrevitalisation in rural areas. The railway lines(Maputo-Goba and Maputo-Ressano Garciato the RSA, and Maputo-Chicualacuala toZimbabwe) used to be quite popular prior tothe declaration of independence.

There are regular international flights to theMaputo Airport from the RSA, Zimbabweand Portugal. The landing strip in the Townof Xai-Xai enables light planes taking off in

Maputo to reach the area in only 45minutes.

The access by 4WD vehicles to other areas ofthe Xai-Xai coast, such as Zongoene Beach,Praia Velha, Praia do Alho and Praia deChongoene, is possible by sandy paths. Toavoid roads, some of which are in a very badcondition, or to shorten the distance,tourists sometimes venture to take a walkalong the coast from one beach to another(Praia Velha e Praia de Chongoene).

In the last five years, a number of travelagencies in the southern Mozambique hasbeen increased. Some of these agencies runcoach services between Mozambique andSouth Africa. On the other hand, accordingto the information provided by the NationalDirectorate of Tourism (DINATUR) there isgrowing interest of travel agencies in SouthAfrica to include Mozambique in theirpackages for the overseas tourists, aiming tomake the offer diverse. A relativelystreamlined procedure to obtain entry visarecently put in practice, and the fact thatMozambique has just become the 53rd

member of the Commonwealth, willprobably help the growth of touristturnover, especially from the neighbouringcountries.

6.2 The Present Xai-Xai TouristServices

There are 5 establishments in Xai-Xaioffering rooms and 465 beds, and acamping site. Two of the main hotels of theDistrict situated in the Xai-Xai coastal area(87 per cent of all accommodation) had tobe closed down because of disrepair theyfell into during the war period. Out of thetotal, 72 rooms and 108 beds are now beingrehabilitated, and hotels are expected to bereopened for visitors in 1997. The City ofXai-Xai, together with its coastal area, offers


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44 rooms in hotels and a camping site with12 beds in bungalows, apart from the tents’capacity. A house of a state company withfour bedrooms has been accommodatingvisitors although without license.

For meals and beverage, Xai-Xai offers 13pubs, 2 restaurants and one bar. In the Xai-Xai Beach, there is a restaurant at the HalleyHotel and the other at the camping site, anda tavern (“barraca”) with total of 160 seats.On average, these are two-starestablishments. However, as some of theseestablishments have not been properlymaintained since 1982, the Department ofTourism needs to revise the ranking list ofcatering.

The presently available 36 beds in thecoastal area are expected to meet domesticdemand, which is high on weekends duringhot season, from September to May. Theinternational demand has also its peakduring that period, and inflow of touristsfrom South Africa is habitual on feastingdays, such as Easter, and during schoolholidays.

Tourist services provide about 237 jobs. 90per cent of personnel (103 work inaccommodation establishments, implyingthe average ratio of 0.8 employees perroom) have basic education only and havenot underwent any professional training.The average salary does not exceedequivalent of 20 US$ per month.

Existing Tourist Ventures

Over the last four years, the local authoritieshave been under pressure by requests forplots of land (1.5 ha on average) along thisstretch of the coastline. The majority ofconcession seekers are South Africans inassociation with Mozambicans, who venturefor the first time to run their own business.Although ninety-five per cent of therequests envisage the establishment ofhomesteads and/or camping grounds(MICOA and UEM, 1995), 90 per cent havenot fully followed the procedure establishedby law (DINATUR 1995 Report ), due to:

• lack of information available to public;

• difficulties of public authorities inassisting the entrepreneurs as result ofinstitutional weakness; and

• technical and financial weakness of theventures.

The plots being requested by ventures fortourist business are located along thebeaches. Many concession seekers clearedplots of land (in some cases by removingdune forests) and started constructionsillegally (MICOA and UEM, 1995). Seven-oddillegal settlements have been observedalong this stretch of the coast, but theconstruction was stopped by the authoritiesuntil all the formalities have beencompletely fulfilled.

Although tourism has a long tradition, backsince the colonial times, the conflicts withlocal population are a constant problem,which may become even more severe in thefuture as it is likely to result in non-sustainable use of coastal resources bytourists (e.g., land and fish, the resourcesthe local communities depend on).Presently, the local population has little orno economic benefit from tourismdevelopment.

6.3 Tourism Development Initiatives

Over the last five years, the middle-agedfamilies (35 to 40 years of age) with two orthree children (2-10 years) constitute, onaverage, the largest segment of theinternational tourist market for SouthernMozambique. They usually travel in a groupof two or more cars carrying basic foodsupplies, tents and small power generators,recreation boats and water sport kits. Theactivities they prefer are fishing and otherwater sports, and sun-bathing andswimming7. As time goes by and peace inMozambique becomes reality, tourists areregaining confidence in travelling toMozambique, which suggests the touristboom in the near future.

7 Information collected in the interview with officers

in the Provincial Tourism Department of Gaza(DPICT) and with private tourist operators in Xai-Xai.


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To that aim, the National Tourism Policy hasaccorded priority to redesigning of masterplans in all tourist zones, which are easilyaccessed and located along the coast. Theprincipal goal is to establish harmony inland use between interested groups, and toachieve sustainable tourism development.

Governmental Tourism Policy

Some of the Mozambican Governmentalintentions to reorganise tourism industryare:

• strengthening of control over tourism;

• licensing for all operations andprevention of illegal operations;

• provision of master plans for tourist areaslocated along the coastline; and

• setting up a mechanism for effectiveintersectorial co-ordination betweenpublic authorities involved in tourism,and between the public and privatesectors. It is in that context that theFacilitation Tourism Commission hasbeen recently approved by the Council ofMinisters and the Tourism Fund, whosemain scope of activity addressespromotion of tourism development.

With exception of the Ponta D'Ouro area,tourism policy allows camping in thesouthern Mozambique. However, itdetermines that the facilities providedshould include chalets and that allconstructions should be ecologically soundaccording to the principles established by

the relevant authority. It requests thatquality of the facilities provided should notbe below that of two-star hotels, and thatthe establishment should fulfilenvironmental requirements, that is, itshould maintain natural environment asmuch as possible.

While making full use of modernconstruction technologies, equipment andservices, the local and other Africanarchitecture should be favoured, and localmaterials should be used in developingtourist facilities.

Xai-Xai Development Initiatives

Tourism development and turnover isexpected to grow in this zone, especiallybecause:

• the growing number of tourist marketingand travel agencies suggest the rise ofawareness about tourist potential ofMozambique;

• organised tourism is expected to start inMozambique through travel agencies,especially in relation to internationalwater sport competitions, which werewell known prior to the declaration ofindependence;

• domestic tourism will develop with theexpected per capita income increase ofthe middle-class Mozambicans;

Table 4. Authorised Hotel Projects Along the Xai-Xai Coastline (in 1995)Source: Ministry of Tourism

Name of the Project Location Area in ha No. of rooms No. of beds Class

Zongoene lodge Limpopo river mouth 7.0 30 60 ***

Hotel Son do Mar Xai- Xai Beach 1.8 32 64 ***

Bengusta B. Hotel Chongoene Beach 10.0 40 80 ***

Paraíso Hotel Praia do Alho 4.0 54 66 **

Total 22.8 156 260


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• realisation of a trans-boundary projecttowards creation of wilderness parklinking Banhine National Park in Gaza,Krueger National Park in the RSA and thepark in Swaziland, will attract a largenumber of tourists. The neighbouringcoastal area of Xai-Xai may benefit fromit offering accommodation andadditional entertainment.

As result of the national and local efforts inpromoting tourism development, andinterest for developing along the Xai-XaiDistrict coastline, there is a number of theongoing tourist projects. Four private touristprojects covering the total surface area of22.8 hectares with capacity of 156bedrooms and 260 beds, have beenapproved by the Government. They arelisted in Table 4.

It may be estimated that the project willprovide job for 125 people, of which 80 percent will require only basic education. Thiswill be an opportunity for the local people,especially women, to get job. Although, thisnumber may seem insignificant, it mayinduce more jobs once the tourist potentialis made a full use of. In Xai-Xai, like in otherplaces in Mozambique, resources of interestfor tourists (culture manifestations,handicrafts, water sport services, transportservices and good restaurants) which mayyield good economic benefit, have not beenexplored.

High expectations from tourism wouldbecome reality only if the environmentallysensitive coastal areas were developed insustainable way. This includes the followingconditions:

• to designate appropriate areas fortourism development;

• to develop and implement land-use plansfor these areas, which should includeareas for the development ofaccommodation establishments, businessand commercial centres, restaurants,boats launching and mooring, etc.;

• to propose feasible policy of action tocreate appropriate environment forventures, such as boat hire, tourist

transport, and organisation of events ofinterest for tourists (e.g., internationalwater sport competitions).

6.4 Tourism Development Strategy

It is extremely important for the localcommunity to be involved in touristactivities. The benefits could be realised in away that the community is willing to play anactive role in promoting actions towardsprotection, preservation and revitalisation ofthe cultural and natural patrimony, whichare the important elements of touristproduct.

The involvement of the local community intourist activities should be realised in thefollowing way:

• promotion towards creation of the localtourism commission, which will integratethe local tourism entrepreneurs, fisher–men representatives, representatives ofthe local community (maybe traditionalchiefs), and the local administrative andtourist public sectors;

• creating of concrete actions anddesigning of programmes to promotesmall and medium enterprises for localresidents, and establishment of measuresto motivate informal sector to grow andbecome formal, particularly in relation toaccommodation and restaurants,handicraft production, furnishing,fisheries, etc. At this level, some incentiveschemes could be drawn, such assupplying equipment, providing specialloans and specific technical assistance;

• a mechanism that obliges entrepreneursto train the local staff to fill the upperlevel position should be established andgiven deadlines. Apart from this, it isimportant that the Hotel SchoolAndalucia designs programmes and isprepared to carry out the mobile brigadetraining to Xai-Xai, when requested.

6.4.1 Tourism Development Opportunities

Coastal Landscape

The entire coastal area of the Xai-Xai Districtis a very attractive landscape all over the


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year, with clear blue ocean waters, yellowishpristine beaches, green dune hillsides andtranquillity of the Limpopo Valley. In all thisbeauty, three areas could be distinguishedas extraordinary scenic values. They are:

• the narrow coastal belt where oceanwaves break with thunder, and drivingsurf and waterfalls of sea foam over thebeach rock to be finally calmed down inthe shallow transparent water of smalllagoons. This ever lasting dramatic playof the ocean on clean yellow-whitebeaches is accentuated by the backclothof exuberant greenery of the dunes;

• the wide and green Limpopo LowerValley, and small estuary wheremangrove and casuarine forests aregrowing along the river bankssurrounded by the tranquil flow of theriver. The impression of greenery andtranquillity becomes the strongest in theestuary in contrast with the river mouthwhere one witnesses a never-endingbattle of river with ocean waves;

• the green landscape of tiny lakes fillingthe depressions in the area of coastaldunes catching the eye with their calmwaters and gently sloping shores.

Sandy beaches open to the ocean (withhidden or on beach sand exposed rock) andlagoons (protected by it) are the two typesof the shore landscape which can be foundalong the unindented District’s coastline.The beaches are generally wide and sandywith sand grains not being very fine. Thecoastal dunes are composed of yellow andwhite sand, in some places covered byindigenous vegetation and in others bycasuarine forests. The dune hill slopes aregenerally steep. Some dunes have lost theirvegetation which enables erosion toadvance very fast. However, visualimpression of the coastline is still verypleasing, which makes it attractive tovisitors. This indicates enough why valuableassets should be fully utilised for the futuretourism development.

Both banks of the Limpopo river are of greatscenic value. However, tranquillity of theestuary with shallow sandy shores with

exuberant mangrove and casuarine forests isthe place which attracts mostly attention ofvisitors. The most beautiful view over thevalley and the estuary is from thelighthouse, which could be the frequentlyvisited belvedere in the future. In theestuary, particularly in the Marine Missionon the right and fishermen village on theleft shore, there are attractive sites wheretourists may want to take a rest enjoyingthe pleasant scenery.

Similar to the Limpopo river estuary, thelakes and their shores are also places ofserene beauty, offering the visitors sharpcontrast to the ever moving ocean. Beingclose to the future Xai-Xai Beach touristresort, Ualute Lake could attract visitors. Itsmain attraction lies in its water colour,which is constantly changing depending onweather conditions. Although small, thelake is suitable for some water sports, e.g.,canoeing.

