TABLE OF CONTENTS - rafflesmun.files.wordpress.com is a passionate Year 5 student in the Humanities...
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Transcript of TABLE OF CONTENTS - rafflesmun.files.wordpress.com is a passionate Year 5 student in the Humanities...
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Welcome Letter From The Dias ...................................................................................................................... 2
Chair Biographies ................................................................................................................................................. 3
The Committee ...................................................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction to the UNDP ................................................................................................................................... 5
Mandate of the UNDP ......................................................................................................................................... 5
Topic A: The Issue of Water Scarcity ................................................................................................................. 7
1 Introduction to Key Issues .............................................................................................................................. 7
2 Current Situation ............................................................................................................................................. 14
3 Case Studies .................................................................................................................................................... 18
4 Definitions of Key Terms ............................................................................................................................... 22
5 Key Guiding Questions ................................................................................................................................... 22
6 Appendix ........................................................................................................................................................... 23
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................................ 24
Topic B: Empowering Youth for Global Development .................................................................................. 28
1 Introduction to the Issue ............................................................................................................................... 28
2 Current Situation ............................................................................................................................................. 34
3 Suggested Approaches ................................................................................................................................. 36
4 Past UN Action ................................................................................................................................................ 38
5 Case Studies .................................................................................................................................................... 41
6 Definitions of Key Terms ............................................................................................................................... 43
7 Key Guiding Questions ................................................................................................................................... 44
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................................ 45
Cover Photo: Eason, B. (Photographer.) (2011, March.) The Kids of Champions Primary School [digital image]. Retrieved from
https://bethanyeason.files.wordpress.com/2012/08/be07-uganda-2.jpg
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WELCOME LETTER FROM THE DAIS
Dear delegates,
Greetings, and welcome to the United Nations Development Programme, as well as the 26th
edition of the Raffles Model United Nations. We, the chairs - James, Advay, Justin and Warren - hope
that everyone will take initiative regarding their own experiences here at RMUN, to step up and to speak
out in debate. Such participation will certainly enhance not just your own experiences here; it will also
allow the chairs and other delegates to have an interesting time as well. We will strive our best to provide
you with an engaging and intellectually stimulating environment throughout the three-day conference
as we tackle two of the most prominent problems in our world today.
In the UNDP, we will be tackling water security as our primary issue in accordance to the sixth
Sustainable Development Goal, and the empowerment of global youth as our secondary issue. We hope
that through your discussions and caucuses, you will be able to understand the nuances of the issues
at hand, which are usually misunderstood by the general public to have be-all, end-all solutions. On the
contrary, both issues require multi-pronged, holistic approaches to successfully and comprehensively
ameliorate the problems at hand, and the chairs are looking forward to the cooperative solutions that
you can come up with during council sessions.
For those who have just started on their MUN journeys, we hope that you will share your views
and stances without hesitation, and that you will take the chance to move beyond your comfort zone
to get involved in council proceedings. For seasoned veterans, we expect to see you take up the mantle
of leading council, and that you will lead the council in a fruitful and encouraging manner.
We wish you all the best for the conference.
Your chairs,
James Lao
Advay Sudarshan
Justin Ng
Warren Liow
Note: All delegates are to send their position papers and any inquiries they might have for the chairs to
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CHAIR BIOGRAPHIES
James Lao
James is an ardent Geography student who loves to see the world that he lives in, having enjoyed his
numerous travels to countries like Sri Lanka, China and the Philippines. He sees travelling as the most
effective way to enjoy different cultures and to understand the various problems other communities
face in their day-to-day living. He also loves to try out new things and go on new adventures, from eating
deep-fried locusts to kayaking in the open ocean, as well as joining the MUN circuit a year ago.
His MUN experience is a unique one - his very first MUN conference saw him chair the United Nations
Security Council. This will be his second time chairing a council for RMUN, and he certainly looks
forward to the well thought-out discussions and comprehensive resolutions that delegates of the UNDP
will no doubt create over the course of the conference.
Advay Sudarshan
Advay is a Science student who always likes to keep his options open and has a wide variety of interests.
Apart from being in the History and Strategic Affairs Society, he is also in the school’s Chinese
Orchestra despite being an Indian and also likes to engage in a number of service activities. He has
participated in an international service-learning project and also helped run a free tutoring programme
for primary school children. While he is not engaged in any activity or trying his best not to fail his
examinations, Advay is always on the lookout for fun facts and even creates his own general knowledge
quizzes. His fields of interest include geography (although no longer a Geography student), politics and
all forms of transport from cars to trains and planes.
Raffles MUN 2017 will be Advay’s 10th MUN in total and his second time as a chair. He hopes to see
delegates participate actively in discussions while contributing constructively to council proceedings.
Ultimately, he hopes that delegates display sportsmanship and are all able to bring home fond
memories from this conference. He looks forward to meeting each and every one of you on 31st May
and hopes that delegates will have a meaningful conference experience.
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Warren Liow
Warren is a passionate Year 5 student in the Humanities Programme with a deep interest in history and
current affairs. Apart from being a member of the History and Strategic Affairs Society, Warren is also
a member of the Students' Council.
His first MUN was RMUN in 2015, where he was part of the World Health Organisation. 2 years later at
RMUN 2017, Warren will be sitting on the other side of the Dais as Deputy Chair of the United Nations
Development Programme. He looks forward to meeting the participants, and would like to remind
delegates to come for Council not just to win awards, but to make friends and learn throughout the
three days. Amidst intense debate, he would like to see delegates remain diplomatic and respectful in
the way they conduct themselves in Council.
Justin Ng
Justin is a Year 5 Science Student who constantly remains indecisive between the Sciences and the
Humanities, as he throws himself into the vigour of preparing for the Singapore Biology Olympiad as
well as keeping abreast of current affairs and international relations. Despite embarking on his MUN
career in late 2016, he has since gone for 5 conferences and thoroughly enjoyed all of them. In his spare
time, he continues his passion for international diplomacy and politics (and war) by being heavily
addicted to grand strategy games from Paradox Interactive. When he isn't drowning in the rigours of
academics and desperately trying to salvage his PW grades, he enjoys taking part in various service
projects as well as sacrificing his grades to catch up on his favourite TV shows and Kdramas.
RMUN 2017 will be Justin’s 6th MUN and the first which he will be attending as a chair. He hopes that
throughout the 3 days, delegates would engage in intensive and fruitful debate, while forging new
friendships to create a fun and memorable experience at RMUN 2017.
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THE COMMITTEE
Introduction to the UNDP
Currently, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is an executive board within the General
Assembly (GA) and is the UN’s global development network. Headquartered in New York, it has country
offices in more than 170 countries and territories around the world.
Structure-wise, the UNDP Exsecutive Board comprises 36 members who come from the 5 regional
groups of African states, Asia‐Pacific states, Eastern European states, Latin American and Caribbean
states and Western European and other states, who are rotated on an annual basis. Funding for UNDP
programmes are voluntary in nature, and is an important consideration when delegates are deliberating
the feasibility of certain measures to be implemented.1 Do note that while delegates should be aware
of funding limitations, the chairs will not look favourably upon absolute amounts being debated upon
in council.
The UNDP remains recognized by many governments around the world as a partner in sustainable
development. Globally, it is viewed as an impartial facilitator of dialogue and cooperation, a provider of
valuable policy and technical support as well as a trusted expert in all development settings.2 As an
important leader in the fight against climate change, the UNDP also strives to maintain climate
neutrality in its global operations, and assists states in undertaking climate change mitigation and
adaptation strategies as stated under the recently concluded Paris Agreement.3
Mandate of the UNDP
The core mandate of the UNDP is to support member states in designing and executing policies for
sustainable human development, as well as in coordinating the mechanisms of the UN at the national
level in ensuring the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).4 The work of the
UNDP focuses on 3 main areas: sustainable development, democratic governance and peacebuilding
1 Paul, J. (n.d.). Tables and Charts on Financing of the UN Programmes, Funds and Specialized Agencies. Retrieved January
16, 2017, from https://www.globalpolicy.org/un-finance/tables-and-charts-on-un-finance/the-financing-of-the-un-programmes-funds-and-specialized-agencies.html 2 UNDP. (n.d.). About Us. Retrieved March 10, 2017, from
http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/operations/about_us.html 3 UNDP demonstrates continued leadership on climate neutrality. (2016, December 13). Retrieved February 16, 2017, from
http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2016/12/13/undp-demonstrates-continued-
leadership-on-climate-neutrality.html 4 Millennium Development Goals. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sdg
overview/mdg_goals.html
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as well as climate and disaster resilience.5 More recently, the UNDP has shifted its focus to inclusive
economic development across regions, as well as to the support of fragile states, particularly in the
aspects of crisis prevention and recovery.
The annual publication of the Human Development Report also falls under the UNDP’s purview, where
the findings and recommended strategies presented are often taken into consideration by countries
seeking to increase the efficacy of currently implemented development strategies.6
Delegates should remain cognizant of the mandate of the UNDP throughout council debates, and
should be aware of the concerns regarding sustainability when developing infrastructural, political, and
financial assistance frameworks.
5 UNDP. (n.d.). About Us. Retrieved March 10, 2017, from
http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/operations/about_us.html
6 Priority Themes. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from https://www.shareweb.ch/site/Multilateral-
Institutions/themes/Pages/Priority Themes.aspx
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TOPIC A The Issue of Water Scarcity
1 Introduction to Key Issues
Singer Eric Burdon summarized the world’s water problem most aptly when he said, “Water! The source
of life! Some people are squandering the world's most precious resource while others have too little
clean water to drink.” 7 Indeed, despite recognition of the human right to water and sanitation by
members of the United Nations, there is a distinct inequity in the consumption of water across regions.
While 300 litres of water is consumed per capita per day in more economically developed countries like
the United States and South Korea, a per capita usage of less than 20 litres per day is observed in the
developing regions of sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. These figures are far above and below the 50-100
liters per capita per day water consumption recommendation set out by the United Nations.8 From the
figures, is it evident that the overconsumption and underconsumption of water are both huge problems
within a more complex, multifaceted problem with the use of water that no country is exempt from.
