Tabakian Pols 7 Fall/Spring 2014 Power 12

Dr. Tabakian’s Political Science 7 Modern World Governments – Spring/Fall 2014

Supplemental Power Point Material #12

LECTURE HIGHLIGHTS (1) • Washington’s Backyard Dominance • North-South Capital Flows • Foreign Debt Is A Political Issue • American Use Of Trade As Weapon • Transition To Democracy • Democracy – Change From Within • 5 Generalizations Of Democracy • Roles Of International Organizations • The United Nations • The UN System • Purpose Of The UN • Structure Of The UN

LECTURE HIGHLIGHTS (2) • International Law • The World Court • Law And Sovereignty: Laws of Diplomacy • Just-War Doctrine • Human Rights: Individuals Versus Sovereignty • Human Rights Institutions • War Crimes • Evolution Of World Order

WASHINGTON’S BACKYARD DOMINANCE (1)

Colonialism instilled harsh lessons on Central America that continued in form from the time independent states were established in Latin America in the 1820’s. In preparation for independence, or any other form of internal revolutionary actions, local elites transferred political power unto themselves outside control of external powers stretching from areas like Madrid or Lisbon. Thus, the channels of control instilled by the colonial period remnant in social and economic lines of control remained intact. Remaining prevalent towards the 21st Century, Latin America remains in constant struggle to determine its own destiny that has in a way been preordained through violent colonial subjugation.


Another factor that remains pertinent are the indigenous people who survived the conquest, recovering their numbers and still living in nearly all of the regions where they lived in the eighteenth century. They have also expanded into new territories, establishing themselves in urban and industrial societies. There remains segments, including the indigenous people of Chiapas who are mostly Mayan who are forced to engage in revolutionary tactics in order to survive. A rebellion led by the Zapatista Liberation Front on January 1, 1994 ignited in the state of Chiapas in southern Mexico. The causes of their struggle are comparable to a majority of the indigenous population as well.


Forced to endure hard labor under conditions of servitude for centuries, their issues to date are primarily the lack of land available for ownership. It is this reality that forces indigenous peoples like those in Chiapas to work in despicable conditions for huge landowners. Seeking continued financial support from international financial institutions required Latin American countries to make structural adjustments to their national economies. In times, these loans became conditional on such adjustments, requiring their governments to cut costs and inflation by enacting fiscal reform, monetary restraint, cutting back jobs and services in the public sector and stopping government subsidies for basic goods or petroleum.


Furthermore, wages were to be frozen in order to check inflation, thus keeping wage costs at bay in the increasingly important export industries. The end of the Cold War brought about a swift disappearance of a strong bipolar system to one dominated by Western Capitalism and the United States. In short order, economic policy recommendations was dominated by the orthodox capitalist thinking advocated by the United States and her ally the United Kingdom.


Neoliberalism marched into Central America, emphasizing key concepts such as the radical reduction of the size of government and its spending, fiscal and monetary reform, the liberalization of commerce through the elimination of all tariffs, allowing foreign investment, privatization and the elimination of government subsidies for essential consumer goods. Brought into being in order to prepare the people for full integration into the global economy and most importantly, free trading with the West, neoliberalism further instilled radicalism among those whom revolutions failed to uplift. This constant trend of rapid assault on Latin America has not allowed any seedling of stability to take root among its inhabitants.


Foreign influence, mostly from the United States is widely acknowledged by Central America as an assault on their right to determine what road to take in deciding their own destiny. Centuries of colonization, Latin America’s 500 year old tradition of rebellion and revolution has not been terribly kind to its people. There are many factors that together have ignited revolution and abrupt political change. In time perhaps there will be a homegrown ideology that will seek to qualm revolution, instead preserving peace and promoting prosperity for all. Now that the Cold War is over, perhaps the United States will in time cease with the promotion of brutal juntas, instead encouraging a true people’s revolution for life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.