Development Opportunities

The coastal area of the Xai-Xai District,offers, among others, the following touristand recreational opportunities (see Map):

• the area suitable for development oftourist centres, resort villages and hotels,as already mentioned, between the Xai-Xai and Chongoene Beaches;

• protected lagoons for bathing andsnorkelling, and the possibility to developa small tourist port;

• marine environment suitable for marinesports, such as ocean game fishing,sailing and surfing, diving on the reef;

• bathing, walking and jogging alongdistant sandy beaches, and in the areabehind the coastal dunes;

• excursions and recreation activities(canoeing) along the Limpopo river, inthe estuary, and on freshwater lakes(Lake Ualute); and

• developed urban centre, the Town of Xai-Xai, able to support the coastal touristarea with necessary services andinfrastructure.


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6.4.2 Xai-Xai Beach to Chongoene BeachTourist Resort

Being part of the coastal dunes protectedarea of the Xai-Xai to Chongoene Beach, theproposed tourist resort should be developedrespecting as much as possible natural andlandscape aesthetic values, particularly thedunes’ indigenous vegetation andmorphology.

Following this principle, the least harmful tothe dunes’ environment and most suitablefor the development of touristaccommodation structures, are small valleyson the seaward side of the coastal dunes.Environmentally most fragile sections, thesteep hill slopes dividing these valleysshould be kept undeveloped and indigenousvegetation cherished (see Map).

The proposed tourism development areasare linked to road network by feeder roads,which meet the following importantenvironmental and functional requirements:

• longitudinal service roads linking touristcentres of Xai-Xai and Chongoene Beachin the environmentally less sensitive areaof coastal dunes substituteenvironmentally harmful and functionallyimproper road along the beaches. Besidestaking over the resort service traffic, thisroad also links the chain of villages in thearea behind the coastal dunes;

• the proposed tourist accommodationsites are linked by service roadspenetrating the coastal dunes throughlateral valleys at the altitudes not higherthan 40 meters, therefore avoiding sharpcuts of hill slopes and “scarves” to theseaward exposed landscape. Taking intoconsideration the instability of the dunes'environment, this solution conformsmaximally to dunes’ morphology with thebest technical elements, therefore beingcheaper related to construction andmaintenance costs (see Map);

• consequently, the existing road could beeasily turned into an attractive pedestriancommunication along the public spacebehind the beaches, linking the proposedtourist sites and allowing traffic passing

free towards beaches. The transportalong this promenade should bedesigned only for emergency vehicles andpublic transport, and it should be usedonly by low or non-polluting vehicles(small trains on tyres or similar).

Tourist Centres

Situated on the opposite sides of the coastalsegment proposed for tourism development,the sites of: a) Xai-Xai Beach; and b)Chongoene Beach, have prerequisites tobecome focal points or centres of the futuretourist resort. The Xai-Xai Beach has alreadydeveloped into a small tourist centre whilethe Chongoene Beach, with therehabilitation of the existing hotel anddevelopment of a new accommodationcapacity on the eastern side, could havesimilar function within the future resort.

The Xai-Xai Beach

The Xai-Xai Beach developed as a touristdestination in the late colonial times. Themain reason for establishing the resort wasthe presence of a shallow lagoon whichallowed bathing and offered shelter forsmall boats. Later on, a settlement wasformed on the slopes of the coastal dunes.Today, the settlement has about 1,000inhabitants, one operating hotel (and one inrenovation), a dozen of bungalows for rent,spacious camping site, gas station, severalrestaurants and a recently built boat slip.The majority of tourists are South-Africansarriving by car, a number of them equippedwith a boat on trailer, interested in fishingand other marine sports.

With majority of the proposedaccommodation capacities located outsideof the existing settlement, the Xai-Xai Beachcould become a real tourist centre in thefuture. The area for building new hotelsalong the protected beach in the lagoon, israther limited. Remaining opportunities areat the eastern and the western outskirts(east of the Halley Complex and around theWenela House). The future development ofthe settlement should be based on thefollowing strategy (see Map):


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• the lagoon should be designated forbathing, and a section of it for a smallharbour with limited beach backset forharbour support activities;

• the flat area behind the lagoon and thebeach should be developed as apedestrian promenade accommodatingnecessary public and touristentertainment services. The existingcamping site should also be used for thispurpose in the future. Consequently, theremaining flat area at the eastern borderof the camping site should be restrictedfor further development of hotels orbungalows, and dedicated toconstruction of buildings, which willserve the whole resort, and, at the sametime, yield more profit;

• within the existing settlement and itsnorthern and western outskirts, there isappropriate space for the development ofnew housing, bungalows and even smallhotels. Approximately 50 hectares of landcould be designated for this purpose andother needs (sport and recreation, servicearea, etc.). The existing main roadnetwork should be equipped for thefuture needs, except the path towardsthe Wenela House, which should beshifted a couple of hundreds metersinland in order to protect the erodedblufftops;

• on the western side, the Wenela Houseshould be a boundary of the futuredevelopment. At this site, there is apossibility for the new concentratedtourism development (hotel or touristvillage on about 4 - 6 ha of the land),which is limited by scarcity of appropriatebeach area (in the greatest part of thiscoastal segment the beach rock isexposed preventing from safe bathing);

• in the vicinity of the Halley Complex(eastern outskirts) there is another areafor the future concentrated tourismdevelopment, comprising about 8 ha ofthe two small seaward oriented valleys;

• the above mentioned future tourismdevelopment in the vicinity of the HalleyComplex and the Duna Nhachumbo -

West, are the only areas which are, dueto unfavourable hills' morphology, linkedwith a longitudinal road placed betweenthe beach and the dunes. In order tomitigate the negative impacts of thisroad on the functional organisation ofbeach backset, the road should belocated at the very foothill.

• the steepest hillsides at the eastern Xai-Xai Beach outskirts should be keptundeveloped, and the existing vegetationcherished and restored.

The Chongoene Beach

The most appropriate site to accommodatethe future tourism development at theChongoene Beach is located on the easternside of the existing hotel. It is a relatively flatelevated area moderately sloping seaward,scarcely covered with indigenous vegetation(See Photo). Above the beach, the averagealtitude of the area is 20 meters, while atsome 300 meters landward it reaches 40meters above the sea level. The advantageof this site are long protected beaches withthe beach rock forming a shallow lagoon onthe eastern and western side of the existinghotel (almost 3 km in length). The proposeddevelopment area is about 1 km in lengthwith possibility to be extended further east.The existing road linking the site to thenational road has a very steep section thatcould be avoided by a construction of a newsegment on more suitable eastern side ofthe development area (see Map).

The steep western segment of theChongoene Beach (between the existinghotel and Duna Nhachumbo - East), 1.5kilometres in length, should be protectedfrom tourist accommodation development,and the dunes’ vegetation restored. Onlysome service facilities such as café,restaurants, etc. located in “light” buildings,could be built along the walkway at thebackset of this beach.


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Table 5. Tourism Development Sites

Site Suggested Use Length (km) Area (ha)

Xai-Xai Beach - existing and new tourist service, hotels, housing, marinecentre

1.1 70.0

Xai-Xai Beach - Wenela House housing, tourism 0.8 15.0

Xai-Xai Beach - Halley Complex hotels, tourist village 0.4 8.0

Duna Nhanzuane tourist village 0.8 20.0

Duna Nhachumbo – East tourist village, camping site 0.4 10.0

Duna Nhachumbo – Central tourist village, hotels 0.8 25.0

Duna Nhachumbo – West hotel 0.3 6.0

Chongoene Beach tourist services, hotels, tourist villages 1.0 30.0

Total tourist resort 5.6* 184.0

* Total length of the Xai-Xai to Chongoene Beach coastline segment is about 9.0 km.

6.4.3 Tourist Accommodation Capacity

Along the Xai-Xai to Chongoene Beachcoastline, several sites, mainly seawardoriented valleys, are designated toaccommodate hotels, tourist villages,camping sites, etc. These sites have thefollowing common characteristics andvalues:

• the highest altitudes are not over 40meters in order to avoid the unstablesteep slopes and visual exposure in thelandscape;

• the sites are serviced by roads at thelandward side, therefore allowing theattractive seaward side remainundisturbed by traffic (including parkinglots) and service activities;

• all the sites are shifted from the shorelineat the distance of about 100 meters toallow creation of attractive public spaceincluding beaches, foredunes (to beprotected), promenade with entertain–ment buildings (cafe', restaurants, etc.).

Besides the already established tourist siteof the Xai-Xai Beach and somewhatChongoene Beach, several new sites havebeen proposed to be developed. They arelisted in Table 5 (See also Map).

Having in mind the very low density of 50visitors/residents per hectare, the areabetween the Xai-Xai and Chongoene Beachcan withstand more than 9,000 personswithout causing serious pressure uponresources, if properly developed. Within thisnumber, about 3,500 visitors could beaccommodated in the new concentratedtourism development sites (35 tourists perhectare on 104 ha in total). The rest of5,500 are residential population and visitorsin the existing and new tourist capacities ofthe Xai-Xai Beach.

6.5 Action Plan

6.5.1 Ongoing Projects

A number of projects concerning the Xai-XaiDistrict coastal area are in the preparatoryor already in the implementation phase.Besides ICAM, of which the demonstrationproject is being implemented (rehabilitationof the beach dressing and toilet building),several other projects are sponsored byinternational institutions, namely:

• Master plan for development of tourismin the coastal areas of Mozambique isunder elaboration by the Dangroup.Among others, this project will bring upthe general policy for tourismdevelopment in the Xai-Xai Districtcoastal area, without specific details of


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land use and infrastructure development.The first output8 of this project inchapters relevant to the Xai-Xai coastalarea is compatible with managementstrategy set up in this ICAM;

• Natural coastal resources managementproject sponsored by the European Unitwill be implemented in the Xai-Xaicoastal area primarily aiming atsustainable use of coastal resources.Reforestation and protection of thecoastal dunes area, sustainable harvest ofshellfish in intertidal zone, anddevelopment of forest and fruit treesplantations, are the main components ofthis project.

• Coral reef survey training activityincluding necessary equipment,sponsored by DANIDA and SIDA-SAREC,will be developed and part of itimplemented in the Xai-Xai coastal area;

• Coastal zone management centre will befounded in the Xai-Xai Beach, sponsoredby DANIDA, of which rehabilitation of thebuilding to host the centre at the Xai-XaiBeach is already taking place.

All these projects are in the course of theICAM process development or itsimplementation mainly oriented towardsthe management of natural environment ofthe coastal area. At the same time, thetourism master plan (DANGROUP) and thisICAM proposed, among others,management strategy for tourismdevelopment in partially built-upenvironment of the Xai-Xai to ChongoeneBeach area. Further and more detaileddevelopment of this strategy is what ismostly needed to cover the implementationof ICAM.

Requests for tourism developmentconcessions have been made through avariety of channels, and, consequently, thereis much confusion over claims for land. Inseveral cases, there are overlapping claimsfor the same piece of land. 8 Outline of Strategy Plan for Coastal Tourism

Development in Mozambique by Nils Finn Munch-Petersen, January 1997

The key factors resulting in confusion overrequests for plots of land are: (a) lack of co-ordination between agencies; (b) lack of anyuniform procedure for applying forconcessions; and (c) the failure to registerand map requests with the cadastral(Provincial DINAGECA Offices in Xai-Xai).

Particular problems related to tourismdevelopment are as follows:

• many requests for tourism developmentconcessions are made at the District levelwith little or no liaison with localauthorities/local communities;

• the absence of clear guidelines causedseveral agencies to process concessionrequests often outside their jurisdictionalcompetence;

• it appears to be no standard fee chargedby the various agencies involved inprocessing applications;

• lack of inter-institutional co-ordinationand unclear jurisdictional responsibility;

• local authorities have not beeninformed/updated regarding currenttourist development policy andregulations;

• weak institutional capacity to evaluateand process tourism investment proposal(consequently, development proposals by“opportunistic” developers are oftenapproved);

• lack of transport and communication atthe District/Local level to monitor andcontrol tourist activities;

• lack of the Tourism Master Plan and land-use plans; and

• failure of higher level staff to act uponand back up recommendations/reportsmade by technical staff resulting in lowmorale.