Figure 1. Bar graph comparing water demand in 2000 and projected water demand by 2050 in different economically categorized regions of the world.9
7 Rolling Stone. (2013, January 26). Album Premiere: Eric Burdon Gets Personal on ''Til Your River Runs Dry' Retrieved March
29, 2017, from http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/eric-burdon-gets-personal-on-til-your-river-runs-dry-album-
premiere-20130126 8 Hrw, Decade, Water for Life, 2015, UN-Water, United Nations, MDG, water, sanitation, financing, gender, IWRM, Human
right, transboundary, cities, quality, food security, General Comment, BKM, Albuquerque. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017,
from http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/human_right_to_water.shtml 9 OECD Environmental Outlook To 2050: The Consequences of Inaction (Rep.). (2012). Retrieved
https://www.oecd.org/env/indicators-modelling-outlooks/49846090.pdf
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In the past, water scarcity resulted in widespread thirst, political instability and mass deaths, although
this is no longer as apocalyptic in more modern times considering technological improvements and
emergency relief aid available for such countries. However, the situation is slowly become dire once
again. Globally, demand for freshwater is increasing by roughly 64 billion cubic meters a year because
of population growth, recent changes in lifestyles which impact individual water consumption habits,
as well as the expanding energy and agricultural industries, both of which are closely linked to water
demand.10 Unfortunately, with only around 2.8% of water on Earth being drinkable, more needs to be
done to slow the rapid depletion of natural aquifers and groundwater sources. We can start by
addressing the worrying trends of water overconsumption and misuse, which, per the World Water
Council, can be traced to three main causes: domestic use, industrial use and agricultural use. 11 12
Overconsumption and Misuse of Water Resources
Domestic Use
Domestic use, standing at 10% of total global water withdrawals, refers to the water used for indoor
and outdoor household, drinking and washing purposes. The good news is that generally, the use of
water for recreational purposes such as swimming pools and jacuzzis have decreased mainly in
developed countries due to rising prices and increased environmental awareness due to educational
initiative and campaigns undertaken by various entities.13 The bad news, though, is that the view that
water is an expendable resource continues to persist in many parts of the world.14 This is partly due to
the heavy water subsidies that some governments implement, which causes water to become very
cheap for households; the actual cost of producing the water is not reflected by the prices people pay,
hence allowing for demand to be much higher than the environmentally optimal level.15 For example,
Germans pay an average of US$2.15 per unit volume of water, while Americans pay only 80 cents for
that same unit volume due to generous subsidies provided by the government.16
10 Water consumed this year (million of liters). (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from http://www.worldometers.info/water/ 11 UN warns of 2050 deadline for dwindling water supplies, urges government action. (2015, April 14). Retrieved March 10,
2017, from http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=50564#.WIs8S_l97IU 12 Water Scarcity. (n.d.). Retrieved March 15, 2017, from https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/water-scarcity 13 The Use Of Water Today (Rep.). (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from World Water Council website:
http://www.worldwatercouncil.org/fileadmin/wwc/Library/WWVision/Chapter2.pdf 14 Nonexpendable and Expendable Resources. (n.d.). Retrieved April 04, 2017, from
https://emilms.fema.gov/IS700aNEW/NIMS0104220text.htm 15 Water subsidies lead to bad decisions. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from
http://www.aguanomics.com/2009/11/water-subsidies-lead-to-bad-decisions.html 16 Overuse. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from http://watersome.blogspot.sg/2011/11/overuse.html
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Industrial Use
As much as reducing domestic overconsumption of water is crucial, though, it actually only forms a
small part of the global problem. Industrial use, which refers to the use of water in industrial processes
at nearly every stage of production, forms about 20% of total global water withdrawals. Such processes
range from fracking, which uses a high-pressure water mixture to release the gas inside subterranean
rock layers, to high-pressure water cutters often used during the fabrication of machine parts; and
experts agree that it is difficult to drive economic growth without a steady source of water - potable or
otherwise - ready for firms to use.17
A continuing major problem is that up to 90% of the water withdrawn by firms (and households to a
smaller extent) is returned to natural sources as wastewater, but often in such a degraded state that
numerous, expensive cleanup processes are required before it can be reused. 18 This is especially
pertinent to manufacturing industries such as the leather and chemical industries, which have been
blamed as major contributors to this problem. An example would be the city of Kapur in India, which is
home to 350 tanneries, many of which discharge their waste straight into the Ganges River. As a result,
hexavalent chromium levels in the Ganges near Kapur are about 6.2 milligrams per liter, well over India's
government-mandated limit of 0.05 milligrams per liter.19
As a result, many countries without sufficient water purification infrastructure and strict environmental
legislation in place - in particular rapidly industrializing developing countries like India and China - see
hazardous materials like asbestos and lead being washed into rivers and lakes untreated,
contaminating the already scarce freshwater available to local communities and firms. This ends up
causing widespread ecological destruction, as well as severe diarrhoea, poisoning, fetal mutations and
even death for those who ingest the water, as is the case in the Ganges River in India, the Yellow River
in China and even in the Great Lakes of Canada.20 21
17 What is fracking and why is it controversial? (2015, December 16). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from
http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-14432401 18 5 Consequences of a Global Water Shortage. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from
http://www.seametrics.com/blog/water-shortage-consequences/ 19 Brennan, J. (n.d.). Leather Industry and Pollution. Retrieved March 10, 2017, from http://sciencing.com/leather-industry-
pollution-23249.html 20 Industrial water and water pollution « Water Pollution Guide. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from http://www.water-
pollution.org.uk/industrialwaste.html 21 40 Interesting Facts About Water Pollution. (2017, January 18). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from http://www.conserve-
energy-future.com/various-water-pollution-facts.php
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Figure 2. Map of the Great Lakes in Canada, showing the levels of phosphorus in the region. This phosphorus originates from agricultural and industrial runoff, and propels eutrophication in the lakes.22
Agriculture Use
However, the greatest problem of the three is agriculture use, which includes water used for the
irrigation of crops and livestock farming, and comprises the remaining 70% of total global water
withdrawals - a figure that is only expected to rise due to the concurrent rise in food demand, in turn
caused by increasing global population size. Of that 70%, scientists estimate that 60% of the water
used in agriculture is “straight-up wasted”, mostly through the unnecessary over-watering of crops by
farmers and other food producers who draw water from freshwater sources recklessly.23 The lack of
regulation with regards to water access, the presence of affordable electric and diesel water pumps, as
well as subsidised electricity and diesel oil have all exacerbated the problem of rapidly falling water
tables in key aquifers and water bodies.
A related key problem would be the cultivation of so-called “thirsty” crops - including sugarcane, rice,
date palms and cotton - in various agricultural regions around the world. As these thirsty crops are
often cultivated in environments that are wholly unsuitable for them, they require regular irrigation in
22 Walker, N. (2016, June 13). Pollution in the Great Lakes. Retrieved April 09, 2017, from
https://www.canadiangeographic.ca/article/pollution-great-lakes 23 Thirsty crops cause water shortages and pollution. (n.d.). World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved April 01, 2017, from
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/about_freshwater/freshwater_problems/thirsty_crops/
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order to prevent crop death, thus significantly contributing to the dewatering of many water sources.24
However, the greatest obstacle to solving this problem is the economic cost of substituting these
environmentally harmful, but lucrative crops for those that may not sell as well to corporations in the
global market. As crops like sugarcane and cotton are often more valuable than, say, wheat or corn due
to differences in demand for the crop in the national and global market, farmers are clearly more
inclined to plant whichever that pays them more.25 As a result, it is very difficult to convince them not
to plant these ecologically unsuitable “thirsty” crops without some form of financial compensation to
make up for the losses incurred as a result of the switch.
Furthermore, the increase in affluence of many previously poor regions (such as China and India)
around the world has led to a significant increase in demand for previously unaffordable foods like
hamburgers and steaks.26 Unfortunately, as a result, agricultural water consumption will only increase
unabated as many of these foods - especially meat and meat-based foods - require a tremendous
amount of water to produce, be it water used in generating the energy that powers food production
processes to the water used to maintain grassland for cattle to graze, and so on. For all this, more has
to be done to reduce food production-related water overuse, and quickly.
Item Water Required To
Produce (litres)
1 Beef Steak 7000
1 Hamburger 2400
1 Chicken Breast 1140
1 Glass of Milk 200
1 Egg 135
1 Slice of Bread 40
Table 1. Amount of water required to produce certain foods27
24 Ibid. 25 Gillis, J., & Richtel, M. (2015, April 06). As drought squeezes California, thirsty crops still being planted. Retrieved March 10,
2017, from http://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/farmers-overuse-of-groundwater-worsens-californias-plight/ 26 Martin, R. (2005, August). Water Facts And Trends (Rep.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from UNWater website:
http://www.unwater.org/downloads/Water_facts_and_trends.pdf 27 Savedge, J. (2015, June 28). Celebrating and protecting water for World Water Day. Retrieved April 09, 2017, from
http://www.mnn.com/lifestyle/responsible-living/blogs/celebrating-and-protecting-water-for-world-water-day
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Accessibility and availability of freshwater sources
Another dimension of the water problem stems mainly from disadvantaged communities who have to
suffer from limited availability and accessibility to freshwater sources. This can arise from high utility
costs, pollution or lack of proper water infrastructure to these areas, amongst others.
Currently, work by the United Nations and its member states has allowed for 91% of the global
population access to an improved water source - one that protects water from external
contamination.28 Yet, studies by UN-Water have found that there is still an estimated 783 million people
who currently do not have access to clean and safe water, with the most affected regions being those
that are economically undeveloped (such as Sub-Saharan Africa and the Asia Pacific) or facing great
political upheaval (Yemen, Syria), or even both.29 Often in these countries, women and girls often bear
the burden of walking many kilometres at a time to gather water from streams and ponds due to the
lack of proper pipes, pumps and other such infrastructure to transport potable water to their villages.30
The situation is worsened as these same water sources are often subject to uncontrolled littering,
effluent discharge and improper waste disposal as a result of the lack of proper sewage systems.31 All
this, combined with an absence of proper water purification technology and knowledge, means that the
water collected by these villagers is usually unfiltered, dirty and full of preventable waterborne diseases.