The struggle now pertained to self-liberation, and liberation from foreign powers. The inherited political and cultural traditions asserted an authoritarian proclivity, ingraining itself into the political culture of Latin America. During the Cold War, the United States sought to preserve stability in South America, thus often supporting dictatorial regimes in order to thwart communist influence. Thus, the Cold War and the Cuban embrace of socialism encouraged the United States to suppress progressive political movements during this period.


Encouraging military and civilian allies in Latin America to think in terms of the national security state, the United States sponsored counterinsurgency training for their militaries at the School of the Americas in the Panama Canal Zone and at U.S. military bases such as those found at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. The end of the Cold War allowed the world to move out of the western phase as the focal point moved to the interaction between the West and non-Western civilizations. Most important was the transition of non-Western civilizations from colonial targets of acquisition to being able to join the West “as movers and shapers of history”.


Samuel P. Huntington argues that the world was divided unto the First, Second, and Third Worlds. This no longer pertains, because we should now group countries according to their culture and civilization. This contrasts to how we grouped them in the past: according to their level of economic or political system and level of economic development.

FOREIGN DEBT IS A POLITICAL ISSUE (1)

Hans Morgenthau asserts that American foreign aid has been haphazard at best. Its goals may contradict American foreign policy goals for there has yet to be constructed a reliable structure for dispersing aid and gauging the needs of a recipient. There are no concrete standards for determining a foreign aid policy. Standards need to be set into place for policymakers to judge whether particular aid programs will provide real assistance.


There are six types of foreign aid that all have in common the transfer of money, goods and services from one state to another.

1. Humanitarian 2. Subsistence 3. Military 4. Bribery 5. Prestige 6. Economic Development


There is a commonly held belief that the most developed nations have a humane responsibility to assist underdeveloped nations so that they too are able to invest in economic development. Aid directed towards economic development is one of the most legitimate forms of foreign aid. One can argue that developed nations need to teach needy states to fish instead of providing continued sustenance.


A majority of analysts believe that the debt of the Third World is too big for them to pay back in full. This means that the debt is now a political issue for the United States as well as other rich countries. Rich nation-states have to come to terms with handling this issue for they will be the ones who have to solve this predicament. Latin America and other Third World countries are in big trouble for they have yet to recover from the economic depression of the 1980s, a crisis of the same magnitude if not worse than the 1930s. This has implications for not only the Third World, but also affects the United States for its interests are so vast that they will be inflicted with an economic shockwave that may destabilize its domestic and foreign policies.


Hans J. Morgenthau argues that some poor states are still in a medieval stage of cultural development. The lack of a comparable moral and intellectual revolution as what helped the West achieve economic development may also be a factor. This does not mean that these states will not be able to achieve transformation in the future. One billion people, or more than one-fifth of the world’s population lives on less than one dollar a day. Western Europe and the United States surpassed this standard two hundred years ago.


There are wide ranges of development objectives that determine the level of economic progress. We identify seven:

1. Better Education 2. Improved Health And Nutrition 3. Cleaner Environment 4. Less Poverty 5. Equal Opportunity 6. Increased Individual Freedom 7. Prosperous Cultural Environment

AMERICAN USE OF TRADE AS A WEAPON

Trade has always been a tool for American foreign policy. This policy pursuit became more so following the attacks of September 11, 2001. Soon after the attacks, US Trade Representative Robert Zoellick identifies trade expansion as a tool to America’s fight against terrorism. Capitalism depends on con-capitalist structures, namely militarism and imperialism so that it can continue to expand markets as well as its scope of subjugation.

TRANSITION TO A DEMOCRACY (1)

Many researchers attest that transitions from authoritarian rule have begun with discord emerging from within military governments and their relations with bourgeois allies. Most disagreements have been found to be over economic problems. The push for liberalization and democratization would be pushed forward by a reemerging civil society that may be calling for greater representation due to their influences with capital development. Constant conflict developed fissures with gaps developing between those groups in control. These divisions allowed civil society to surge into these free areas, enabling coalitions to form between soft-liners in the state apparatus and those in the democratic opposition.