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Box 6The Present Land Allocation for Tourism

The illegal and uncontrolled tourist activities are causing increasing concern along much ofthe southern Mozambican coast. Many requests have been submitted to the Provincial andDistrict authorities for land concessions to establish holiday homesteads, campinggrounds, “ecotourism” ventures, etc. along the Bilene - Xai-Xai - Chonguene stretch of thecoastline. A substantial number of these requests have been made by South-Africans.Some prime sites along this stretch of the coast are being acquired without any long-termsocio-economic and land-use plans in place. Within the boundaries of the Xai-Xai toChongoene Beach coastal area (about 9 kilometres of the coastline), the followingactivities are under way:

• in the flat area on the eastern side of the camping ground there is ongoingconstruction of “time-share” accommodation (“Som de Mar”), with structuresoccupying this prime site in a very irrational way;

• a ground survey carried out along Chongoene Beach revealed that 10 individuals arecurrently “residing” along this stretch of the beach, or have staked claims to plots ofland as indicated by signs and markers. On several plots, tourist facilities were at theadvanced stage of construction. The basic accommodation facilities (reed huts) wereconstructed on most of other plots;

• on another plot, the large area of dune forest was cleared for a caravan park and a“house” was constructed immediately adjacent to the road.

• the stretch of the shoreline from the north of the Som de Mar complex to the CityCouncil boundary is currently undeveloped although the Conselho Municipal has drawnup a tourism development plan comprising a series of contiguous 50 x 500 m plots;

• this plan, in effect, maximises the number of tourist operations along the ecologicallysensitive stretch of the coastline and, if implemented, will result in a destructive andirreversible transformation of the dunes environment along this prime stretch of thecoastline. As described, this plan is totally opposite to the proposed ICAM managementstrategy for the Xai-Xai District coastal area, and clearly falls outside the NationalTourism Policy which advocates “high quality/low impact” tourism for the Xai-Xai -Chongoene coastal area. In addition, this type of tourism development will severelyjeopardise any future tourism development along the adjacent Praia de Chongoene.

Although infrastructure and facilities areobsolete and weak, the entire ongoingdevelopment in the Xai-Xai Beach counts onthe existing infrastructure which cannotsatisfy the current needs. Water supply isgenerally restricted on few hours per dayand establishments, including familyhouses, are forced to build their ownreservoirs. Breakdowns of electricity supplyare very often and occur, as a rule, afterevery minor storm.

The mentioned development within thecoastline stretch between Xai-Xai andChongoene Beach relies on the shorelinepath laid at the immediate backset of thebeaches or foredunes. Besides beingdestructive to fragile dunes environment,

such as destruction of the vegetation,causing soil erosion, allowing sand mining,and riding along the beaches, this pathcannot be effectively used as a service roaddue to its elements.

The growing tourist activities in the Xai-XaiBeach, such as construction and services,create employment opportunities and,therefore, attract the District’s population tosettle at the outskirts of the settlement. Thiskind of squattering neighbourhood,although, at the moment, confined on asmall area, could, if not controlled, threatenvery soon the chances to plan thedevelopment of this tourist resort.


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6.5.2 Integrated Development Plan forXai-Xai to Chongoene Beach TouristResort

Traditionally, the resources of theMozambican coast, as in most places, havebeen developed in sectorial manner (e.g.,fisheries, agriculture, tourism) with littleregard to the inherently integrated nature ofcoastal and marine ecosystems that supportthese sectors. Coastal zones are also usuallymanaged only around political/administrative boundaries rather thanenvironmental units, which often results inoverlapping jurisdictions and responsibilities.Finally, sectorial approaches, particularly intourism development, target often short-term rewards without taking into accountthe long-term costs of resource depletion. IfMozambique maintains a status quo of adhoc investment strategies, the result will befurther decline in environmental quality andfunctioning, increase of conflicts among theusers of the coastal zone, and diminishingof resources available to those users. A newmodel of the coastal zone planning andmanagement to guide investment strategiesis needed for the people of Mozambiqueand interested donors, targeted both at theprivate and public sectors.

Rationale and Goals for the PlanPreparation

This new, integrated approach to coastaldevelopment will ensure that the beautifulenvironment of the Xai-Xai coast remainintact and continue to support the presentand future generations. It charts transitioncourse to plan for growth which could co-ordinate diverse activities and users whilemanaging and protecting the ecosystem. Itrequires a multiple-use approach andparticipation of all the stakeholders inintegrated and participatory manner. (Thesestakeholders include governments at thenational, District and local levels, the non-governmental organisations, researchinterests, and private sector.)

The plan envisages the process ofdesignating zoning and activities, for bothconservation and development, to mitigateconflicts and environmental costs, and to

maximise the net benefits for the society.Once adopted, the Plan provides theblueprint for development and the way tomonitor progress of particular actions andspecific zones. It operates through theclearly defined development zone, but isviewed from within the context of broaderDistrict’s coastal area.

There are numerous reasons why the Xai-XaiBeach needs the plan today. The mostimportant are:

• the coastal stretch between the Xai-Xaiand Chongoene Beach, compared toother parts of the Province is one of themost important and economically themost valuable spaces, from bothdevelopment and environmental point ofview;

• although population level in the coastalzone has been rather limited so far,economic and social transition ofMozambique will cause migration ofmany people towards the coast and, ifthey were not received in organisedenvironment, it could cause seriousdeterioration of natural and men-maderesources;

• there is the nationally declared need,international market demand andproclaimed strategy to reverse theexisting trend of involuntary outgrowthinto organised sustainable tourismdevelopment in the area;

• by creating conditions for the organisedtourism and housing development in thedesignated area, the pressure and threatof uncontrolled outgrowth spreading inneighbouring naturally virgin areas willbe minimised;

• the adequate funding framework shouldbe developed as part of this plan, so thatthe present and future tourism andhousing developers, who are obtainingthe prime building sites, could contributesignificantly to development of thenecessary infrastructure in the area;

• based on integrated approach in solvingthe problems relevant to environmentalprotection, sustainable development of


54

tourism accommodation and housing,supported with adequate infrastructureand facilities development, institutionalframework and capacity building, thisproject could serve as pilot project forestablishing the tourist resort in theenvironmentally sensitive and fragile areaof coastal dunes.

Components of the Plan

Taking ICAM for the Xai-Xai District coastalarea, particularly its Tourism DevelopmentStrategy issue, as a basis to achieve theabove goals, the Plan should contain thefollowing components:

a) Environmental considerations based oncarrying capacity assessment andenvironmental impact assessment basedon the expected tourism and housingdevelopment pressure;

b) Land-use plan, including spatial structureand organisation, to designate andclearly delineate the built-up areas fortourism accommodation, public andrecreation facilities, housing developmentfrom the dune green areas that shouldprotect the most fragile dune segments;

c) Development and construction patternplan relevant to the type and capacity oftourism and housing structures, public,recreational, commercial andinfrastructure facilities, modes and typesof construction in the fragile dunesenvironment;

d) Communication network comprisingroads, pathways and parking areasnetwork, small port or mooring site, andboat landing facilities;

e) Infrastructure network including watersupply, electricity supply, liquid and solidwaste treatment and disposal;

f) Implementation framework includingfunding, institutional framework andstrengthening, capacity building.

6.5.3 Elaboration of the Plan

The Plan should be elaborated by the jointteam composed of international, nationaland local experts (appointed at the

Provincial, District and Municipality level).The majority of them should be from themunicipal and provincial institutions andauthorities. These institutions should beresponsible for plan elaboration and itsfurther implementation. The preliminary listof tasks, the relevant institutions and theirrole in the plan preparation is given in theBox 7.

The plan preparation should take place inXai-Xai. The nature of the project andexperience in the country call for joint workof national and international experts.Individual or separate work of internationalor national experts should be minimised.


55

Box 7Contents of the Plan

I. Introduction

1.1 Input from the Tourism Master Planfor Mozambique

1.2 Input from the ICAM ManagementStrategy for the District coastal area

1.3 Input and harmonisation with theNatural coastal resourcesmanagement project (EU sponsoredproject)

1.4 Inputs and harmonisation with otherprojects relevant to the Xai-Xaicoastal area

II Objectives, strategy andsustainable developmentprogramme

2.1 Objectives and strategy

2.2 Carrying capacity assessment

2.3 Development programme

2.4 Environment impact appraisal

Map: Spatial development structure (scale1:25,000)

III Land - use and developmentplan

3.1 Natural and green areas3.1.1 Rehabilitation and reforestation3.1.2 Park areas

3.2 Tourism accommodation3.2.1 Type and capacity of

accommodation3.2.2 Construction pattern

3.3 Housing and tourism3.3.1 Residential areas3.3.2 Residential and mixed areas

3.4 Recreation and sport facilities3.4.1 Recreation on the beaches3.4.2 Recreation and sport in dune areas

3.5 Public and commercial facilities

Map: Land-use plan (scale 1:5,000)Map: Development structure plan

IV Infrastructure and facilities

4.1 Transportation Network4.1.1 Preliminary project for main road

and parking network4.1.2 Preliminary project for paths and

walkways4.1.3 Preliminary project for small

harbour and boat landing facility4.1.4 Public transport facilities

4.2 Preliminary project for water supplynetwork4.2.1 Site and type of ground water

intake4.2.2 Water supply distribution network

4.3 Preliminary project for liquid and solidwaste treatment4.3.1 System of liquid waste treatment

and disposal4.3.2 Drainage network4.3.3 Solid waste treatment and disposal

4.4 Preliminary project for electricitysupply4.4.1 Electricity distribution network

4.5 Approximate cost estimate ofinfrastructure development

4.6 Construction priorities

Maps relevant to the preliminary projects

V Implementation

5.1 Institutional framework and capacitybuilding

5.2 Funding framework5.2.1 Main funding sources5.2.2 Operational cost funding


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57

7 ARTISANAL FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT

7.1 The Present Situation

The bulk of fishing activity in the Districttakes place at the Limpopo river mouth,where the estimated number of 200 canoescatch mostly small demersal species. Thecharacteristics of the District fisheries maybe summarised as follows:

• trawling for prawns in the coastal watersby fishermen from outside the District(from Maputo and other more developedfishing centres);

• most of fisheries resources in the opensea of the Xai-Xai District are utilised by afleet coming from Maputo (semi-industrial vessels, with ice storage and ofcapacity to be 4-6 days in the sea);

• fishing in the Limpopo estuary practisedby a co-operative from Zongoene andindividual fishermen from both sides ofthe river. They have small canoes andpractice bottom-line fishing;

• the near-shore bottom-line and gamefishing are practised from small boats (7-8 m long, two outboard engines) ownedby a few artisanal fishermen from theXai-Xai Beach;

• the bottom-line and game fishingpractised by South-Africans in the near-shore sea, disguised very often as sportfishermen;

• fishing with nets and lines in fresh waterlakes practised by the local population;

• artisanal and sport fishing boats usuallyhave two outboard motors, and are fairlywell equipped with safety gears, andequipment for trawling and bottom-linefishing, including GPS and echosounder;

• the price of the best quality fish sold byfew artisanal fishermen in the Xai -XaiBeach is approximately 2 US$ per kg.

The only fishing activity in the near-shoresea practised by the native population isbottom-line fishing from the shore,harvesting shells on the beach rock, orassisting a few artisanal fishermen, primarilySouth-Africans and Portuguese origin, ontheir boats.

The fishermen face lots of difficulties inselling their catches because of thefollowing reasons:

• lack of transport facilities. The roadnetwork is not good, and transportingfish from the village to the market takes avery long time, and often, the fishbecome unmarketable;

• lack of chilling or refrigeration facilitiesfor preservation of the fish caughtovernight;

• lack of the fixed market outlet;

• lack of fishermen organisation to managetheir activities, particularly sale;

• middlemen from the RSA buy lobstersand shrimp, and smaller fish are left tofishermen to dispose of.

7.2 Potentials

Table 6 shows the present and estimatedpotential catch in the Province of Gaza.9

There are no estimates for the potential ofinland waters, and figures speak of thepresent catch.

9 From a study carried out in 1994 and published in

March 1994, the IDPPE (Institute for theDevelopment of Small-Scale Fisheries)


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Table 6. Present and Potential Fishing Catch for the Province of Gaza (in tons)Source: IIP, DPAP-Gaza and interviews

Resource - species Estimatedpresent catch -Artisanal

Estimatedpresent catch -Semi-industrial

Potentialcatch

Exploited of thetotal potential(%)

Shrimp

Large Demersal

Small Pelagic

Small Demersal

Rock Lobster

Mangrove Crabs

Shells

Fresh water species

50

50

-

4,000

10

20

20

500

150

500

-

-

-

-

-

-

950

5,100

3,500

5,400

-

950

-

-

21

11

-

74

-

2

-

-

Total 4,630 650 15,900 33

The fish catch potential of the Province as awhole is very high and, with the exceptionof some species, it does not seem to havebeen fully utilised. The catch estimates forPenaeidae shrimp are approximately 950tons, for large demersal species (Sparidae,Serranidae, Lethrinidae) about 5,100 tons,for small demersal species (Scianidae,Sphyraenaidae, Mugilidae, etc.) about 5,400tons, and for small pelagic species(Engraulidae and Clupeidae) about 3,500tons a year. The small pelagic species aremostly caught between Monte Belo andPonta Zavora (Anon., 1991). In the area ofmangroves, around the mouth of theLimpopo river, the estimated catch potentialof mangrove crab (Scylla serrata) is 950 tonsper year.