The World Health Organization has found that up to 4,000 children in Asia and Africa die each day as a
result of these waterborne diseases, in particular cholera, typhoid and hepatitis A. 32 In addition,
ingestion of this water and the resulting illnesses often cause catastrophic economic hardship for the
family either in the form of unaffordable medical bills or the sudden loss of income due to the
incapacitation of the breadwinners.33
It is also important to consider the fact that convenience trumps other considerations; most rural
villagers prefer to use a nearby unprotected source to a slightly more distant protected well or borehole,
all in order to save them time that they can use for other matters.34 Furthermore, the combined impacts
28 Purvis, K. (2015, July 1). Access to clean water and sanitation around the world – mapped. The Guardian. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/jul/01/global-access-clean-water-sanitation-mapped 29 Facts and Statistics about Water and Its Effects. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from https://thewaterproject.org/water-scarcity/water_stats 30 Why Water - Access to clean, safe water in Africa. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from https://thewaterproject.org/why-water/ 31 Ganges River Pollution. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from http://www.all-about-india.com/Ganges-River-Pollution.html 32 Berman, J. (2009, October 29). WHO: Waterborne Disease is World's Leading Killer. Retrieved April 01, 2017, from http://www.voanews.com/a/a-13-2005-03-17-voa34-67381152/274768.html 33 Jeon, Y., Essue, B., Jan, S., Wells, R., & Whitworth, J. A. (2009, October 09). Economic hardship associated with managing chronic illness: A qualitative inquiry. Retrieved April 01, 2017, from http://bmchealthservres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6963-9-182 34 To achieve water security, we must see its human face. (2013, February 19). Retrieved March 11, 2017, from https://www.odi.org/comment/7282-human-face-water-security
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of climate change and water overuse sometimes deprive these communities of even these unprotected
water sources as the water table falls and perennial streams dry up, leaving them with little choice but
to either travel further for water, or to simply wait for rain.35
On the other end of the spectrum, sufficiently thorough maintenance of national water infrastructure
and testing of water quality are major issues even for many developed countries due to the high costs
and time-consuming nature of such consistent, comprehensive checks. In recent years, countries that
have chosen to undertake an “out of sight, out of mind” approach to this issue - due to financial
constraints or otherwise - have begun to observe the devastating consequences of such a mistake. A
notable example is the United States where inadequate water testing has caused lead from centuries-
old water pipes to leach into the water of communities like Flint, Michigan.36 Hence, even if locals have
access to a water source through state-provided infrastructure, (useable) water may not be available to
them due to the poor quality that is provided.
Moreover, the lack of maintenance can also result in serious leakages in the water distribution systems
that waste trillions of litres of water across the globe.37 Without proper and consistent preservation of
these pipes, water pumps and meters, damage by the weather, rust and human error can cost the
government up to billions - even hundreds of billions for larger countries - just to repair, and billions
more in lost water, not to mention the environmental costs associated with increased water withdrawal
to make up for lost supply.38
35 Ibid. 36 How Flint, Michigan's tap water became toxic. (n.d.). CNN. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://edition.cnn.com/2016/01/11/health/toxic-tap-water-flint-michigan/ 37 Schaper, D. (2014, October 29). As Infrastructure Crumbles, Trillions Of Gallons Of Water Lost. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://www.npr.org/2014/10/29/359875321/as-infrastructure-crumbles-trillions-of-gallons-of-water-lost 38 Crow, P. (n.d.). New Report Hights Staggering Costs For Water Infrastructure. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://www.waterworld.com/articles/print/volume-28/issue-4/departments/washington-update/new-report-highlights-staggering-costs-ahead-for-water-infrastructure-by-patrick-crow-washington-correspondent.html
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2 Current Situation
Technological Advancements
Since the turn of the century, interest in the development of water technology - in sectors such as water
filtration, purification, distribution and storage - has been growing in both the private and public sectors,
and they aim to cover the following areas:
The reduction of the energy/carbon footprint of established water treatment methods or their
replacement with more efficient alternatives;
The treatment of both high- and low-concentration industrial effluent and other such high-
impact contaminants from water sources;
The reduction of current dependence on centralized national water supply grids and introduce
the ability for more localized self-sufficiency.39
Promising industrial innovations include cheaper reverse osmosis technology used in desalination
plants, filtration systems that utilize nanotechnology to kill bacteria, as well as smart irrigation systems
that control the amount of water used in agriculture based on soil moisture levels.40 41 However, all
three continue to have the same problem: the prohibitive cost of implementation, especially considering
that these are technologies meant for large-scale production. Some countries attempt to circumvent
this problem through the use of public-private partnerships (PPPs) to fund water projects, as is the case
in Nagpur, India, but these have recently come under fire due to allegations of corruption and price
gouging. 42 Furthermore, as these industrial-scale technologies become more sophisticated, the
amount of energy needed to produce and run them tends to increase as well, which is of increasing
concern to a world that seeks to reduce the carbon footprint of energy production.43
On the other hand, small-scale, personal products like the LifeStraw have become part and parcel of
international efforts to provide clean water for the disadvantaged. Such products are instrumental in
combating easily preventable diseases like cholera and guinea worm disease within rural areas and
have seen successful adaptation by local communities in South Africa, Nigeria and Kenya.44 However,
39 Thompson, I. (2013, November 13). The role of technology in achieving water security. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/371/2002/20120418 40 What are the latest advances in water treatment and management? (2011, October 18). The Guardian. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainable-water-treatment-management 41 Henley, W. (2013, July 22). The new water technologies that could save the planet. The Guardian. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/new-water-technologies-save-planet 42 Nair, S. (2015, December 25). Privatisation of urban water supply: The muddy picture. The Indian Express.. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/privatisation-of-urban-water-supply-the-muddy-picture/ 43 The Big Read: Water security, energy use a difficult trade-off. (n.d.). Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://www.todayonline.com/singapore/water-security-energy-use-difficult-trade 44 AQUA4LIFE rolls out LifeStraw community project in Hluhlewe, KZN. (2014, November 18). Africa Green Media. Retrieved from https://www.relate.org.za/news/africa-green-media-aqua4life-rolls-out-lifestraw-community-project-in-hluhlewe-kzn
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the distribution of such products continues to be a monumental task for even the most established of
organizations, and the high cost of producing these advanced filters while earning no profit from it is a
concern to many of these producers.45
Role of Non-Governmental Organizations
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have also been instrumental in helping to distribute the
necessary technologies and to educate locals in their usage; many often cite their political neutrality, a
lower risk of corruption that provides them with legitimacy as well as the quick utilization of new
innovations as factors for their successes.46 Indeed, NGOs such as Global Water and AQUA4LIFE have
been moderately successful in their objectives in water-insecure regions, with the establishment of
well-drilling projects in Central Asia by the former and the distribution of thousands of LifeStraws to
poor South African communities by the latter, for example.47 However, an oft-omitted aspect of NGOs
is the unsustainable nature of some of their projects; it has been found that less than 1% of water-
related projects have any form of long-term monitoring systems, leaving communities with too little
support in the event of any unexpected problems that arise with the systems. This led to calamitous
incidents such as the failure of at least 30% of 600 thousand-plus hand pumps installed by NGOs in
sub-Saharan Africa over the last 20 years, thus essentially negating the benefits the NGOs have brought
to the communities in the first place.48 49 More long-term mechanisms need to be put in place to ensure
that NGO efforts are not merely one-off instances, doomed to fail only after a short-period of time, but
sustainable solutions that remain viable even in the long term. For example, monitoring systems by
NGOs and other international organizations like the UNDP can be implemented in conjunction with local
authorities to ensure the integrity of current infrastructure within these priority regions.
Transnational Water Disputes and UN Action
In recent years, there have also been instances of transnational water disputes, particularly in regions
that face higher water stress. One prominent example is the dispute between Egypt, Sudan and other
riparian nations over usage of the Nile River’s water resources. The historic rights Egypt purports to
possess over the Nile have encouraged over-dependency on the river, especially considering the lack
of rainfall otherwise enjoyed by upstream riparian nations. However, the recent induction of the Nile
45 Rimmer, A. (2011, June 5). Re: Thirty million dollars, a Little bit of Carbon, and a Lot of Hot Air [Blog comment]. Retrieved from https://ssir.org/articles/entry/thirty_million_dollars_a_little_bit_of_carbon_and_a_lot_of_hot_air 46 Capabilities that contribute to the success of NGOs. (n.d.). Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://ecdpm.org/publications/note-capabilities-contribute-success-non-governmental-organisations/ 47 P. (2017, February 16). NGO Water Sector Confronts Sustainability Problem. The Pulitzer Center. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://pulitzercenter.org/articles/world-water-day-wash-sustainability-forum-report 48 Ibid. 49 Ibid.
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River Cooperative Framework (NRCF), which allows upstream riparian nations to draw from the Nile,
into international law has caused widespread unhappiness in Egypt and Sudan, who refuse recognition
of the framework.50 Such disputes have arisen in other shared water resources such as the Mekong,
the Tigris and the Euphrates as well. These conflicts are often very complex and always involves the
interests of the many parties who want to benefit from the resource, including commercial agents,
governments, farmers and so on.
The United Nations recognizes that transboundary cooperation is the most effective way forward, and
countries who utilize the common resource must share the responsibility of maintaining its integrity.51
Agreements such as the UN Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses
and International Lakes aim to facilitate international cooperation in this regard, but many experts
believe that since these are ultimately dependent on the willingness of the countries to fulfil their duties,
they are not as effective as they can be.
Aside from this, the UNDP also engages in the Community Water Initiative in many countries which
supports the “decentralized, demand-driven, innovative, low-cost, community-based water resource
management and water supply and sanitation projects”.52 53 In this way, the UNDP has reached out to
numerous isolated communities around the world and brought the precious commodity to the
disadvantaged.