Decentralization can also lead to the formation of new positions of power that local elites staff for the benefit of clientelistic networks. Two conditions for successful democratization are:

1. Settled Borders 2. Popular Consensus Supporting Inclusive Definition Of

The Nation


Evidence has shown that nations having more authoritarian or controlled economies are more prone to failure than the American economy. Elites show favor towards formal democracies for they do not see subordinates as posing much of a threat as their organizational power base is weak. It also helps that the most powerful members of the economic elite support the capitalist economic model. Subordinates living in formal democracies are especially in favor of the current economic model.


Theda Skocpol does not equate democratization as political liberalism or democratic socialism, but rather as an increase in popular participation in the national life of a country. This in turn strengthens the core of national stated ask directed by authoritarian political leaders. A struggle for power takes place during a revolution where elites compete for support from groups that had been previously excluded. This is done by promising material or ideological incentives. Popular participation is favored as it allows the forging of organizations that can serve to suppress those that are somewhat radical. Protracted international warfare serves as a good rallying call that mobilizes citizen support in support of a revolutionized regime.


Francis Fukuyama identifies two ways that we can account for recent waves of democratization. He cites the first as being economic with a strong correlation between economic development and a stable democracy. The second is ideology, which constitutes the most important explanation for the recent wave of democratization. Most of the countries that experienced democratic upheavals had taken place in the past few generations from mostly agricultural to modern industrial societies with high levels of urbanization, labor mobility, education and other pertaining factors.

DEMOCRACY – CHANGE FROM WITHIN (1)

Arguing that external environments encourage states to become democratic cannot adequately explain why the Soviet Union fell from superpower status into a consortium of democratic republics. Threat assessments from within Soviet society had changed whereas the external environment did not change significantly. The only change was from within the Soviet Union in terms of its ideology, which in turn determines threat assessments. Ideology can serve as a filter of sorts that helps determine whether a people are dedicated to peaceful coexistence or war with other peoples. Distributions of power in the international system serve only as a second consideration, especially how the international community reacts to a change in the internal ideology of a state.


Environmental factors had no influence over the dismantling of the Soviet empire with its disseverment of territory, military power, economic resources and geographical position. The reason for this occurrence is that its integrating ideologies of Russian nationalism and Marxism-Leninism have ceased credibility among its citizens. National unity is still a necessary precondition for democracy to take root in the former Soviet Union. Dankwart Rustow has shown that democracy cannot develop in regions where a common allegiance of beliefs does not exist.


Francis Fukuyama argues that nationalisms may foster conflict and instability, but can enter into a period of maturity when national identities are better defined, accepted and form a foundation for national unity. Fukuyama argues that following Word War II that all modern European nationalism has become “Turkified” meaning that these nationalisms no longer declare as its goal to extend its rule over other nations.

DEMOCRACY – CHANGE FROM WITHIN – INDIA (4)

With a long experience as a parliamentary democracy and one of the world’s fastest growing economies, India’s middle class is more than 500 million people strong. With professional skills and employment to match, India’s new middle class is transforming the country. New industries are springing up to meet the demands of the Indian middle class, and companies like Citibank, McDonald’s, and Motorola are increasingly operating in India. In the 1970s, the Indian economy was widely criticized for the high level of state intervention and regulation. While state control of the market kept inflation and budget deficits low, the “quota-permit-raj” strangled the private sector, limiting investment and economic growth. The decision to liberalize the economy in the early 1990s led to a rapid period of economic growth.

DEMOCRACY – CHANGE FROM WITHIN – INDIA (5)

While a sizable portion of India’s population continues to live in poverty—especially in the countryside—a new middle class has emerged. Multinational corporations are investing in India, establishing production facilities and service sector jobs while simultaneously producing goods for the new Indian middle class. But for critics, the emergence of the Indian middle class has been accompanied by a breakdown in the social order, replacing traditional values with Western consumerism.