It seems that only a very small percentage ofthe totally estimated potential ofapproximately 15,900 tons of the mostimportant fishery resources a year, is utilised(Anon., 1991). This amount does not takeinto account other resources such asmolluscs, rock lobsters, sharks and largepelagic species.

The fact that the Institute for FisheriesResearch carries out no monitoringwhatsoever, may certainly create problemsin the future. Moreover, with the exceptionof semi-industrial fisheries and someartisanal fishermen, nobody has licenses or

pays any taxes for fishing, including South-Africans who are reported to catchhundreds of kilograms of fish passing as“sport” fishermen.

As far as the District is concerned, the abovementioned study10 proposes six importantfishing centres: Chilaulane (ChongoeneBeach) with the estimated number of 50-100 fishermen, Praia de Xai-Xai, with lessthan 50 fishermen, Barra do Limpopo,Salvador Allende and Voz da Frelimo (threecentres at the Limpopo mouth) with theestimated number of more than 200fishermen each and, finally, Gutsuine, nearthe Limpopo river mouth, with less than 50fishermen.

7.3 Strategy

There are several historical reasons, beingphysical or social, why the native populationhas not developed capability for fishing inthe near-shore sea. First of all, it is theunindented high energy coast which is ahostile place for sheltering the boats. At thesame time, there were enough resources inthe lakes, river estuary and along the shores(on the beach rock) to satisfy the modestsubsistence needs of a relatively small

10From a study carried out in 1994 and published in

March 1994, the IDPPE (Institute for theDevelopment of Small Scale Fisheries)


59

population at the coastline. The low level ofdevelopment and poverty of the populationwas also one of the main constraints indeveloping fisheries activity. Although thePortuguese are among the best fishermennations, during the colonial times, thepriority was given to agriculture, particularlyin the Limpopo Valley, while fishing in thearea was neglected.

With the development of the capitalinfrastructure (the national road) andespecially tourism, the conditions fordeveloping fishing activity are slowlyimproving. The expected future tourismdevelopment is going to create the localmarket particularly interested in the highquality demersal fresh fish, to be offered inhotels and restaurants. The new market andimprovement of infrastructure in the area(electricity, feeder roads, boat landingfacilities), followed with the growingeconomic potential of the nativepopulation, is going to create the new,favourable environment for the small-scaleor artisanal fisheries development.

Development Opportunities

Although there is no existing fisheriestradition in the area, there are someprerequisites favouring the idea andincentives for the development of artisanalfisheries in the area, particularly at theLimpopo river mouth. In order to proposethe fisheries management strategy, it wasnecessary to assume some starting points,not only relevant to the existing conditions,but also anticipating the expecteddevelopment processes. The most importantassumptions, with their advantages anddisadvantages, are listed as follows:

• the existing resources and catch potentialis high, particularly for large demersalspecies, shrimp and large pelagic fish,generally related to the near-shore sea.The fishing grounds compatible withartisanal fishing extend at average 15 kmoffshore (100 meters isobath);

• the average bottom-line fishing catch ofa small boat (7 meters long) is between100 and 200 hundred kilos of largedemersal species per day. There are only

several boats fishing in the area daily,which gives enough room for asignificant increase of the boats withoutdepleting fish stocks;

• although modest, the price of 2 $ per kgof high quality fish gives enough incometo invest into boats and equipment;

• a relatively large number of fishermenfishing in the Limpopo river could beeasily trained for the near-shore fishing;

• although there is no fisheries traditionand widespread skill for the near-shorefishing, there is already a number ofnative fishermen who gained basic skillswhile helping the foreign originfishermen on their boats;

• presently, there is almost a complete lackof infrastructure and facilities, particularlyat the Limpopo river mouth (electricity,paved road, harbour, water supply, fuelsupply, etc.). Most of these needs will besolved soon, not only to supply thedensely populated Zongoene area and anew hotel in the Limpopo estuary, butalso to support fishing activity in theestuary.

• the lack of harbour is the main constraintin developing fisheries in the area. For themoment, the only low cost and fastsolution to develop a small harbour tohost artisanal fisheries boats seems to bethe Limpopo mouth. Alternatively, theXai-Xai Beach could host sport fishingboats. These opportunities are elaboratedin Chapter 8.

• small boats operating in the Limpoporiver are not fitted to go offshore, to theopen sea. The existing fishermen co-operatives and a relatively large numberof individual fishermen from the Limpoporiver, would have interest and desire forthe near-shore fishing, if they could buyboats, tools and equipment. It wasreported that if adequate equipment andmeans were available, the offshoreartisanal fishing in the Xai-Xai area wouldbe improved. Experience in estuarinefishing qualified them for the training in


60

the near-shore fishing, what could bedone relatively fast and at low cost;

• although there are no fisheries traditionand widespread skill for the near-shorefishing, there is already a core number ofnative fishermen who gained the basicskills while helping the foreign originartisanal fishermen in the near-shorefishing;

• the fish market is presently weak. Fish aresold to middlemen for export to the RSAor for the local market (hotels,restaurants, local population andtourists). It is expected that with thedevelopment of tourism, the fish marketwill develop significantly, particularlywith regard to the presently lacking fishfreezing equipment. Alternatively, withthe expected growing income of the localpopulation, the demand for the lowercost small pelagic species will also rise;

• a process of the artisanal fisheriesdevelopment is characterised byforeigners owing boats and equipment,hiring local crew, and paying them fortheir service, and retaining a significantprofit selling the fish catch. This practice,with limited benefit for the localpopulation, could be improved or evenchanged if there were at least control orsupport from the Government to co-operatives and individual fishermen;

• the alternative to artisanal fisheries is thesport fishing for tourists, which is alsopractised in the area, mainly in the Xai-Xai Beach by South-African skippers, withsome help of the local boys. They mainlygo surface trawling for large pelagicspecies, but sometimes also practicebottom-line fishing. Tourists, usually 4 ina boat, are charged 25 $ per person for afew hours fishing. With tourism gainingsteam, this kind of service could also beprovided by local population, if they weresupported to get boats and equipment;

• the latest events in the area confirmedthat there was growing interest forartisanal fisheries. The fishermenassociation “A Voz da Frelimo” from theright bank of the river is, among others,

trying to buy a boat. Another initiativeexists on the left bank of the Limpopo, inthe Chilaulene area, where there is a coldstore container with capacity of freezing500 Kg of fish per day. It belongs to agroup of 14 owners of boats and nets(there used to be 49 nets in the area),who believe to attract more fishermen tojoin the association. The cold store isused for storing the first grade fish andshrimp. A tractor is collecting fish tobring them to the Xai-Xai Town. Theproblem that still exists is a low demandfor fish and shrimp. It is also reportedthat if the Zongoene hotel offered betterprices for shrimp and fish, morefishermen would be attracted to sell fishin the hotel.

From the points listed above, it is obviousthat artisanal fisheries in the area woulddevelop spontaneously, slowly and withpossible negative side effects, if it were notsupported and, in a way, managed by theGovernment. If backed by variousgovernmental and private institutions thedevelopment could be faster, smoother and,what is most important, with more benefitsfor the local population.

7.3.1 Goals and Objectives

The main goal is to support and help thedevelopment of a sustainable small-scale orartisanal fisheries in the area. The particularmanagement objectives are the following:

• provision of the basic infrastructure atthe Limpopo river mouth as prerequisitefor the artisanal fisheries development,including:• paved roads to Zongoene (the right

bank) and Chilaulene (the left bank)Limpopo mouth area;

• electricity and water supply on bothestuary banks; and

• the safest pass through the Limpoporiver mouth and a small harbour orfishing centre, all without endangeringthe estuarine ecosystem;

• supporting the development of artisanalfisheries by imposing tax rebate on thepurchase of outboard motors, fishing


61

gears and associated equipment,providing soft loans, and especiallyimparting training to fishermen on thebasic and new technologicaldevelopment for improving fish catch;

• a regular assessment and monitoring offish stock, control of fishing practice andtools.

7.3.2 Strategy

According to “Regulamento Geral deExecução da Lei das Pescas, Decreto número37/90 de 27 de dezembro de 1990”,artisanal fishing in Mozambique is definedas follows:

Artisanal fishing is a localised fishingactivity practised without or with smallboats of maximum length of 10 m, inperiods not exceeding 24 hours.Traditional methods are used forartisanal fishing, and ice is rarely usedfor conserving the catch.

To achieve the above mentioned goals andobjectives, the Artisanal Fisheries Projectshould be developed comprising thefollowing components:

1. Assessment of fishing potentials (fishinggrounds and stocks) in the area,including for the protection proposedBaixos de Inhampura reef. In order toidentify properly breading and feedinggrounds, there is the need to evaluatefishing stocks in more detail, during theyearly cycle. The identification of properfishing methods, techniques and tools,and carrying capacity assessment forfisheries should also be elaborated;

2. Market assessment potentials andfunding sources;

3. Elaboration of the programme andprojects for development of a smallartisanal fishing centre in the Limpopoestuary, including:

a) necessary services for the boats:• berthing facilities to facilitate

unloading of catches, and loading ofgear and supplies;

• fuel and water;

• ice;• workshop, repair and maintenance

facilities including provision ofslipway; and

• the area available for gear repair andstorage.

b) handling of catch:

• market building;

• ice making plant and storage;

• fish cold storage; and

• vehicle access and parking.4. Assessment and harmonisation of

harbour development studies and project(as elaborated in Chapter 8) with therequirements of artisanal fishing centre;

5. Elaboration or assessment andharmonisation of the basic infrastructureprojects with requirements of theartisanal fishing centre programme.

The big game fishing is a very popular sport,and many competitions are held at thenational and international level all over theworld. The fish caught remain in the areaand no attempt is made to transport thefish to the place of domicile of thecompetitors. In this line, the policy shouldbe formulated for sport fishing. Besides theartisanal fisheries project, potentials and aprogramme for sport fishing should beassessed, and the adequate programmeshould be developed. The primary locationfor hosting sport fishing boats is the Xai-XaiBeach, but a number of boats could also beavailable in the Limpopo estuary.

Benefits and Risks

Although such development projects bringsignificant benefits to the area andpopulation, there are still certain risks. Thebenefits are primarily linked to thepopulation well-being, what is extremelyimportant in the case of a poor developingcountry. On the other hand, the risks aremainly related to a possible failure of theproject, and particularly to environmentaldegradation. The main benefits and riskscould, among others, be the following:


62

Benefits

• improvement of living standard of thelocal communities, and employmentopportunities increase;

• source of proteins; improvement ofhealth of fishermen and population;

• upgrading of tourist offer, and provisionof fish for tourist industry; and

• better exploitation of the availablenatural resources.

Risks

• depletion of fish stocks;

• over-exploitation of the availableresources; destruction of fishing grounds(use of explosives, poisons, oversizednets, etc.); and

• degradation of the naturally valuableareas, such as the Limpopo estuary andBaixos de Inhampura reef.

7.4 Action Plan

It would be irrational to expect that theabove mentioned projects could beelaborated and implemented at once.Development of fisheries, being it sport orartisanal fishing, depends highly on pace oftourism development in the area. Evenmore, in the case of Xai-Xai thedevelopment of these two activities isinterdependent. That is why artisanalfisheries should be developed in phases, buthaving in mind the general objectives andadapting them in time regarding anaccurate assessment of the resources.

Preliminary Phase

To some extent, the project of the small-scale or artisanal fisheries development inthe open sea is too ambitious, because therehave been very bad experiences in otherparts of Mozambique. If there is no traditionto use boats with engines, it would bebetter for the development to rely in thepreliminary phase on support of the alreadyestablished pattern of co-operation betweenexperienced foreigners (or nationals, if theyposses the skills) and the local population. It

has been suggested that middlemen providefor fishing gears, nets, boats on lease, andbuy fish at fair price. It means that theGovernment would support the incentiveswith loans and other means, if there werean experienced borrower. This proposal isviable, but the State should exercise theproper control through its variousauthorities and departments.