Role of Climate Change
The rapid warming of global temperatures in recent years has also contributed to the acceleration of
the depletion of freshwater reserves as well. In the humid tropics, warming increases the amount of
water that the atmosphere can hold, which in turn can lead to more and heavier rainfall when the air
cools. While this can add to freshwater resources, heavier rainfall also leads to a faster movement of
water from the atmosphere back to the oceans, reducing our ability to store and use it.54 Conversely, in
drier subtropical regions, climate change is projected to reduce renewable surface water and
50 Conflict on the Nile: The future of transboundary water disputes over the world's longest river. (2016, January 27). Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://www.futuredirections.org.au/publication/conflict-on-the-nile-the-future-of-transboundary-water -disputes-over-the-world-s-longest-river/ 51 Transboundary Waters: Sharing Benefits, Sharing Responsibilities (Thematic Paper). (2008). Retrieved http://www.unwater.org/downloads/UNW_TRANSBOUNDARY.pdf 52 Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, 17 March 1992. Retrieved from https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/water/pdf/watercon.pdf 53 Community Water Initiative - Delivering water and sanitation to poor communities. (n.d.). United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/environment-energy/ water_governance/CWI-booklet.html 54 London, Grantham Institute Imperial College. How will climate change impact on water security? Retrieved March 29, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/nov/30/climate-change-water
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groundwater resources significantly.55 At the same time, higher temperatures contribute to the melting
of inland glaciers; while this, too, will increase water supply to rivers and lakes in the short term, but this
will cease once these glaciers have melted - as is already the case in many landlocked countries in
South America and Central Asia.56 57
Climate change has the potential to worsen competition for already scarce water resources as
its effects are large in scale and transboundary in nature, and its unpredictable nature makes it difficult
for monitoring agencies to properly extrapolate the effects climate change will have on specific high-
risk regions.58
55 Climate Change and Water Security. (2016, February 12). Retrieved March 29, 2017, from http://en.unesco.org/themes/addressing-climate-change/climate-change-and-water-security 56 Ibid. 57 Bolivian water crisis as glaciers vanish. (2016, November 26). Climate News Network. Retrieved March 29, 2017, from http://climatenewsnetwork.net/bolivian-water-crisis-glaciers-vanish/ 58 Totalförsvarets forskningsinstitut. (2014). Climate Change and Security Challenges Dispatch no. 10 (10). Retrieved from https://www.foi.se/download/18.67e0f0be156ecf162a739/1472924291292/FOI+Memo+5492+Nr+10.pdf
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3 Case Studies
Bahrain
Due to the arid climate and very low precipitation rates in the Middle Eastern region, countries in the
region had to contend with severe water stress for many years; among them, the Kingdom of Bahrain
tops the list of the most water-stressed nations in the world by 2040.59 In the early 20th century, Bahrain
was dependent on the date palm industry for economic growth before changing tastes and preferences,
increasing salinity of groundwater and the discovery of oil deposits led to the decline of the date palm
industry.60 These date palms, although originating from dry, arid areas, are actually very thirsty crops
(needing around 22,000 to 25,000 m3 of water per hectare per year) and heavily contributed to the
significant fall in the water table levels of the Dammam Aquifer (refer to Appendix) upon which the
country almost completely relies on.61 As a result, the water table receded so far that water pressure in
the aquifer decreased, accelerating the aforementioned saltwater intrusion from the surrounding
Persian Gulf and the contamination of what freshwater was left. With this reducing the water’s
usefulness even until today, Bahrain has adopted the use of desalination plants to meet water demand,
as well as the reduction of water subsidies provided to local consumers in order to discourage blatant
water wastage and cut costs.62 63 Yet, as its population continues to increase, the government is once
again concerned about the ever-present possibility of demand outpacing supply in the near future.
Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and the Aral Sea
Known as one of the world’s worst environmental disasters, the shrinking of what was once the world’s
fourth largest lake was the result of poor planning and excessive withdrawal from the resource.64 The
Aral Sea was once the home of a thriving maritime economy and boasted diverse ecosystems that
house many endemic marine species. However, the Soviet Union - led by Nikita Khrushchev in the
1950s - deliberately deprived the Aral Sea of its two main sources of water which rapidly depleted the
sea. Not only was all the water being diverted into canals meant for the irrigation of the thirsty crop
cotton at the expense of the Aral Sea supply, poor infrastructure also meant that most of it was being
59 Ranking the World's Most Water-Stressed Countries in 2040. (n.d.). Retrieved April 01, 2017, from http://www.wri.org/blog/2015/08/ranking-world’s-most-water-stressed-countries-2040 60 Bahrain - The Economy. (n.d.). Retrieved April 04, 2017, from http://countrystudies.us/persian-gulf-states/36.htm 61 UN-ESCWA and BGR (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia; Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe). 2013. Inventory of Shared Water Resources in Western Asia. Beirut. 62 Zaleed, W. (1999, April). The Dammam aquifer in Bahrain – Hydrochemical characterization and alternatives for management of groundwater quality. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s100400050192 63 Bahrain government plans more subsidy cuts. (2015, May 26). Trade Arabia. Retrieved from tradearabia.com/news/BANK_282703.html 64 Aral Sea 'one of the planet's worst environmental disasters' (2010, April 05). The Telegraph. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/earthnews/7554679/Aral-Sea-one-of-the-planets-worst-environmental-disasters.html
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soaked up by the desert and blatantly wasted.65 Today, the Aral ‘Sea’ has become nothing more than a
polluted dust bowl, with more than 80% of its seabed being exposed as more water is lost every year
to withdrawal and evaporation.66 The fishing industry in nearby towns has become virtually nonexistent,
and abandoned trawlers are scattered where the water used to be. Studies have also shown that the
pollution and carcinogens from the water has caused serious health concerns in nearby communities,
especially to infants and young children. Perhaps, this may change as both the Kazakh and Uzbek
governments (along with Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan) have begun cooperative efforts to
slowly replenish the Aral Sea and restore it to its former glory.67
Figure 3. Satellite imagery of the Aral Sea in 1980 (left) and 2016 (right).68
65 T. (n.d.). The Aral Sea Crisis. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://www.columbia.edu/~tmt2120/in 66 Whish-Wilson, P. (2002). The Aral Sea environmental health crisis. Journal of Rural and Remote Environmental Health. Retrieved from http://jrtph.jcu.edu.au/vol/v01whish.pdf 67 Ibatullin, S. (2015, August 25). Central Asia Must Unite to Revive the Aral Sea. The Diplomat. Retrieved April 04, 2017, from http://thediplomat.com/2015/08/central-asia-must-unite-to-revive-the-aral-sea/ 68 The Case of The Ever-Shrinking `Sea’. (n.d.). Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://epaper.dawn.com/DetailImage.php?StoryImage=22_01_2017_525_001
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Nigeria and Shell
In 2016, Nigerian tribal king Emare Godwin Bebe Okpabi and other members of the Bodo
community sued the oil company Shell for the overexploitation and contamination of local water
supplies.69 This is an outcome of many years of rampant environmental degradation arising from the
largest oil industry in the continent; an estimated 9 to 13 million barrels of crude oil have been spilled
since drilling started in 1958, caused by unrepaired, corroded pipes, malfunctioning pumping
equipment and even sabotage. As a result, groundwater originating from the Niger Delta, upon which
communities like the Bodo draw for drinking and irrigating, has become frequently contaminated,
leaving in its wake numerous casualties and thousands of hectares of poisoned agricultural land.70 71
In fact, water coated with hydrocarbons more than 1,000 times the level allowed by Nigerian drinking
water standards has been found in many affected regions. Weak enforcement of environmental
regulations by the government has further exacerbated the problem, essentially giving powerful
corporations like Shell and Exxon-Mobil free rein.72 Currently, the Niger Delta is in urgent need of a
thorough cleanup operation if there is to be any chance of restoration, but in an environment that has
been devastated by decades of oil-related pollution, such cleanup efforts can take at least another three
decades.73
Bolivia’s Water Crisis
Historically, the landlocked South American country of Bolivia have depended on its glacially supplied
rivers and lakes for water. Throughout the year, the 2.3 million inhabitants of the major cities, La Paz
and El Alto, receive about 15% of their water supply from here, with this percentage almost doubling
during the dry season.74 However, recent prolonged droughts - which many have attributed to global
warming - have resulted in the unprecedented recession of these Bolivian glaciers and has caused a
nationwide crisis. Water rationing in the capital city La Paz has become a permanent measure as the
drought continues to worsen. As for the three dams that supply the city, the main Ajuan Khota dam is
at 1% of capacity, while the other two are averaging 8% capacity.75 Residents have already gone without
69 Polluted water in hand, Nigerian king takes Shell to court in London. (n.d.). Phys.org. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from https://phys.org/news/2016-11-polluted-nigerian-king-shell-court.html 70 Baird J (26 July 2010). "Oil's Shame in Africa". Newsweek. 71 Shell sued in UK for 'decades of oil spills' in Nigeria, (2016, November 22). Al-Jazeera. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/11/shell-sued-uk-decades-oil-spills-nigeria-161122193545741.html 72 Westby, J. (n.d.). Shell tries to dodge responsibility for Nigeria oil spills again. African Arguments. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from http://africanarguments.org/2016/11/25/shell-tries-to-dodge-responsibility-for-nigeria-oil-spills-again/ 73 Vidal, J. (2011, August 04). Niger delta oil spills clean-up will take 30 years, says UN. The Guardian. Retrieved March 11, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/aug/04/niger-delta-oil-spill-clean-up-un 74 European Geosciences Union. (2016, October 20). Receding glaciers in Bolivia leave communities at risk. Retrieved from http://www.egu.eu/news/292/receding-glaciers-in-bolivia-leave-communities-at-risk/ 75 Gaulter, S. (2016, November 20). Water rationing introduced as Bolivia drought worsens. Al-Jazeera. Retrieved from http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/11/water-rationing-introduced-bolivia-drought-worsens-161120093020654.html
21
running water for 60 hours at a time, followed by 12-hour periods to replenish their supplies, and many
critics have come to criticize the current Morales government of inefficiency, negligence and a failure
to prepare sufficient contingency plans even though they had prior knowledge of the receding glacial
shelf since the 1980s.76 77 Experts also believe that excessive mining sped up the depletion of local
freshwater sources, wherein large-scale extraction and pollution ravaged water systems without
oversight.78
This is almost reminiscent of Bolivia’s history as a country that has faced social instability because of
water shortages. In September 1999, the government handed over Cochabamba’s water, without any
public consultation, to a consortium led by California engineering giant Bechtel Corporation which
shortly after raised water rates enormously. This, coupled with a swiftly expanding population and a
drier climate had turned Cochabamba's once lush valley into an increasingly parched and dusty place,
made Bolivia's third largest city and largest agricultural producer the centre of what will be known as
the Cochabamba Water War.79 As the water table swiftly fell, many parts of the city received (expensive)
water for only a few hours every two or three days, and farmers had to shift to crops requiring less
irrigation. Consequently, an angry populace united to expel the powerful transnational corporation that
had privatized their water, leading to tens of thousands joining in clashes against the police and to a
civilian being killed.80 This had such a large political impact that it eventually forced the government to
reverse the privatisation to appease the people.