Within this phase, which may have durationof three years, the support by and co-operation with national institutions likeIDPPE and IIP is essential to create a sort ofco-management process, giving advises,collecting information, data and impressionsfrom fishermen. At certain time, fishermenthemselves would develop the idea of theadequate resources management.

It is expected in this phase that the basicinfrastructure (adequate road, electricity)will reach the Limpopo estuary. Also, theessential studies like assessment of the passthrough the Limpopo river mouth, includingbathymetry, currents, hydrodynamic andtidal conditions, coastal engineering survey,should be completed (Chapter 8.6).

Even in the preliminary phase some initialconstruction could be performed in theLimpopo estuary. Actually, the constructionof small wooden pier is presently beingperformed by fishermen at the left bank ofthe river (Barra do Limpopo). This kind ofsmall-scale actions, such as marking thepass and the corridor through the Limpopoestuary for safety reasons, and to avoidconflicts between the offshore and estuarinefishermen, should be supported bygovernmental institutions.

Summary of the activities to be undertakenin the short term (up to three years), are asfollows:

1. Support, facilitation and monitoring ofthe initial joint ventures betweenentrepreneurs (experienced foreign andnational fishermen) and local fishermen;

2. Construction of the basic infrastructure inthe Zongoene and Chilaulene areas(roads, electricity, etc.);


63

3. Elaboration of the basic studies regardingharbour development in the Limpopoestuary, and a basic study relevant to theartisanal fisheries potential; and

4. Small-scale improvement of the existingconditions within the Limpopo estuary(marking the pass, small peerconstruction, instalment of modestfreezers, etc.).

Planning phase

Outcomes of the mentioned studies, theresults of co-operation of the localpopulation with experienced fishermen, theattained level of tourism development, andthe relevant market demand, should give aproper scope of the project to be realised inthe second phase. If the results werepositive, then the programme for theestablishment of fisheries centre should beelaborated in the second phase, includingfunding proposals.

Summary of the activities to be undertakenwithin the medium term (up to six years) isas follows:

1. Market assessment potentials andfunding sources;

2. Elaboration of projects for thedevelopment of a small harbour; and

3. Elaboration of the programme andprojects for the development of a smallartisanal fisheries centre in the Limpopoestuary.

Construction of artisanal fisheries centre, ifproved to be viable, and physically andenvironmentally appropriate, should takeplace after the studies and projects havebeen completed. In the construction phase,the engagement of governmentalinstitutions should be significant,particularly facilitating in the provision offunds, issuing building permits, andsurveying construction.


64

65

8 PORT DEVELOPMENT

8.1 Background

There is evidence that in the colonial timesthe Limpopo river was navigable from itsmouth up to the Xai-Xai Town. Lacking roadaccess, goods and passengers weretransported by small steam shipboats fromMaputo directly to Xai-Xai11. Actually,having the advantage of being a port town,Xai-Xai was a regional distribution centrewith a narrow-gauge railway (which is stilloperating from time to time) connecting itwith the hinterland. Later on, due to wartimes and changing morphology of theLimpopo mouth, this navigation route wasabandoned, and the national road becamethe main transportation corridor.

Presently, the nearest harbours or boatlanding facilities to the Xai-Xai coastal area,which can accommodate small fishing andtourist boats, are located in the area ofMaputo, some 200 km south, and inInhambane, about 300 kilometres north.The lack of shelters for boats along the largestretch of high energy and unindentedcoast, is one of the main reasons fordeficiency of coastal activities, particularlyfisheries and marine transport.

As already outlined in the Chapter 6, one ofthe main advantages for tourismdevelopment in the Xai-Xai area, are marinerelated activities, such as sport fishing anddiving, sailing, wind surfing, etc. Most ofthese activities cannot be developedwithout an adequate shelter for boats,boats landing facilities or a harbour. Thelack of these facilities could seriously limitdevelopment of tourism in the area.

This issue deals with needs, constraints andopportunities for the development and

11In the Portuguese colonial time, the Xai-Xai Town

was called Joao Bello

construction of a tourist and fishing port,harbour or boat landing facilities. We shallconcentrate in this Chapter on the port andmarine facilities development as thesefacilities are needed to service tourist andrecreational activities, as well as commercialand sport fishing.

8.2 Requirements

Presently, when the Xai-Xai District coastlineis becoming very attractive area for tourismdevelopment, the existing infrastructureneeds rehabilitation and upgrading, whileconstruction of the new one is aprerequisite for any significant economicgrowth of this area.

Over the long term, the potential harbourand boat landing facilities should,presuming dynamic development of thearea, serve the following marine relatedactivities: (1) Artisanal fisheries; (2) Tourism;and (3) Transport of visitors. These activitiesdemand the following types and groups ofboats:

1. Small artisanal fishery boats (up to 10 min length), owned by local residents fromthe areas where some initial activityalready exists;

2. Tourist boats, preferably in the area of aconcentrated tourist accommodation,which could be grouped as follows:• a limited fleet of small rigid or semi-

rigid boats which are chartered tovisitors for sport fishing, diving,excursions, etc. A limited number ofboats owned and used exclusively bylocal residents and steady visitors areincluded in this group;

• excursion boats, including glass bottomboats;

• boats brought on a trailer by visitors;and


66

• small yachts cruising along theMozambican coast;

3. A small excursion liner connectingMaputo, Xai-Xai, and Inhambane.

The harbour should offer vessels shelterfrom winds and waves. The naturalsheltering features, such as headlands,promontories, offshore shoals, andprotected bays and estuaries, are generallypreferred for harbour siting as artificialsheltering (such as breakwaters) is verycostly and sometimes economicallyunfeasible.

Ideally, the harbour should ensure themaximum protection from waves andcurrents, as well as:

• an easy access for boats, in terms of bothdepth and width;

• an adequate turning basin for easymanoeuvre of boats;

• adequate moorings and berths, both interms of number and size;

• minimum initial and maintenancedredging;

• suitable conditions for navigation andanchorage;

• sufficient circulation to ensure goodwater quality;

• adequate land and onshore facilities; and

• room for future expansions, both in theharbour and on land.

8.3 Development Opportunities

The coastline of the Xai-Xai District consistsof long sandy beach stretches and dunesinterrupted only by the Limpopo rivermouth. Thus, there is a limited number oflocations where natural refuge features areavailable for development of harbourfacilities. The beauty of shoreline featuresattracts a great number of tourists all theyear round, thus creating the need toprovide the necessary infrastructure facilitiesfor the development of tourism and fishingactivities.

Existing Conditions

Actually, the natural refuges for harboursare available only in two sites, namely: (1) Inthe Xai-Xai lagoon, and: (2) Inside theLimpopo estuary.

1. Recently, a boat launching facility hasbeen constructed in the Xai-Xai lagoon,behind the detached beach rockformation. Since the boat launching sliphas a concrete platform lyingconsiderably over the high tide level(about 3 meters), boats should bepushed or tugged from (to) the trailersover the steep sand slope. Although theslip is equipped with electrical winch,launching and pulling operation oversand is not smooth and requiresassistance of at least several people. Afterevery trip, boats are pulled out on theconcrete platform, because mooring inthe lagoon is not possible and safe at themoment.

Anyhow, the main problem for boats inthe Xai-Xai lagoon is a difficult anddangerous passage through the beachrock barrier. Although somemodifications have been made, it isnarrow, rocky at the half bottom, andcan be used only at high tide and goodsea conditions. At this moment, the Xai-Xai lagoon can be used only by veryexperienced skippers, almost only thelocals who are familiar with passageconditions, even then not longer than50% of days in the year.

2. Presently, the Limpopo estuary is mainlyused for artisanal fishing (although thereis evidence of limited sport/commercialfishing practised by foreigners), whereasthe Xai-Xai lagoon is mainly used forsport fishing. The local population fromboth banks of the river fishes in theestuary. A few boats navigate at the rivermouth and fish in the near-shore sea,including two boats owned by a hotelwhich is under construction.


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Table 7. Basic Port Location Characteristics

Site Advantages Disadvantages

Xai-Xai Beach Lagoon

• existing tourist capacities andtradition;

• high potential for tourismdevelopment;

• medium cost of small portconstruction;

• existing infrastructure onland;

• existing local fishermen andskippers;

• difficult navigation throughthe passage to the open sea;

• limited mooring space andsafety conditions;

• limited space for port andfisheries centredevelopment;

• potential conflict betweenland and sea use, andtourism;

Limpopo Estuary

• acceptable conditions tonavigate through the passageto the open sea;

• very low cost of small portconstruction;

• existing colony of localfishermen;

• available space for port andfisheries centre development.

• potential pollution of theestuary;

• no adequate infrastructureon land (energy and road);

• potential conflict in use ofestuary between tourismand fishery;

• potential need for continuosdredging of the river mouthpassage.

According to the local marine authorityofficer and fishermen, the passage to thesea through the river mouth is easier, lessdangerous and passable more days in theyear than through the Xai-Xai Beachlagoon. The tidal range is also lower,while boats are very safe when mooringat the estuary.

Location Alternatives

There are favourable, but limited conditionsfor the development of artisanal fisheriescentre in the Xai-Xai Beach and at theLimpopo river mouth where fishermencolony already exists. Both of these twolocations have some advantages, but alsodisadvantages. In spite of only fewadvantages, the third possibility to developartisanal fisheries centre somewhere alongthe “open” coast seems unreasonable,because of many disadvantages (the roughsea, high cost of breakwater construction,no available infrastructure, no fishermencolony at the site, etc.) The characteristics ofthe two potential sites for the developmentof the centre are given in Table 7.

Taking into account all these advantagesand disadvantages, it seems reasonable topropose development of the artisanalfisheries centre primarily at the Limpoporiver mouth. At the same time, the Xai-XaiBeach seems to be suitable for thedevelopment of a tourist port, includingexistence of a small fleet of fishing boats toserve for game fishing and excursions(including visits and diving on the reef).

Thus, it is appropriate to proposedevelopment of both locations, maintainingits present trend, mainly artisanal fishing atthe Limpopo estuary and sport fishing in theXai-Xai lagoon.

8.4 Goals, Objectives and ExpectedBenefits

The potential benefits of having a touristharbour between Maputo and Inhabame,are self evident since tourism developmentin the region may increase and futuredestination resorts could become feasiblewithin this area. As described in theNational Tourism Master Plan, thisdevelopment is expected to be over the long


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term. The tourist harbour would supportfurther development of recreationalactivities, such as game fishing, boatexcursions along the coast and on the reef,etc.

Goals and Objectives

In the framework of the given physicalconditions of high energy and unindentedDistrict’s coastline, and evidentopportunities for the development ofartisanal and sport fishing, particularlytourism, the development of the harbourthat could provide shelter for small boats, isthe general goal. Within the expected timelydevelopment and given locationopportunities, particular objectives are thefollowing:

1. Development of a harbour at theLimpopo estuary with a primary functionto accommodate the artisanal fisheryboats;

2. Development of a small harbour in theXai-Xai Beach lagoon primarily to giveshelter for a limited number of smalltourist boats.

Benefits and Risks

Benefits and risks of developing port facilityfor tourist and fishing activities, are asfollows:

Benefits

• value of the increased supply of fish dueto the availability of mooring morevessels, possibility of fishing on newgrounds, access to new tourist areas,increased efficiency of the existing fishingand tourist vessels, more efficientunloading/loading operations, lessdowntime due to better shelter and morerepair facilities, etc.;

• reduction in losses of catch due toimproved unloading and preservation offish;

• the increased monetary value of catchdue to better quality of the fish sold, andupgrading of harbour facilities;

• the increased value of catch due to timelysale and market changes;

• the increased number of visitors withsignificantly higher expenditure rates pervisitor; and

• income from foreign vessels, attracted bynew harbour.

Risks

• potential degradation of the lagoon andriver mouth due to increased usage. Inthis case, garbage accumulation and oilspillage are of particular concern, andmeasures for protection should beenvisaged, such as oil spillage barriers,floating barriers towards bathing area,proper disposal of used oil, etc.

8.5 Development Strategy

In general, facilities and equipment neededfor development of the fishing or touristport project include: harbour area with apier or quaywall; mooring site; cold storagearea; area for sorting and packaging (fishcleaning, place for disposing organic refuse);water and electricity supply; storage forfishing tools; boat repair area; spillagefloating barriers; gasoline supply or station;parking area; fish market; etc.