Now, as the threat of political instability looms over the country once again, Bolivia can only wait for the
rains to come and deliver them relief, without which the country will only descend into chaos.
76 Ibid. 77 Martinez, R. (2017, January 5). With melting glaciers and mining, Bolivia’s water is running dangerously low. Public Radio International. Retrieved from https://www.pri.org/stories/2017-01-04/la-paz-short-water-bolivia-s-suffers-its-worst-drought-25-years 78 Ibid. 79 Water war in Bolivia. (2000, February 12). Retrieved March 15, 2017, from http://www.economist.com/node/280871 80 Lopez, A. O. (2015, April 23). Bolivia, 15 Years on from the Water War What happened in Cochabamba and in Bolivia after the Water War? Retrieved March 15, 2017, from http://www.hidropolitikakademi.org/en/bolivia-15-years-on-from-the-water-war-what-happened-in-cochabamba-and-in-bolivia-after-the-water-war.html
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4 Definitions of Key Terms
Aquifer (n): a body of permeable rock which can contain or transmit groundwater, especially one that
supplies wells, springs etc.
Effluent (n): liquid waste or sewage discharged into a river or the sea
Greywater (n): relatively clean wastewater from baths, sinks, washing machines, and other kitchen
appliances
Groundwater (n): water held underground in the soil or in pores and crevices in rock
Hydrocarbon (n): a chief component of petroleum and natural gas
Riparian (adj): relating to or situated on the banks of a river
5 Key Guiding Questions
How can water overconsumption be tackled, considering the needs of the various sectors
(domestic, industrial, agricultural)?
What are some mechanisms that can ensure the integrity of joint efforts by the public and
private sector? Are punitive measures for errant entities sufficient?
How can efforts by NGOs to provide water security to disadvantaged communities be
supplemented so as to ensure long-term sustainability?
What are some political, environmental and economic considerations when discussing the
feasibility of implementing these water technologies? How can these obstacles be overcome?
Do more economically developed countries have a responsibility to help developing countries
in achieving water security? If so, in what ways can - and should - they help developing countries,
in light of their own domestic water security issues?
What can the UNDP, as an international organization, do to improve the state of water security
and reduce water overconsumption in the world?
How can the UNDP ensure that responsibility for the maintenance of transboundary water
sources is shared amongst dependant nations?
What role can the UNDP play in helping to resolve transboundary water conflicts?
23
6 Appendix
Map of the Umm er Radhuma-Dammam-Rus Aquifer System
The Dammam Aquifer is part of a larger aquifer system that is shared between Bahrain, Qatar and Saudi
Arabia. It is fed by the larger Umm er Radhuma aquifer in Saudi Arabia - as shown by the purple arrows
indicative groundwater travel direction - but on top of Bahrain’s own overconsumption problem,
unusually erratic weather patterns and overexploitation of the Umm er Radhuma by Saudi Arabia has
contributed to the low recharge rate of the Dammam aquifer.
24
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TOPIC B Empowering Youth for Global Development
1 Introduction to the Key Issues
In recent years, both national and international entities have come to address youth empowerment as
a “gateway to intergenerational equity, civic engagement and democracy building.”. 81 With the
population of young people today at its historical highest of 1.8 billion, the youth offer a vast potential
to enact positive change in societies. 82 Participating in “Sanitation Hackathons” in Pakistan that
promote public involvement in the development of national sanitation utilities, and using social media
and viral trends to raise funds for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) research are but a minute
representation of the numerous youth-led initiatives that transformed or aim to transform the world in
their little way.83 As Babatunde Osotimehin (Executive Director of the United Nations Population Fund)
wrote in an article to the Atlantic, it is “the dynamism of youth movements and young social
entrepreneurs that... have the potential to disrupt inertia and be the most creative forces for social
change”.84 Of course, such a complex, transboundary initiative will have its own set of hurdles to
overcome before countries can maximise the benefits of tapping on the limitless potential of the youth
today.
Provision of Employment for Youth
To be able to effectively empower youth, it is first important to ensure that the foundations on which
they are being empowered are stable. Therefore, the more basic necessities of a youth - education and
employment have to be addressed first before they can be enabled and motivated to get involved in
civic engagement and political participation
The provision of sufficient employment opportunities for youths is a difficult challenge to scale.
Currently, there are 74 million youth who are unable to find stable, legitimate sources of employment.85
In the next 15 years alone, 600 million new jobs are needed globally in order to keep employment rates
stable amidst population growth, a figure that is becoming increasingly difficult to reach due to the
81 (1998) "Examining empowerment: A 'how-to' guide for youth development professionals" Journal of Extension, December 1998 82 Youth empowerment, education, employment key to future development | UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund. (2015, June 1). Retrieved from http://www.unfpa.org/news/youth-empowerment-education-employment-key-future-development 83 Kumar, R. (2013, January 14). Social Media and Social Change: How Young People are Tapping into Technology [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://blogs.worldbank.org/youthink/social-media-and-social-change-how-young-people-are-tapping-technology 84 Osotimehin, B. (2012, November 15). Young People Have the Power to Change the World. The Atlantic. Retrieved March 28, 2017, from https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/11/young-people-have-the-power-to-change-the-world/265200 85 Tackling Youth Unemployment With Mobile Phones. (2016, December 22). [Web log post]. Retrieved March 28, 2017, from https://www.engagespark.com/blog/tackling-youth-unemployment-mobile-phones/
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increasing automation and mechanization of jobs that reduce the need for human labour. 86 In
developing countries like Nigeria, Lesotho and Kenya, the exponential increase in birth rates over the
last decade have contributed to a glut in the skilled workforce, due to an ever-increasing graduating
population and exacerbated by rapidly changing demand for the natural resources these countries
export. At the same time, some of the skills that youth graduate with have been quickly made irrelevant
in the modern workplace - a result of:
● the neglect of vocational, entrepreneurial and employability training in favour of more traditional
academics,
● a lack of instruction in how to harness lifeskills most students already have, and
● poor connections between the private sector and schools to promote training and work
experience.87
As a result, structural unemployment has skyrocketed in many countries that struggle to update their
education systems in accordance to global trends. 88 For many individuals, this prolonged
unemployment can further result in frustration, anger and low self-esteem, as well as an eventual loss
of their skill, which will further reduce their employability. In many countries, the added burden of college
debts have contributed to this psychological stress as well, as many are unable to clear their debts due
to unemployment. This predisposes them to involvement in criminal activities such as armed robbery,
prostitution and fraud just to earn enough to provide for themselves and their families.89
Youth Education and Skills Training
Hence, for youth employment to be properly addressed, it is clear that youth need to be first equipped
with the proper skills to seek meaningful and sustainable employment. The 10th Education for All
Global Monitoring Report released by UNESCO in 2012 estimates that for every US$1 spent on a
person’s education, US$10-US$15 in economic growth over that person’s working lifetime is generated
for the country.90 Not investing in the skills of the youth makes them quickly irrelevant in the rapidly
evolving economies of more developed countries, or trapped in jobs and earning poverty line wages in
86 World Bank Jobs and Development Overview. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2017, from http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/jobsanddevelopment/overview 87 Ibid. 88 Nigeria's unemployment rate rises to 13. 9% – NBS. (2016, December 16). The Vanguard. Retrieved March 28, 2017, from http://www.vanguardngr.com/2016/12/nigerias-unemployment-rate-rises-13-9-nbs/ 89 Adedokun, M. O., & Oluwagbohunmi, M. F. (2014). An Overview of the Challenges Facing Youths in Nigerian Society. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4(6), 02-03. Retrieved from http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_4_No_6_April_2014/15.pdf 90 UNESCO. (2012). Twenty percent of young people in developing countries fail to complete primary school and lack skills for work. Retrieved from http://en.unesco.org/gem-report/sites/gem-report/files/gmr2012-pressrelease_0.pdf
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lower-income countries.91 The difficulty in addressing this issue, however, is twofold: difficulties with
regards to student enrolment, and difficulties in provision of educational opportunities.
The first part of this issue deals with student enrolment. Although there has been significant progress
made in this field with regards to achieving the target of universal primary education - with a total
enrolment rate in developing regions of 91% in 2015, and a drop in the number of unenrolled children
by almost half92 - the inequitable distribution of education has caused many problems to persist in the
poorest regions in the world. Dropout rates in developing countries have remained high, specifically in
three high-priority regions identified by UNESCO:
● Sub-Saharan Africa, where 42% of pupils will leave school early, with about one in six leaving
before Grade 2;
● South and West Asia, where for every 100 pupils who start primary school, 33 will leave before
the last grade;
● Latin America and the Caribbean, where 17% of pupils leave school before completing primary
education.93
Figure 4. Graph showing the percentage of out-of-school children of primary school age in 2013. Note the
concentration of highest out-of-school rates in countries generally considered to be economically developing.
91 United Nations News Centre - Dire need to increase funding for skills training in developing world, UN warns. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=43296#.WNMkKm996Uk 92Goal 4: Quality education | UNDP. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-4-quality-education.html 93Stumbling blocks to universal primary education: Repetition rates decline but dropout rates remain high. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://en.unesco.org/news/stumbling-blocks-universal-primary-education-repetition-rates-decline-dropout-rates-remain-high?language=en
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Some suggested reasons driving this trend are related to the the individual, such as poor health or
malnutrition and motivation, while others emerge from children’s household situations such as child
labour and poverty. The interrelated nature of these reasons often mean that simply addressing only
one issue, such as poor health, is insufficient to increase student enrolment. 94 Rather, a targeted,
sustained and multifaceted solution is required to ensure that students attend school and continue
doing so. Most notably, poverty appears to be the greatest influence on the demand for schooling, not
only because it affects the ability of households to pay school fees and other supplementary costs, but
also because it is associated with a high opportunity cost of schooling for children - “why send them to
school when they can be earning money for the family?”. 95 This lack of resources - sometimes
combined with the influence of traditional cultures and beliefs - not only contributes to the high dropout
rates, but also engenders the inequitable distribution of educational opportunities between males and
females, and between the urban population and the more isolated, rural (perhaps tribal) minorities. For
example, around 15-20% of the minority Roma children in Bulgaria and 30% in Romania do not continue
in school after Grade 4 in primary school. In South and West Asia, 80% of out-of-school girls are unlikely
to ever start schools compared to 16% for boys.96
Such a worrying trend is only exacerbated by inadequacies on the logistical end, where the main
difficulty involves the scarcity of the resources that are needed to accommodate the expanding pool of
youth in the world today. The growing number of youth has not been met with sufficient educational
opportunities. Instances of such a shortage or inequitable provision of educational funding,
opportunities and resources can already be found in both developed and developing countries.
Developed countries such as the United Kingdom and Ireland face a lack of supply of legitimate
apprenticeships and other skills-related opportunities - and government support of them - that fully
satisfies the demand for such programmes.97 For the latter, the phenomenon of underpaid teachers is
a more common manifestation of the ill-equipped education systems that are common in developing
countries; their meagre salaries compel teachers to work additional jobs to support themselves, which
in turn affect the quality of their teaching, student engagement and even their own attendance in
94 UNESCO. (2011). School Drop out: Patterns, Causes, Changes and Policies. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001907/190771e.pdf 95 The World Bank. (2005). Roma in an Expanding Europe: Breaking the Poverty Cycle. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTROMA/Resources/roma_in_expanding_europe.pdf 96 UNICEF. (July 23, 2015). Girls’ education and gender equality. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/education/bege_70640.html 97 Steedman, H. (2010). The State of Apprenticeships in 2010. Retrieved from The London School of Economics and Political Science website: http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/special/cepsp22.pdf
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class.98 This, in turn, demotivates students from going to school as they believe that their time and
money is better spent elsewhere, rather than in a class where the teacher is always absent.
Furthermore, in the case of developing countries, the education system and curricula do not equip
students with the requisite skills to be readily employed. A recent study by the McKinsey Center for
Government found that 40% of employers claim that the existence of entry-level vacancies is
attributable to the lack of basic skills, while nearly 60% of employers surveyed believe that educational
institutions are not sufficiently equipping youth with the required skills for work. This shows the wide
gap between the skills sought after by employers and the skills and knowledge taught in schools and
hence, education to some extent has been useless in helping some youth in receiving employment. In
the 21st century, a key aspect of relevant skills includes soft skills which are viewed by employers as
imperative in ensuring that graduates are in fact work-ready. Soft skills include the ability to think
critically and creatively to effectively address problems, to communicate and work well in teams and
to make decisions. However, there persists a lack of soft skills amongst graduates and as such, there
are insufficient qualified individuals in the market. For example, although engineers are in high demand
in the business process outsourcing sector in India, employers are irked by the lack of graduates with
the requisite soft skills for the workplace. This is backed up through statistics which suggests that only
a mere 21% of India’s engineering graduates are considered employable.
Political Engagement and Role of Youth in the Government
Mounting political challenges, both domestic and international, have hindered and discouraged some
youth from becoming more socially and politically active. Yet, it is this difficult climate that also inspires
and drives other youth to do so.
Studies in recent years have shown increasing interest and participation in local politics by youths
across the globe, who often desire to bring about perceptible change for themselves and for the people
around them through their social and political engagement. The UNDP recognizes that these young
people are capable of engaging in peacebuilding, leading non-violent revolutions, using new
technologies to mobilize societies to bring about change, even in conflict-ridden regions. 99 The
widespread access to technology and information, in particular, has become a defining characteristic
of modern global youth involvement in governmental and societal matters, as it allows youths -
regardless of race, religion, location or economic status - to recognize the inadequacies and failures of
government institutions, as well as provide a wide-reaching, ubiquitous and affordable medium of
98 The Hidden Cost of Corruption: Teacher Absenteeism and Loss in Schools | Education. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://blogs.worldbank.org/education/hidden-cost-corruption-teacher-absenteeism-and-loss-schools 99 United Nations. (2012). Youth, Political Participation and Decision-Making. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/youth/fact-sheets/youth-political-participation.pdf
33
communication to to facilitate their initiatives100. Between Latvian youth-led efforts to build an e-petition
system so citizens could submit and support proposals for policy change to the government, to its use
in Occupy Wall Street protests to coordinate efforts between different groups, the significance of
technology, especially social media technology in boosting such efforts, is clear.101
Figure 5. Occupy Wall Street protesters meditate while a sign bearing their Twitter handle hangs from a railing.
#occupywallstreet is one of 100,000 Twitter handles used by protesters across the country.102
However, it is this same dissatisfaction with the incumbent political parties and politicians that also
happen to create the greatest barrier for youths. Currently, only around 1.65% of parliamentarians
globally are in their 20s, while 11.87% are in their 30s, with the global average age of parliamentarians
being 53 years old. 103 This generational difference has led some to believe that they are being
discriminated against due to their perceived inexperience, and lack of finances and other resources. A
2014 survey that targeted European youths shows that 63% of respondents think that their opinion is
not taken into account by politicians, and that they have little impact on government policy.104 While
most of those surveyed believe that they are able to lead their own initiatives, they think that such
initiatives are limited by the amount of freedom that is granted to them by the government. Furthermore,
according to Pew Research Center Vice Chairman Paul Taylor, who was speaking in the context of the
100 MD Conover & C Davis & E Ferrara & K McKelvey & F Menczer & A Flammini (2013). "The Geospatial Characteristics of a Social Movement Communication Network". PLoS ONE. 8 (3): e55957. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055957 101 Social Media and Social Change: How Young People are Tapping into Technology | Youthink! | Let's Be the Generation That Ends Poverty. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://blogs.worldbank.org/youthink/social-media-and-social-change-how-young-people-are-tapping-technology 102 Occupy Wall Street 5th Anniversary: 5 Essential Reads | Time.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://time.com/4484279/occupy-wall-street-5-years/ 103 United Nations. (2012). Youth, Political Participation and Decision-Making. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/youth/fact-sheets/youth-political-participation.pdf 104 AEGEE-Europe | European Students' Forum. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.aegee.org/position-paper-in-youth-participation-in-democratic-processes/
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US’s paralyzed political scene, today’s youth “are coming of age in a time when the political system is
looking very paralyzed and partisan”, leading to apathy from this age group. Their perceptions about
their inability to ‘fix’ their government’s deeply entrenched problems discourages them from trying in
the first place, especially when they already have many other financial and occupational issues to deal
with.105
In addition, there have been rising concerns about the nature of certain youth empowerment
programmes, especially with regards to radicalization and extremism which actively works against
human rights, social mobility, civic responsibility, political socialization and youth development, rather
than promote them.106 Experts agree that historically, certain youth demographics have been drawn
disproportionately to dangerous and extremist entities - including the Daesh and al-Qaeda - and just as
countries with a larger population of youths can benefit more from positive youth empowerment, they
are also more susceptible to political violence arising from errant youth groups.107 Poor economic
outlook, unemployment, and increasing political disenfranchisement with traditional political processes,
institutions and structures all contribute to the rise of radicalization amongst youth. Extremist groups
capitalize on this unhappiness and provide a platform through which the disillusioned youth can ‘air
their frustrations’ against the structures that seem to bind them.108 This is also made easier with the
same technology that can positively empower youth.
2 Current Situation
In response to the increasing prominence of youth activists and youth-led initiatives, governments and
international organizations have also come to recognize the instrumental role youth play in societal
matters. After consultations with youth groups, the UNDP has generated three main aspects through
which positive youth empowerment can be supported:
● Capacity development of young people and youth organizations, including leadership and
entrepreneurial skills development, and seed funding support for initiatives implemented by
youth-led and youth-based organizations.
105 Young People and Political Engagement | Pew Research Center. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/2012/07/16/ask-the-expert-young-people-and-political-engagement/ 106' Negative Youth Political Engagement: Participation in Radicalism and Extremism’ in United Nations Annual World Youth Report, New York: United Nations (2016) | Akil N Awan - Academia.edu. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/27592812/Negative_Youth_Political_Engagement_Participation_in_Radicalism_and_Extremism_in_United_Nations_Annual_World_Youth_Report_New_York_United_Nations_2016_ 107 Henrik Urdal, “A clash of generations? Youth bulges and political violence”, International Studies Quarterly, vol. 50, No. 3 (11 September 2006), pp. 607-629. 108 Andrew Mycock and Jonathan Tonge, eds., Beyond the Youth Citizenship Commission: Young People and Politics (London, Political Studies Association of the United Kingdom, 2014). Available from https://www.psa.ac.uk/sites/default/files/PSA%20Beyond%20the%20YCC%20FINAL_0.pdf.
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● Youth policy development, including the facilitation and formalization of dialogue between youth
representatives and the state, as well as support for creation of an enabling environment for
them to participate in political and social conversations.
● Transversal approaches to incorporating youth perspectives and needs into strategic planning
and programming.109
Governmental Response
In this regard, there has been increasing efforts by some government to increase inclusivity of the youth
in the political sectors. In Pakistan, the Youth Parliament of Pakistan was created in 2007 to engage
youth in dialogues on the issues affecting the country, which is coupled with the increasing number of
seats in local governments being devoted for youth parliamentarians.110 This allows for interactions
between the incumbent members of parliament with the youth on the ground, allowing for the creation
of more effective youth-related policies as their needs are directly surfaced to lawmakers.