8.5.1 Harbour in the Xai-Xai BeachLagoon

Even though the Xai-Xai Beach harbour siteis located in the lagoon, the factorsinfluencing location and orientation of theentrance are the same as for the open coastharbours, except for sheltering, which isnaturally provided by the lagoon. If possible,the harbour should be located where thereare adequate water depths for passing ofthe largest vessels (or boats) that areexpected to use the harbour. In order toallow easy navigation through accesschannel, it should be located where thereare no strong beam currents at any stage oftides.

The harbour should preferably be located inthe area relatively free of littoral drift. Also,the provision of two entrances wouldbenefit water circulation inside the lagoon.


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In this case, it may not be an issue, as thebeach rock is under water at certain stagesof the tide.

Recently, the boat launching facility hasbeen constructed in the Xai-Xai lagoon,behind the detached beach rock formation.This area, the cove in front of the HalleyTourist Complex, is the only suitable locationfor a small boat shelter. The cove is narrow,extending about 1 km, and fringed by beachrock and the beach. The beach is surfaciallyexposed during the mean sea. With tourismdevelopment in the Xai-Xai coastal area,mooring facilities should be provided forboats which would be used for gamefishing, as well as for bringing touristsoffshore for boating. Taking intoconsideration the size constraint, the boatmooring facilities should be designed in away that part of the cove could be used formooring of boats and part of it for bathing.The section west from the bollard should beused for bathing, pedallo, kayaking, and theother part for berthing and mooring ofboats. Depending upon the size of theboats, about 20 normal size boats couldsafely be moored if the facility were properlydesigned. During rough seas, these boatswould be towed up the beach by the winchsafe from wave uprush. In no circumstancesany boat should move to the bathing areasite.

The strong proposition has been made bysome fishermen to use these facilities forcommercial fishing. This would give rise toconflictual issues and the fishing port wouldbe ideally located at the Limpopo estuary.Until then, this site could tacitly be used bythe fishermen in a controlled way andwithout further demand for refrigerationplant, fish cleaning and processing at thesite, visceral, guts, bone disposal, etc.

The site may be developed further for asmall harbour with permanent moorings. Infact, this is the only site in the lagoon thatin the long run, with growing touristcapacity, may be developed as marinecentre which, among others, should includethe following services:

1. Offshore:

• improved and much safer maritimeaccess channel through the beach rockformation equipped with adequatenavigation signals allowing emergencyentrance during the night; also, themarked navigation route in the lagoonto avoid unnecessary disturbance ofbathers;

• permanent mooring site and buoys forapproximately 20 boats averaging 7meters in length, encompassed withfloating oil spillage barriers;

• floating pier, to allow easy boarding,particularly to excursion boats; and

• improved winch or adequate lift toallow easy launching of boats.

2. Onshore:

• improved ramp to allow easy onshorehandling of boats;

• onland boat parking space, largeenough to accommodate largernumber of boats in the case of roughweather;

• onland repair and fuelling facilities forboats;

• marine club house, including areas forfishing and diving services, excursionagency, restaurant, refrigerating room,premises for management and marineauthority, etc.

• cars and trailers parking space.

8.5.2 Harbour at the Limpopo Estuary

Presently, there is a lack of appropriateonshore facilities to process and store fish inthe Xai-Xai District coastal area. Thedomestic production is thus limited, andthere seems to be high local demand forfish, which, for sure, will be increased withtourism development.

The primary function of the Limpopoestuary harbour is to accommodate smallartisanal fishing boats that will develop inthe area. Harbour requirements for artisanalfisheries would include a modest marginalquay, and a slip for hauling up crafts for


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repairs and maintenance, in shelteredwaters. Artisanal fishing boats are generallyshallow draft small crafts which are put outto the sea in the morning and return beforedusk. The catch is usually offered forimmediate sale so that a small market placeis required. Probably, it is convenient toprovide also for a small size freezer.

At this moment, the site of the MaritimeCommission on the right river bank in theZongoene area seems to be the mostappropriate location for the artisanalfisheries centre and the harbour. Presently,it is a base for several boats fishing in thenear-shore sea and a small spontaneouslyestablished centre for estuarine fishing. Afreezer (container of approximately 10 m3

powered by electric generator) is establishedat the site, while a small wooden pier isunder construction by the local fishermen.

Planning Considerations

In this case, location and orientation of theentrance are fixed by natural features. Theaccess channel also depends on naturaldepths through the estuary bar, and mayshift its location resulting in a difficultnavigation. The harbour should preferablybe located in the margin relatively free ofsedimentation.

Firstly, a survey to establish the generalfishing grounds and volumes of catch forfishing industry is necessary, both in the Xai-Xai area and in the neighbourhood. In orderto establish fishing grounds and volumes, itis necessary to follow their life cycles,according to different seasons.

Market predictions include local andnational potential, and exporting trendstowards future demands and types of fishprocessing, when industrial fishing isdeveloped. According to the existing data,industrial fishing is not considered for Xai-Xai. Labour and training requirements areimportant considerations, particularly forthe near-shore fishing, where higherexpertise is required.

Design of the fishing harbour centre shouldinclude the following services:

1. Facilities for fish catch:

• landing (pier, mooring areas, storage);

• handling (sorting; washing; weighing/counting, ice filling, packing); and

• selling (packing, sorting, stacking,loading, transportation, parking).

2. Facilities for fishing vessels:

• berthing (pier, mooring areas);

• outfitting (water supply, ice supply,fuel, provisions, bait, fishing gear);

• repair and storage of gear; and

• navigational aids.

3. Facilities for users:

• rest rooms; and

• eating places (including washrooms,administration and recreational areas).

8.6 Action Plan

The proposed harbour development on bothsites should be implemented in severalphases. It is obvious that these phasesshould be interlinked and harmonised withtourism and artisanal fisheries developmentin the area. The most important is the firstor preliminary phase when the presumedinputs to this Management Strategy, (suchas bathimetry survey, data on currents andwaves, fish stocks, etc.) should be examinedthrough sectorial scientific expertise, studiesand projects. It is possible that some ofthese studies give results, which calls forsignificant modification of the proposedharbour development in this Strategy.

8.6.1 Planning and Design Phase

The preliminary or planning and designphase, should, among others, include thefollowing basic surveys and expertise:

1. Xai-Xai Beach Lagoon

• bathymetry and land survey maps ofthe lagoon and relevant littoral area;

• climate, currents and tidal conditions;

• coastal engineering survey (littoralmovement of sand, waves);

• preliminary project of the harbourincluding marine and land area;


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• environmental impact assessmentstudy; and


2. Limpopo River Estuary

• bathymetry and land survey maps ofthe river mouth and estuary;

• climate, currents, hydrodynamic andtidal conditions at the river mouth;

• coastal engineering survey (littoralmovement of sand, waves, feasibilityof dredging free access channelthrough the river mouth);

• study of navigation link between theLimpopo estuary mouth and the Xai-Xai Town;

• survey and estimates of the offshorefish catch and market potentials;

• development programme definingservices and capacity of the artisanalfisheries centre;

• location selection and preliminaryproject of the harbour, includingmarine and land area;

• environmental impact assessmentstudy; and


8.6.2 Construction Phase

Construction phase should follow theplanning and design phase. However,having in mind a relatively high cost of theproposed expertise for both potentialinvestment (3% to 6% of construction costs)and the need for urgent improvement of theexisting conditions, particularly in the Xai-Xai Beach lagoon, some minorimprovements should be carried out on thebasis of a preliminary coastal engineeringexpertise. These improvements should belimited in scope and time in order not tobecome an obstacle for further majorinvestment.

In the case of the Xai-Xai Beach lagoon thefollowing improvements should beperformed:

• improvement of maritime access channelinto the Xai-Xai lagoon;

• provision of buoys and anchors forapproximately 20 small boats, of up to10 m in length, as temporary means toserve the existing needs;

• improvement of the existing ramp andproviding better winch or lift. The slipwayneeds some modification, especiallyalong the toe, since in the presentcondition, boats could not be pushed tothe sea easily. The rail system is a goodoption for towing up and down theboats. Alternatively, rolling steel pipescould be fixed over enabling boats to rollup and down the ramp.

• the present slipway is very impractical forembarking or disembarking the boats. Itwould be almost impossible for childrenand women to climb the boats if theywere tossing on the water. The properjetty with fenders, impact pads, ropes,tying rings, etc. should be constructed.Light and winch should also be provided.Once the big game fishing is developed,perhaps some dredging would berequired to berth bigger boats. Inaddition, special cranes would have to beinstalled for weighing the game forsouvenir photos and also for recordingtract and advertisement. The big gamefishing would form part of the touristpackage, and would be the enticingtourist promotion component.

• providing larger onland area for boatshelter during rough weather, and trailersparking;

• providing limited onland repair andfuelling facilities for boats.

In the case of the Limpopo estuary anyprovisory construction depends on priorprovision of infrastructure at the site,primarily asphalt road, water and electricitysupply. It also depends highly on thedevelopment of artisanal fishing in the area.

8.6.3 Institutional Framework

Besides The National Ports and HarbourAuthority, such as the leading agency,


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provincial, District and municipalityauthorities, the following governmentalagencies should take part in the planningphase of harbours development:

• SAFMAR - Services for MaritimeAdministration

• INAHINA - National Institute forHydrography and Navigation

• DNA - National Directorate for Waters

• MICTUR - Ministry of Industry, Commerceand Tourism

• DINAGECA - National Directorate forGeography and Cadastar

• IIP - Fisheries Research Institute

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9 INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING

9.1 Institutional Problems

Some positive steps have been takentowards the protection and sustainable useof natural resources in Mozambique, likeestablishing of the Ministry for Co-ordination of Environmental Affairs(MICOA). This Ministry has alreadyelaborated the National EnvironmentalManagement Programme (NEMP), andenvironmental legislation, of which themost important environmental “umbrella”law is in the process of approval, is beingelaborated.

At the Xai-Xai District level, there is mainlylack of technical human resources for goodcontrol and management of naturalresources and environment. Besidestechnical capacity, resources and equipmentfor the control of sensitive and protectedareas, or other areas of concern, are alsolacking.

The coastal inter-institutional managementgroup consisting of MICOA, DPAP, DPICTMarine Administration representatives hasbeen formed in the course of this ICAMelaboration. The aim of the group is toguarantee the region’s sustainabledevelopment through implementation oftough discipline on the use of resources.Owing to this group, sectorialpronouncements as regards socio-environmental impact of investmentprojects are now being taken into account.

Legislation issues relevant to coastal zonemanagement are implemented sectorially,some of them being obsolete and somelacking. Some laws and regulations,particularly issues dealing with harmfulexploitation of natural resources, are notfully enforced due to the lack of control or,in general, due to poverty of violators.Besides, the new legal acts are sectorially

oriented, targeting very specific issues (e.g.,tourism development) and consequently,not fully considering the impacts on otheractivities or on the environment.

9.2 Coastal Zone ManagementFramework

In June 1994, the Government approved theNational Environmental ManagementProgramme (NEMP), which is a master planfor the environment in Mozambique. Itcontains the national environmental policy,environmental umbrella legislation, andenvironmental strategy. The NEMP is also aprogramme of sectorial plans, containingprojections for the medium and long term,aiming to lead the country to sustainablesocio-economic development. The Ministryfor Co-ordination of Environmental Affairs(MICOA) has taken the lead for environ–mental management in Mozambique.

One of the priority areas of the NEMP is anumber of activities related to integratedcoastal zone management (ICZM).Particularly, the Programme states thatcoastal management will be based on inter-institutional co-ordination between therelevant stakeholders and on theprogramme, which should be elaboratedand approved by them. The main issues forthis programme are (i) fisheries, (ii) coastaland marine ecosystems management, (iii)coastal and marine protection (iv) marineparks, and (v) tourism. The Programme alsodefines the activities for the short, mediumand long term.

Related to different outputs of theProgramme, the priorities in the ProgrammeSupport Document (PSD), which has beenrolling the NEMP implementation strategyfor five years, are the following:

• formulation of the national programmefor integrated coastal zone management;


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• establishment of a multi-sectorial taskforce for integrated coastal zonemanagement;

• establishment of a Coastal ZoneManagement Centre in Xai-Xai;

• publication of a coastal atlas, with GIScapacity established;

• identification, implementation, andmonitoring of pilot projects.