Furthermore, some countries have taken to provide basic employment and skills-training to at-risk
youths in poorer communities within their countries, with moderate success. In the United States, the
University of Chicago Crime Lab found that at-risk youth who participated in a summer employment
programme which included opportunities for employment, mentoring and therapy saw a 51% decrease
in the number of arrests for violent crimes.111 Youth engagement and employment, coupled with a
provision of basic psychological support, makes it less likely for them to end up on the wrong side of
the law, or even become radicalized. However, as mentioned earlier, such schemes are limited in its
scope and depth due to a possible lack of budget funds, relevant manpower as well as inefficiency and
corruption on the governmental side.
Thus, some governments have worked with the private sector in order to enhance the quality of the
educational and occupational opportunities provided for the youth. Through this cooperation, the
government does not have to bear the full costs of upgrading the education system, while helping to
make training in public institutions more relevant to the workplace.112 It has been found that combining
institution-based education and training with enterprise-based learning provides the most net benefit
109 UNDP. (2013). Empowering Youth for Sustainable Human Development. 110 Enhancing Youth’s Political Participation in Pakistan | CIPE Development Blog. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.cipe.org/blog/2015/06/25/enhancing-youths-political-participation-in-pakistan/#.WNUWffl97IV 111 Crime Lab study finds youth employment program has impact on violent crime arrests | UChicago News. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://news.uchicago.edu/article/2013/08/07/crime-lab-study-finds-youth-employment-program-has-impact-violent-crime-arrests 112 International Labour Office Geneva. (2010). A Skilled Workforce for Strong, Sustainable and Balanced Growth. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/g20/summits/toronto/G20-Skills-Strategy.pdf
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to both the individual and the national economy as a whole, due to the versatility of skills that such an
approach provides.113
3 Suggested Approaches
Improving the Education System
Establishing that a poor educational background is a barrier to youth employment and empowerment,
it is crucial for governments to explore different ways of revamping the education system and
pedagogies involved. One crucial step for improving the system is to gather data on student enrolment,
as well as to discern the effectiveness of different classroom structures and processes. In fact, a report
by the US Agency for International Development’s Data for Education and Research Programming
Initiative found that databases on classroom practices tend to be lacking.114 Such systems can be
established in collaboration with international organizations, including the Global Partnership for
Education as well as UNICEF and UNESCO.115 From the data, governments can look into multilateral
cooperation in developing better educational structures and thus make reforms to their own existing
systems to improve the quality of education available for young people.
On top of that, the use of technology will allow youth to access a wide variety of quality educational
resources more easily, thus immensely assisting in improving education accessibility by today's youth.
One such example is online lecture videos made available in the form of Massive Open Online Courses
(MOOCs), provided through platforms such as Coursera and EdX. Almost 58 million students from all
over the world have come together to participate in these courses, thus showing the great
achievements and potential that such platforms have in improving the youth’s accessibility to
education.116 Furthermore, technology can serve to inform young people of potential education and
employment opportunities beyond what they are currently exposed to. An example would be
Handshake, a new platform made by BEAM, the student career education hub at Stanford University.
Students at Stanford connect with employers, discover opportunities and events, and even plan
appointments with career counselors, all through Handshake.117 Hence, investments into affordable
technology can be very effective in ameliorating the problem of inadequate access to educational
113 Ibid. 114 To improve quality in education, reconsider true definition of 'good teacher' (n.d.). Retrieved April 20, 2017, from http://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/improve-quality-education-reconsider-true-definition-good-teacher 115 Organizations Improving Education in the Developing World. (2017, February 01). Retrieved April 20, 2017, from https://borgenproject.org/education-in-the-developing-world-2/ 116 By The Numbers: MOOCS in 2016 - Class Central. (2017, January 08). Retrieved April 20, 2017, from https://www.class-central.com/report/mooc-stats-2016/ 117 BEAM Uses New Platform to Connect Students to Employers. (2015, August 23). Retrieved April 20, 2017, from https://beam.stanford.edu/news/beam-uses-new-platform-connect-students-employers
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resources, as well as the lack of awareness of education and employment opportunities outside of
what is presently available to these young people.
Use of Apprenticeships
A key solution to addressing the problem of a mismatch of skills between what corporations demand
for and what student graduates possess is through close collaborations between firms and educational
institutions. As part of these collaborations, a system could be established where graduates from
educational institutions are guaranteed job placements in collaborating firms. These firms will take the
graduates in and train them in order to make them workforce-ready, setting the stage for a symbiotic
relationship - firms have autonomous control over the training of potential employees, while the youth
interns pick up essential skills and have increased job security.118 In South Korea, the government has
successfully developed a group of vocational schools known as Meister (the word for ‘craftsman’ in
German) High Schools where the government pays for the tuition fees and accommodation of students.
These schools also collaborate with many firms, including Korean multinational conglomerates like
Samsung, to contribute towards the development of curricula in these schools.119 Such a trend can also
be observed within developing countries as well. In Nigeria, for example, the organisation Andela has
collaborated with many global technology companies, amongst them Facebook, whose recent US$24
million investment is used to develop a four-year software developer training programme. This
programme includes a component where participants have the opportunity to join the workforce, get
paid for their work and at the same time receive training and learn new skills.120 Given the immense
benefits these apprenticeships offer, it is crucial to find ways to incentivise firms into offering more
apprenticeships in order to develop a more robust apprenticeship system within both developing and
developed economies that can overcome structural issues with regards to employment.
Political Empowerment
A desire for change coupled with the exuberance of youth has seen them traditionally push for political
participation in order to express their opinions. An effective avenue to channel such political energy that
governments can explore is the setting up of youth-centered organizations. Such organizations could
take the form of the youth wing of political parties or in a non-partisan way, civil society organizations
118 Mourshed, M., Farrell, D., & Barton, D. (2012). Education to Employment: Designing A System That Works. Retrieved from McKinsey Center For Government website: http://mckinseyonsociety.com/downloads/reports/Education/Education-to-Employment_FINAL.pdf 119 Horn, M. (2014, March 14). Meister Of Korean School Reform: A Conversation With Lee Ju-Ho. Retrieved April 20, 2017, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelhorn/2014/03/14/meister-of-korean-school-reform-a-conversation-with-lee-ju-ho/#143fa5723d03 120 Jackson, T. (2015, July 04). How Andela is helping Africa beat the developer shortage. Retrieved April 20, 2017, from https://thenextweb.com/insider/2015/07/04/how-andela-is-helping-africa-beat-the-worlds-developer-shortage/#.tnw_KHrr5Q2B
38
(CSOs) and advocacies. Youth-led CSOs and their networks are important platforms for youth
participation across the globe, with intergovernmental CSOs assisting youths in individual countries to
create spaces for participation.121 Project Citizen, the International Foundation for Electoral Systems
and the Asian Young Leaders in Governance workshops are such international initiatives to empower
youths in the knowledge of civic participation, thus providing them with opportunities to make changes
in their own ways.122
Participating experts in the “OSCE United in Countering Violent Extremism” conference have also
reached an agreement that empowering youth and engaging with individuals most at risk of
radicalization is crucial to countering the spread of extremism.123 In particular, there have been calls to
increase intercultural and interfaith dialogue and partnerships – particularly involving youth – in order
to foster tolerance, mutual respect and understanding between groups within society.124 In light of the
increasing number of regional and international efforts to boost youth empowerment, delegates should
consider tapping on existing initiatives and build upon them or their structures and ideals as a mode of
achieving increased youth political participation.
4 Past UN Action
Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Youth
Former Secretary-General of the UN Ban Ki-moon placed great emphasis on engaging and
collaborating with youth and working for their benefit, declaring it to be one of his top priorities during
his second term in office. As such, the Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Youth was established
and Mr. Ahmad Alhendawi became the first person to assume the role after he was sworn-in on 17th
January 2013, in turn becoming the UN’s youngest senior official at the age of 29.125
The Envoy on Youth primarily serves the role of a collaborator of youth-related efforts around the world;
it works with the various bodies of the UN as well as parties not associated with the UN system in order
to lead a collective effort in empowering youth.126 By doing so, it hopes to improve the UN’s support for
121 United Nations Development Programme. (2013). Enhancing Youth Political Participation Throughout The Electoral Cycle. Retrieved from http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/Democratic%20Governance/Electoral%20Systems%20and%20Processes/ENG_UN-Youth_Guide-LR.pdf 122 Ibid. 123 Empowering youth critical to preventing incitement and radicalization of foreign terrorist fighters, say participants of OSCE conference in Vienna. (n.d.). Retrieved April 20, 2017, from http://www.osce.org/cio/167636 124 Ibid. 125 UN News Centre Exit Interview with outgoing Secretary-General's Envoy on Youth. (n.d.). Retrieved April 20, 2017, from http://www.un.org/youthenvoy/2017/02/un-news-centre-exit-interview-with-outgoing-secretary-generals-envoy-on-youth/ 126 Envoy on Youth - Office of the Secretary-General's Envoy on Youth. (n.d.). Retrieved April 19, 2017, from http://www.un.org/youthenvoy/about
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the younger generation and better attend to their development needs and rights. Furthermore, it also
aids in engaging youth with UN initiatives and in turn helps to inject their opinions into the UN system.
UNDP Youth Strategy 2014-2017
Understanding the importance of engaging youth in a world with an ever-increasing number of youth,
the UNDP has developed a Youth Strategy to be implemented between 2014 and 2017.127 Overall the
Strategy sets to achieve three outcomes – increased economic empowerment of youth, enhanced
youth involvement in political and decision-making processes and increasing youth engagement in
resilience-building. It focuses on and outlines how the youth can play an integral role in sustainable
human development and turn help to achieve the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals.128
Figure 6. The UNDP Youth Strategy 2014-2017. Its human rights-based approach covers the fundamental needs
of youths that, when met, allows for youth empowerment in the society.129
127 United Nations Development Programme. (2014). UNDP Youth Strategy 2014-2017. Retrieved from http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/Democratic%20Governance/Youth/UNDP_Youth-Strategy-2014-17_Web.pdf 128 Ibid. 129 United National Development Programme. (2014). UNDP Youth Strategy 2014-2017 [Diagram]. Retrieved from https://pbs.twimg.com/media/Cx3kzfMVEAE_mu9.jpg
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UN Security Council Resolution 2250
Through the establishment of the Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Youth (discussed above),
the first ever Global Forum on Youth, Peace and Security was held in Amman, Jordan in August 2015.
It brought together government representatives, policy experts, organisations run by youth as well as
young peacebuilders from over 100 countries with the purpose of discussing a global agenda on youth,
peace and security. The outcome of the forum is known as the Amman Youth Declaration; it called for
greater involvement and engagement of youth especially in the areas of peace and security, abuse of
girls and socio-economic development and urged the UN Security Council (UNSC) to pass a resolution
on youth, peace and security.130
In response to this, a resolution sponsored by Jordan was introduced in the UNSC and passed
unanimously on 9th December 2015 as UNSC Resolution 2250.131 It is the very first resolution to
recognise and value the role which youth can play in curbing the spread of extremist ideologies. The
resolution includes the following ideas:
1. Encourage participation of youth by allowing youth and youth-led organisations to have an
increased stake in the decision-making process across all levels – local, national, regional and
international.
2. Protection of youth during conflict with a special focus on prevention of abuse of and
discrimination against girls.
3. Prevention of violence and extremism through provision of meaningful employment
opportunities and quality education for youth which instils the values of peace and tolerance in
addition to empowering youth to lead peacebuilding efforts.
4. Support for partnerships among youth, local communities, non-governmental organisations,
government bodies and UN agencies to respond to the pervasive threat of radicalisation and
violent extremism among youth.132
130 Amman Youth Declaration Adopted at Global Forum on Youth, Peace and Security. (n.d.). Retrieved April 20, 2017, from http://www.un.org/youthenvoy/2015/08/amman-youth-declaration-adopted-global-forum-youth-peace-security/ 131 United Nations Security Council resolution 2250, Increasing Representation of Youth in Decision-Making at All Levels, SC/12149 (9 December 2015), available from http://www.un.org/press/en/2015/sc12149.doc.htm 132 Ibid.
41
5 Case Studies
Greece and the Debt Crisis
In 2008, Greece became the center of Europe’s debt crisis after the Great Recession in that year, and
with global financial markets still reeling, Greece announced in October 2009 that it had been
understating its deficit figures all along. With its credibility severely damaged, Greece was shut out from
borrowing in the global financial markets, and by 2010, it was veering toward bankruptcy.133 During this
time, unemployment skyrocketed up to 27.9%, with unemployment among those aged 25-30 - the most
affected demographic group - breaking the 60% marker.134 This has indirectly caused the rates of
severe depression (that lasts at least one month) to rise from 3.3% to 8.2% during the worst years of
the recession, as well as increasing suicide and suicide attempt rates amongst youth due to the
hopelessness that accompanies the inability to provide for themselves and for their loved ones.135
In this period of tumult, international NGOs such as Partners for Youth Empowerment (PYE) have
increased the intensity of their development of training programs that “equip adolescent youth for 21st
century success” within Greece. These trainings are part of an effort to develop citizen-led social
innovation and entrepreneurship in a time of seemingly failed government institutions and poor
economic outlooks,136 Other organizations such as the Grantcoin Foundation cooperate with local
NGOs to provide the financial resources that allow for businesses to be set up and income earned in a
time of economic volatility. In this case, Grantcoin promotes a transition to cryptocurrency as a
sustainable alternative to debt-based currency issued by for-profit banks in the country.137 While these
efforts have seen some initial success, only time will tell if they are sustainable in the long run.
Tunisia - The Post-Jasmine Revolution Era
The 2010-2011 Jasmine Revolution, sparked by the self-immolation of street vendor Mohammed
Bouazizi, led to the end of the authoritarian regime of Zine El Abidine Ben Ali. The significant
participation of youth aged 15 to 29, about 24.5% of the population, in the Revolution clearly
demonstrated the deep commitment of the country’s youth to improving society through civic
133 Explaining Greece's Debt Crisis - The New York Times. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/business/international/greece-debt-crisis-euro.html?_r=0 134 Who’d be young and Greek? Searching for a future after the debt crisis | Global | The Guardian. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/global/2015/jul/26/greece-youth-unemployment-debt-crisis-eurozone 135 Suicides rise sharply in Greece - World Socialist Web Site. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2013/09/20/suic-s20.html 136 In Greece, creativity grows hope – A New Game – Medium. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://medium.com/change-maker/in-greece-creativity-grows-hope-dcbfeb6a3053#.ran1ykjoj 137 Grantcoin Foundation Partners with Youth Business Network in Greece | Grantcoin. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.grantcoin.org/2015/08/24/grantcoin-foundation-partners-with-youth-business-network-in-greece
42
engagement and political activism.138 For perhaps the first time in history, it also demonstrated the
great power and potential of social media in enhancing activism as a whole, without which the death
of Bouazizi might never have been known worldwide in the first place.139
More than five years later, protests have erupted across the country once again as it almost seemed
that the people’s demands regarding economic stability and employment have been unanswered. In
2010, when the Jasmine Revolution first took place, unemployment was at 13% - in 2016, it became
15.3%, showing that despite the successful deposing of Ben Ali’s regime and the political freedoms
obtained subsequently, the economic state of the country is still undesirable.140 Just like in the case of
Greece, it is the youth that are most affected - as of 2015, 40% of those aged between 15-25 years old
are unemployed.141 Such a situation is in no small part due to the infighting between the Tunisian
political parties that form the current government, which is detrimental to a country whose tourism
sector has been hit by recent terrorist attacks.142 This failure to purge the corruption of the Ben Ali era
has young protesters up in arms again in a bid to create a better situation for themselves and their
families.
India and the Role of Non-State Actors in Youth Empowerment
India's population is expected to become the world's youngest by 2020, when more than half a billion
Indian citizens will be under 25 years old and more than two-thirds of the population will be eligible to
enter the workforce. 143 However, the chasm between those with access to education and skill
development opportunities and those who do not is still a significant concern in a country with deeply
entrenched beliefs regarding caste and gender. 144 In this regard, with support from the Indian
government, technological giant Microsoft has launched its YouthSpark India programme in 2012 in a
bid to create opportunities for India’s youth in the three years after its launch. With YouthSpark, young
entrepreneurs are given opportunities and resources to create feasible solutions for their communities’
problems through the use of modern technology, and end products range from mobile apps to smart
138 Bourhrous, A., & Smith, S. (2017). Strengthening youth engagement in post-Jasmine Revolution Tunisia. Retrieved from Dag Hammarskjold Foundation website: http://www.daghammarskjold.se/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/dd-paper_no19_web-3.pdf 139 How Social Media Accelerated Tunisia's Revolution: An Inside View - Epolitics.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.epolitics.com/2011/02/10/how-social-media-accelerated-tunisias-revolution-an-inside-view/ 140 Why Tunisians Are Protesting Again 5 Years After The Revolution | The Huffington Post. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/tunisia-protests-explained_us_56a4152ae4b0d8cc109a5ed4 141 OECD Report: Youth Unemployment in Tunisia “A True Social Tragedy” - Tunisia Live. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.tunisia-live.net/2015/03/12/oecd-report-youth-unemployment-in-tunisia-a-true-social-tragedy/ 142 Tourists desert Tunisia after June terror attack | World news | The Guardian. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/25/tourists-tunisia-june-terror-attack-economy-beach-hotel-sousse 143 India is set to become the youngest country by 2020 - The Hindu. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-is-set-to-become-the-youngest-country-by-2020/article4624347.ece 144 Ibid.
43
appliances that save water and electricity.145 Training in computer programming and use of smart
technologies have also provided these youths with the relevant skills needed in the modern economy,
allowing them to easily find well-paying work regardless of background.
However, observers purport that the greatest factor to the scheme’s success in India is that Microsoft
did not rely on its own capabilities to set up the scheme; rather, it enlisted the help of qualified local
NGOs, corporations and governmental agencies in the development and execution of the scheme.146
In this instance, the company partnered with the NASSCOM Foundation - the social arm of an Indian
software industry’s trade association - which in turn allowed it greater access to organizations that are
already heavily embedded in poor communities. As a result, training lessons and projects can be
tailored specifically for the targeted community, which increases the effectiveness of the scheme as a
whole.147 Therefore, for youth empowerment to be successful, partnerships between international
organizations with financial power and technical expertise and local organizations with distinct
localized knowledge can be considered.
6 Definitions of Key Terms
Youth: Typically young people between the ages of 15 and 24. However, this age range can be
expanded in some countries and is determined based on the demographics of each member state. It
is deemed as the interim phase between childhood and adulthood, where people transition from being
a dependent to being a financially-independent individual who understands the interdependence
amongst people in a community.
Youth Empowerment: In essence, it is about giving youth the chance and ability to determine for
themselves what they want to do, to take charge of their own lives. It also entails giving youth the
freedom to make their own informed decisions, having considered many options before arriving at one.
Radicalization: Process by which an individual or group comes to adopt increasingly extreme political,
social, or religious ideals and aspirations that reject or undermine the status quo or undermine
contemporary ideas and expressions of freedom of choice.
145 Igniting Young India | Microsoft India YouthSpark | Microsoft India Stories. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.microsoft.com/en-in/stories/youthspark.aspx 146 NASSCOM Foundation (n.d.). Microsoft YouthSpark. Retrieved April 19, 2017, from http://www.nasscomfoundation.org/get-engaged/skills-initiative/microsoft-youthspark.html 147 Ibid.
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7 Key Guiding Questions
With the UN being a global organization, how can more economically developed member states
support their less economically developed counterparts in tapping on youth and empowering
them?
What are some factors that can possibly cause youth to be apathetic to current global affairs?
How could these factors be overcome?
What are the most important tools and skills that the youth should be equipped with for their
empowerment?
o When made to choose, which skills’ developments should be supported through the
provision of various resources by governments?
o How do these choices change across countries?
What is the best approach to impart new skills to the youth?
To what extent can education help to empower youth and how can it be made use as a tool to
do so?
How can families be units of support for the empowerment of youth?
To precisely what extent should and can youth be involved in national political proceedings
(such as voting, campaigning etc) and why?
In light of recent events involving radicalization and extremism, how do we ensure a balance
between freedom and control of youth initiatives?
45
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