The creation of the Ministry for Co-ordination of Environmental Affairs, was thefirst major step undertaken in the directionof integrated management strategy fornatural resources. In fact, a co-ordinatingrole that this institution plays, stresses theadoption of the principle of a collective,participatory and harmonised managementprocess rather than a sectorial, isolated anddiscoordinated one. With the sameobjective, a multi-sectorial ministerial body,the National Council for SustainableDevelopment, will be created when theParliament enacts the Environmental Law,with the aim to guarantee that all activitiesrelated to the management of naturalresources are undertaken in a correct andco-ordinated way by all the stakeholders,starting from the planning and decisionmaking level. Institutional arrangementshave not yet been set up for coastal areamanagement, but studies for that purposehave already been initiated.

Within MICOA, department responsible forthe coastal area is assisted by an integratedteam of professionals, the CZM Unit, and isresponsible for all the activities related tocoastal area management, including studies,planning, programme management and co-ordination.

In order to guarantee coherent, uniform andharmonised practices, the process oflegislation production is also beingundertaken by a multi-sectorial group co-ordinated by MICOA.

Considering the main constraints pointedout in relation to the issue of coastal zonemanagement, some priority measures areherein proposed, both to solve institutional

organisation incorrectness, and to avoid thelegal framework gaps.

9.2.1 Institutional Organisation for CZM

The coastal zone is a typical zone ofhorizontal multi-sectorial intervention,where no institution may claim an absolutedomain of the area. Thus, the specificity ofthe coastal zone, which is, as mentionedbefore, characterised by multiplicity ofactivities, and thus, by multiplicity ofinstitutions involved, demands the adoptionof the different management approaches.

The basic idea is that all types of activitiesand situations of the coastal zone shouldalways be considered and analysedtogether. For example, tourist activitiesshould not be developed withoutconsidering their effects on agriculture,fisheries or biodiversity protection. Similarly,urban development programmes should notbe undertaken without the assessment ofthe consequences that could result in termsof land tenure conflicts, water pollution,loss of biodiversity, etc. Having this in mindas the main aspect of institutionalarrangement for the coastal zone, it hasbeen proposed to create a multi-sectorialbody, co-ordinated and supervised by thePrime Minister. This body would be asubcommittee of the NCSD, with branchesat central, regional and local levels.

The following basic and operationalarrangements should be started by thisbody:

a) A clear definition of each institution'sspecific mandate in the coastal zone;

b) Adjustment of mandates to avoid gaps,overlapping powers and conflicts, and toallow harmonised procedures;

c) A clear definition of commonresponsibilities and managementstrategies of the coastal area.

A multi-sectorial technical working grouphas already been set up to developpreliminary studies for the creation of thisbody, whose responsibilities necessarilyinclude:


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• supervision of the process of land-useplanning of coastal Districts and othercoastal areas;

• establishment and supervision of theenvironmental legislation enforcementsystem, based on training, operatingcapacity and use of enforcement agentsof the institutions involved, as well aslocal communities and human resources;

• establishment of a system of the coastalzone development projects approval, forwhich environmental impact assessmentis a key tool.

This group, led by The Ministry for Co-ordination of Environmental Affairs, hasbeen active since November 1995. It consistsof representatives of the relevantinstitutions in coastal zones: Ministry forState Administration (MAE), UniversityEduardo Mondlane (UEM), Ministry ofTransport and Communications, Ministry ofIndustry, Commerce and Tourism, andMinistry of Public Works and Housing.

9.2.2 Legal Framework for CZM

As referred earlier, there is a big gap in theexisting environmental legislationconcerning coastal zone management andprotection. The priority areas for which legalinstruments should be produced, are thefollowing:

• the legal definition of the coastal zone,based on scientific studies and data;

• adoption of land-use plan for the coastalzone and enforcement mechanisms;

• the legal creation of the protectedcoastal areas, and definition ofmanagement mechanisms;

• enactment of rules and guidelines for thedevelopment of agriculture, tourism,urban infrastructures, industrialinfrastructures, etc. in the coastal zone;and

• enactment of coastal pollutionprevention regulations, and contingencyplan for oil spills.

The coastal zone could and should benefitfrom the existing international legal

instruments in the field of the environment,some of which have already been ratified bythe country. Introduction of the provisionsof environmental conventions in the internallegal system, and the development of theactivities they propose, will, among others,bring benefits to coastal zone protection.

9.3 Programme of Coastal ResourcesManagement

Some of the priorities for 1996 are theactivities actually being more than short-term, which should be started as soon aspossible. Among these activities are: (i)preparation of the Programme of Activitiesfor the implementation of Coastal ResourcesManagement (which includes theestablishment of the Coastal ZoneManagement Centre of Xai-Xai), (ii) thecoastal land-use plan (which includes theactivities of the Inter-sectorial WorkingGroup, and coastal mapping), and (iii)group of activities to start in the periodfrom 1996 to 2001 (which are pilot projectswith different priorities). Details about theseactivities are given below.

9.3.1 Coastal Zone Management Centreof Xai-Xai

In the scope of its work, the CZM Unitshould lead co-ordination of activities incoastal areas. Activities like training localdecision makers (governors, localadministrators, stakeholders and others) areamong the tasks to be implemented for theimprovement of utilisation of coastalresources.

Research and monitoring capacities will alsobe installed. The current knowledge on thestate of coastal resources, their potentialand development is rather sectorial (ForestryDepartment dealing with mangroves andreserves, Fisheries Research Institute dealingwith commercial fisheries, etc.).

In order to develop training, research andmonitoring activities on the coast, theCoastal Zone Management Centre in Xai-Xaiis considered to be of paramountimportance.


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Box 8Coastal Zone Management Centre Tasks

The general tasks of the Centre are as follows:

1. To conduct research, surveys and data collection of the coastal zone, and itsmanagement and related issues at the local, provincial and regional level, including theestablishment of a data bank;

2. To secure technical assistance to local governments, institutions, organisations;

3. To promote and implement popular awareness campaigns and to empower thecommunity in the field of natural resources management and sustainabledevelopment;

4. To carry out short-term training courses on natural resources management andsustainable development for civil servants, private sector, NGOs and general public;

5. To implement environmental impact assessment to the activities developing within theregion;

6. To promote and implement experimental and demonstrative activities in the field ofcoastal natural resources management and sustainable development;

7. To support the Provincial Directorate of MICOA in coastal Provinces in the area of CZM;

8. To co-ordinate all CZM activities in Mozambique, including shores of the lakes andreservoirs;

9. To coordinate the preparation and implementation of the National Coastal ZoneManagement Programme; and

10. To participate in the preparation of the National Biodiversity Programme.

The Centre is part of the CentralGovernment, subordinated directly to theoffice of the Minister of MICOA. However, itwill play an important role in advisingcoastal provincial governments.

9.3.2 Research

A significant part of the Mozambicanpopulation has always lived along thecoastline. In one way or another, the wealthof biological resources has been affected byhuman activities. Thus, there is recognitionof the complex system of relations existingbetween population dynamics, availabilityand use of natural resources, potentialenvironmental problems and economicgrowth. The knowledge of theseinterrelations is still very weak, and lack of abroad overview of problems is obvious.Excluding some particular areas of theMozambican coastal zone, no methodicaland systematic data collection system hasbeen established. On the other hand, thespecificity in terms of population/resources/

environmental problems, varies from oneregion to another, according to ecologicalcharacteristics of each region.

There is a need to study, at micro level, thecomplex interfaces existing betweenpopulation, environmental anddevelopment aspects in each region. Thismeans that there is a need to knowecological structure of the region andresources existing in it, on the one hand,and carrying capacity of natural resourcesand resulting consequences of humanactivities, on the other.

If there is commitment for preservation ofbiological diversity, local communitiesshould be considered and gender issuesanalysed, with the perspective of povertyreduction, ecosystems protection for abetter balance between human activitiesand sustainable use of human resources.

Elaboration of a complete inventory of theexisting coastal resources in Mozambique isone of priorities, as it will enable the


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establishment of an information systemallowing identification of the differentecosystems, and evaluation of its status.

Most of the major urban centres ofMozambique are also located in the coastalarea. A rapid urban population growth,together with the lack of capacity of themunicipal authorities to provide basicsanitary assistance exposes urbaninhabitants to serious environmental healthrisks. Urban population growth contributesnot only to a degradation of physicalinfrastructure, but also to sustainabledevelopment of a necessary resources base.

Having all this in mind, the abovementioned research activities in the coastalarea should be developed, starting with thedefinition of priority areas of investigation.This investigation will constitute the basesfor future action plans that should bepromoted by MICOA.

The research activities in coastal areasshould be carried out, at the short term, inthe Coastal Zone Management Centre inXai-Xai. In the medium and long term, theCentre will project and install two moreresearch units on the coast of Mozambique(one in the Central region, and the other inthe North).

9.3.3 Coastal Area Planning inMozambique

As referred above, the inter-sectorialworking group led by MICOA has beenformed. The group is now preparing a draftof the Proposed Methodology for CoastalArea Planning, which will be presented anddiscussed during the next NationalWorkshop. The methodology should beagreed on, and its implementation andmonitoring should start upon it.

On the other hand, the mapping of theentire coast should also be performed as aprecondition for the planning phase of thecoastal zone management.

The first step of ICZM is land-use planning.The three different components should betaken into consideration in land-useplanning, namely:

1. Geographic scope;

2. The current situation of coastal naturalresources, and their potential use in localcommunities; and

3. Institutional framework and legislationfor coastal management.

In a preliminary document to be discussedduring the National Workshop on CZM inMozambique, the following specific topicson the above issues, are proposed:

Geographic scope

Definition of the Coastal Zone

The coastal zone is to consist of a portion ofthe sea and a portion of land. It is proposedthat the coastal zone include marine areaalong the coastline up to 12 miles off thecoast. It is important to realise that thecoast is also a marine ecosystem. It isequally proposed that the coastal zone is afixed area of 20 km from the shoreline.Here, it is very important to consider thatcoastal cities are part of the coastal zoneand should be dealt with accordingly.

Physical planning

Currently, the District is the smallestadministrative unit intended for planningpurposes in Mozambique. It is proposed,therefore, that physical planning of thecoastal zone include the whole coastalDistrict, and not only 20 km as proposedabove.

Resources and current use

Methodology of Diagnosis

It is suggested to form multi-disciplinaryteams to carry out the survey of coastalzones for the preparation of CZM (withholistic approach, and including fields likebiology, ecology, agriculture, geology,climate, sociology, institutions, etc.). Theteams should use all the availableinformation, collect data using aerialphotos, satellite, GIS, etc. They should alsocarry out ground checks. Rural appraisalmethods should also be used by localcommunities.


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Methodology for coastal zoning

It is proposed that a sort of macro-zoningshould be carried out at the national level,until the major areas intended forprotection, tourism and fisheriesdevelopment, environmental rehabilitation,industrial and housing development, etc. aredefined. Then, micro-zoning should becarried out at a higher level for urbandevelopment, infrastructure, water andelectricity supply, etc.

Institutional framework and legislation

As suggested above.


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Annex

Recommendations on Management Strategy Issues and FinalConclusions of the Workshop

(Xai-Xai Beach, August 1997)

1. Recommendations onManagement Strategy Issues

1.1 Coastal Dunes Management(including intertidal resources) andPort Development12

(1) The traditional knowledge on andpractices in inter-tidal resourcesmanagement (especially mussels onthe beach rock)13, should bereactivated in order to prevent over-harvesting;

(2) The Inter-Institutional TechnicalCommittee for Coastal ZoneManagement should be given morelegal and functional power; theCommittee should be allocated morefinancial and material resources; andthe private sector should beincorporated into the Committee;

(3) More means aimed at a bettersurveillance of the coastal area(especially forests, wildlife andmarine environment) should besecured;

(4) Public places should be preservedwithin sustainable development ofthe coastal zone14;

12Recommendations suggested within the Working

Groups.13This traditional management practice of the

intertidal resources exploitation includes, amongothers, harvesting of mature mussels and oystersspecies in selected segments of the beach rock everyyear, and control of catch quantity.

14i.e. references were made to SUIMO, Lda.

(5) When allocating areas of coastaldunes to the private sector, adequatemanagement, conservation andpreservation should be securedthrough legal instruments, allowingcontrol of the committed andimplemented management rules andmeasures;

(6) Better boat launching facilitiesshould be provided, particularlythose constructed and designatedfor public use.

1.2 Lower Limpopo ValleyDevelopment

Agriculture

(1) To install an efficient system of floodwarning;

(2) To install a better system of irrigationnetwork utilisation in order to getliability for the misuse.

Dunes/Mangroves

(3) To avoid concentration of populationin the adjacent areas of mangrovesand, if possible, to assess thepossibility of the existing populationresettlement in the areas with moresocio-economic opportunities for thebetter living standard;

(4) To improve the mangroves relevantlegislation, and harmonize it withbetter law enforcement onagriculture, fisheries, and maritime;

Estuary

(5) Reforestation activities should takeplace on both sides of the LimpopoRiver;


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General

(6) To take necessary steps aimed toachieve the better respect andenforcement of the Land Law;

(7) Governmental authorities shouldmonitor the implementation of theprojects relevant to natural resourcesuse.

1.3 Artisanal Fisheries Development

(1) The incentives of fishermenassociations, medium and small-scalefishermen should be given adequatesupport from the relevantGovernmental institutions includingexchange of information betweenthem;

(2) Governmental authorities should givethe full legal status, rights, dutiesand competencies to fishermenassociations. Fishermen associations,supported by and in co-operationwith Governmental institutions,should, among others, collect dataand control fishing activities, andcontribute to scientific research;

(3) Fishermen training and capacitybuilding in organisational principles,administrative and financialmanagement, natural resources andenvironmental management shouldbe given priority by the relevantGovernmental institutions.

1.4 Tourism Development

(1) Local communities should beinvolved in the preparation of atourism development plan;

(2) The relevant local administrationshould involve local communitiesinto the work of the Inter-Institutional Technical Committee forCoastal Zone Management;

(3) The proposed elaboration of theDevelopment Plan15 is being fully

15The proposed “Development Plan for the Xai-Xai to

Chongoene Tourist Resort”.

approved and supported by thefollowing recommendations:

(4) The current policy in land-usedistribution should be implementedin the area from Praia Velha to Xai-Xai Beach, designated for housingdevelopment, and in the area fromthe Xai-Xai Beach to Chongoene,designated for tourism expansion;

(5) The Development Plan should beelaborated in a way to contemplatethe expected dynamic tourismdevelopment; it should be flexibleenough to allow the changes intourist demands and needs in thecourse of time;

(6) The Development Plan should takeinto consideration the generationequity principle by designatingadequately both coastaldevelopment and conservation areasfor the use of present and futuregenerations.

1.5 Baixos de Inhampura ReefManagement

(1) Baixos de Inhampura Reef could beutilised, but fully respecting thespecific ecosystem resources;

(2) An appropriate category ofprotection should be established,and adequate management measuresapplied to allow sustainableresources utilisation;

(3) Artisanal and sports fishing activitiesshould be practised on the reef. Thetype and intensity of reef utilisationshould be based on carrying capacityassessment, including other activitiespractised within the reef area;

(4) It is important to complete theassessment and evaluation of Baixosde Inhampura Reef, which startedwith the FAO/UNEP Expert Mission inMay 1997;

(5) Special attention in managing thereef environment should be given toprotected species (turtles, giantgroupers, etc.). To provide the


81

effective protection of thislongitudinal submerged reef, anadequate zoning should beconsidered.

1.6 Institutional Strengthening

(1) Some of the Xai-Xai and otherDistrict (Manjacaze) authorities areunder staffed. The Governmentshould take steps to secure skilledstaff and other means for theimplementation of the proposedstrategies and action plans;

(2) The ongoing support that theDistrict’s authorities are providing toZongoene fishermen should beencouraged and implemented also inother areas where similar initiativesand conditions exist;

(3) There is the need to establish theagency for implementing the Pre-programme16;

(4) The Inter-Institutional TechnicalCommittee for Coastal ZoneManagement at the Provincial levelshould play a central role in theimplementation of the proposedManagement Strategy and relevantAction Plans;

(5) The relevant provincial Directoratesfor Tourism (MICTUR), Agricultureand Fisheries (MAP) should supportthe implementation of Strategy andAction Plans with staff and relevantresources, in the area of tourism andfisheries in Xai-Xai, and in theneighbouring Manjacaze Districts;

(6) A Sustainable Development Centrefor Coastal Zone Management to beinaugurated in the Xai-Xai Beach,should support coastal surveillance(forestry, wildlife, and marineenvironment).

16The project entitled “National Family Sector

Agricultural Development Programme (PRE-Programme)” under the support of UNDP, FAO andMinistry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

2. Final Conclusions of the Workshop

(1) Participants of the Workshopapprove the proposed ManagementStrategy and Recommendations ofthe Working Groups;

(2) Participants of the Workshop findapplication of the integration andsustainable development principlecrucial for a successfulimplementation of the Xai-Xai ICAM.The Inter-Institutional TechnicalCommittee for Coastal ZoneManagement should be co-ordinating body between institutionsrelated to coastal zone management.The Committee should play afundamental role in theimplementation of the proposed andother relevant action plans;

(3) Education and involvement of localcommunities in the Xai-Xai ICAMimplementation should be one of thepriorities, and local administrationshould be responsible for thepromotion of this involvement.Where there is the need, the lawshould be enforced by localauthorities;

(4) Institutional strengthening at theDistricts’ level should be prioritisedby the Provincial Government,particularly in the Districts withelaborated coastal managementplans;

(5) The proposed elaboration of theTourism Development Plan broughtto this Workshop is fully supportedby the participants and suggested tobe a priority in the Xai-Xai ICAMimplementation.


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REFERENCES

1. Almeida, J., P. Derham and G. Moore*:Mocambique - Revisao da legislacao daspescas. FAO, 1987

2. Alusa, A. L. and L. J. Ogallo:Implications ofExpected Climate Change in the EasternAfrican Region: An Overview. UNEP RegionalSeas Reports and Studies No. 149, 1992

3. Bryceson, I., T. F. De Souza, I. Jehangeer, M.A. K. Ngoile and P. Wynter: State of themarine environment in the Eastern AfricanRegion. UNEP Regional Seas Reports andStudies No.113, 1990

4. Burges, T.P., G. Hanek and R. A. Maine(mission report): Mozambique - Contributionto the Formulation of the UNDP Fifth CycleCountry Programme for the Fisheries Sector.FAO, 1991

5. Comissao Nacional do Meio Ambiente: Perfilda Area Costeira do Distrito de Xai-Xai. CNA,Maputo, February 1994

6. Debeauvais, R., C. Vauclare, J. Campbell andC. Roullot**: Etude du secteur de la peche apetite echelle au Mozambique. Secretaria deEstado das Pescas Republica Popular doMocambique, 1990

7. Elder, D.L.: Evaluation of BazarutoAchipelago Conservation Master Plan. IUCN,1994

8. Environment Working Group (GTA)Mozambique: The Present EnvironmentalSituation. NORAD, 1990

9. FAO/UNEP: Legal aspects of protecting andmanaging the marine and coastalenvironment of the East African Region:National Reports. UNEP Regional SeasReports and Studies No. 49, 1984

10. FAO/UNEP: Legal aspects of protecting andmanaging the marine and coastalenvironment of the East African Region.UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No.38, 1983

11. Fay, M. B.:Maziwi Island off Pangani(Tanzania): History of its destruction andpossible causes. UNEP Regional Seas Reportsand Studies No. 139, 1992

12. Horrill, J.C., IUCN: A Rationale for a Strategyfor the Rapid Assessment of Coral Reefs toMeet the Needs of ICZM: Developed forTanga Region, Tanzania. ICRI

13. Investment Centre, FAO/IFAD CooperativeProgramme: Mozambique - Pre-preparationReport - Agricultural/Artisanal FisheriesDevelopment - project brief. FAO, 1991

14. IUCN/UNEP: Management and conservationof renewable marine resources in the EasternAfrican Region. UNEP Regional Seas Reportsand Studies No. 66, 1985

15. IUCN/UNEP: Marine and coastal conservationin the East African region: National Reports.UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No.50, 1984

16. IUCN/UNEP: Marine and coastal conservationin the East African Region. UNEP RegionalSeas Reports and Studies No. 39, 1984

17. IUCN/UNEP: Conservation of coastal andmarine ecosystems and living resources ofthe East African Region. UNEP Regional SeasReports and Studies No.11, 1982

18. IUCN/UNEP: Coral Reefs of the World.Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf.IUCN/UNEP

19. Iqbal, M. S.: Assessment of the EasternAfrican Action Plan and the Effectiveness ofits Legal Instruments. UNEP Regional SeasReports and Studies No.150, 1992

20. Moore, G., A. Tavares and G. Ulfsten*:Mocambique - Revisao da legislacao daspescas. FAO, 1988

21. Report on Legal Aspects Regarding theProtection and Management of Marine andCoastal Areas of Mozambique. Maputo, June1993

22. Saket, M. and R. Matusse:”Study for theDetermination of the Rate of Deforestationof the Mangrove Vegetation inMozambique”. FAO/PNUD MOZ/92/013,1994

23. Tavares de Pinho, A.*: Mocambique - Projetode regulamento da pesca maritima (proposalof law). FAO, 1994

24. The ICRI Initiative Report of the InternationalCoral Reef Initiative Workshop. Philippines,1995

25. UNEP, Regional Seas Programme: TheEastern African experience. UNEP RegionalSeas Reports and Studies No. 53, 1984


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26. UNEP: Socio-economic activities that mayhave an impact on the marine and coastalenvironment of the East African Region:National Reports. UNEP Regional SeasReports and Studies No.51, 1984

27. UNEP: Socio-economic activities that mayhave an impact on the marine and coastalenvironment of the East African Region.UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No.41, 1984

28. UNEP: Environmental Problems of the EastAfrican Region. UNEP Regional Seas Reportsand Studies No.12, 1982

** In French

* Only in Portuguese

Note: This document was prepared in the framework of theEast African Action Programme (EAF/5) – Mozambique,by the Priority Actions Programme Regional ActivityCentre (PAP/RAC), in collaboration with the Ministry ofthe Coordination of Environmental Affairs (MICOA)and the Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations (FAO). The preparation of the documentwas supported by the Swedish InternationalDevelopment Agency (SIDA). Special thanks go to H.E.Mr. Bernardo Ferraz, Minister for Coordination ofEnvironmental Affairs, Mr. Dixon Waruinge, FAO-EAF/5Coordinator, Mr. Paul Akiwumi, UNEP Water Branch,and the members and consultants of the Mozambicanworking team, as well as to the international team ofexperts for their dedicated work.

The designations employed and the presentation ofthe material in this document do not imply theexpression of any opinion whatsoever on the part ofUNEP and FAO concerning the legal status of anyState, Territory, city or area, or its authorities, orconcerning the delimitation of its frontiers orboundaries. The document contains the viewsexpressed by the authors acting in their individualcapacities and do not necessarily represent the viewsof UNEP and FAO.

1998 Priority Actions ProgrammeSplit, Croatia

ISBN 953-6429-13-6

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in partand in any form of educational and non-profit purposeswithout special permission from the copyright holder,provided acknowledgement of the source is made. PAPwould appreciate receiving a copy of any publicationthat uses this material as a source.

No use of this publication may be made for resale orfor any other commercial purposes whatsoever withoutprior permission in writing from PAP.

For bibliographic purposes this document may be citedas:

UNEP/FAO/PAP: Xai-Xai District Coastal Area ManagementStrategy. East African Regional Seas Technical ReportsSeries No. 2. Split, Croatia, 1998, pp-xvi+84.

The Priority Actions Programme (PAP),implemented by the Regional Activity Centre(RAC) in Split, Croatia, is part of theMediterranean Action Plan (MAP) of the UnitedNations Environment Programme (UNEP).Although PAP acts as one of the MAP Centressince 1978, it is a national institution with thebudget and mandate to carry out a certainnumber of MAP activities in coastal areas of theMediterranean Sea.

PAP is an action-oriented organization aimed atcarrying out practical activities which areexpected to yield immediate results contributingto the protection and enhancement of theMediterranean environment, and to thestrengthening of national and local capacities forintegrated coastal zone management. PAPcooperates with a large number of organizationsin the UN system (UNEP, FAO, IMO, UNESCO, IOC,WHO, IAEA, WTO, UNDP), financial institutions(World Bank, European Investment Bank), otherinternational organizations (European Union,Council of Europe, IUCN, etc.), as well asinternational institutions and consultancycompanies.

For more information about PAP, please, contact:

Priority Actions Programme Regional ActivityCentre (PAP/RAC)

Kraj sv. Ivana 11, HR-21000 Split, Croatia

Tel: +385 21 343499/591171,Fax: +385 21 361677

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