INDIAN ECONOMY

DEMOCRACY – CHANGE FROM WITHIN – KENYA (6)

With a gross domestic product per capita of approximately $1200, an unemployment rate of more than 40 percent, and almost half the population living below the poverty line, Kenya is among the poorest countries in Africa. Extensive government corruption led the World Bank to suspend aid in 2006, and the International Monetary Fund has delayed loan distributions to the government pending successful reform. To what extent are Kenya’s current problems the result of the country’s colonial experience? To what extent are they the result of corruption and rent-seeking behavior on the part of post-colonial leaders? Such questions are at the heart of the North-South gap.

DEMOCRACY – CHANGE FROM WITHIN – KENYA (7)

Kenya achieved independence from the British Empire in 1963. From 1963-1992, Kenya was ruled as a de facto one-party state. Since 1992, the country has gradually liberalized and democratized. Attempting to spur economic development, the government has borrowed extensively from the World Bank and International Monetary Fund, and public debt currently represents more than half the country’s gross domestic product. But corruption remains a major problem for the government, and the economy has grown relatively slowly since a nation-wide drought began in 2000.

KENYAN INDEPENDENCE

DEMOCRACY – 5 GENERALIZATIONS

Valerie Bruce states that there are five generalization inherent in the comparative study of democratization that are pertinent to new democracies as well as all democracies regardless of when they had taken form. First, high levels of capital development helps to maintain democracy. Second, political leaders are needed to create and maintain democracies both in good times or bad. Third, parliamentary rather than presidential systems have been found to be more successful in maintaining democracies. Fourth, issues pertaining to national and state power structures have to be determined early on for democracy to survive. Fifth, all democracies, regardless of their age or fragility are never certain about the future, but share a common adherence to procedures of governance that should not change.

ROLES OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS (1)

• Most international conflicts are not settled by military force. – States generally refrain from taking maximum

short-term advantage of each other. – States work together by following rules they

develop to govern their interactions. – Institutions grow up around rules and states

tend to work through these institutions.


• International norms: – Sovereignty and respect for treaties. – However, adherence to norms may vary;

different expectations for normal. – In times of change, when these norms and

habits may not suffice to solve international dilemmas and resolve conflict, institutions play a key role.


• International organizations (IOs): – Include intergovernmental organizations (IGOs)

such as the UN, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) such as the International Committee of the Red Cross.

– Growth of IOs. – Global nature of some IOs. – Regional IOs. – Global IGOs. – NGOs – more specialized in function than IGOs.

• Often religious groups are among the largest NGOs.

THE UNITED NATIONS • State sovereignty creates a real need for such

organizations on a practical level – why? – because no central world government

performs the function of coordinating actions of states for mutual benefit.

• State sovereignty also severely limits the power of the UN and other IOs.

• Reserve power to themselves.

THE UN SYSTEM

• UN is a relatively new institution, just over 60 years old.

• Newer is the prominent role it has played in international security affairs since the end of the Cold War.

PURPOSE OF THE UN • Members are sovereign states who give consent to the

UN to carry out its mission. • UN Charter:

– Based on the principles that states are equal under international law.

– States have full sovereignty over their own affairs. – States should have full independence and territorial

integrity. – States should carry out their international obligations. – Also lays out the structure of the UN and how it

operates.

STRUCTURE OF THE UN (1) • UN General Assembly:

– Representatives of all states; coordinates a variety of development programs and other autonomous agencies through the Economic and Social Council.

• UN Security Council: – Five great powers and 10 rotating member states

make decisions about international peace and security.

– Dispatches peacekeeping forces to troubled spots. • UN Secretariat:

– Takes care of the administration of the UN; led by the secretary-general.

STRUCTURE OF THE UN (2) • World Court:

– Judicial arm of the UN. • National delegations to the UN, headed by

ambassadors from member states, work and meet together at the UN headquarters in NYC.

• Universality of membership: – 192 members in 2007.

• Five great powers each have a veto over substantive decisions of the Security Council.

• Mechanism for collective security.

HISTORY OF THE UN • Founded in 1945 in San Francisco by 51 states. • Successor to the League of Nations. • Tension with the U.S. • Increases in membership in the 1950s and

1960s: – Impact on voting patterns.

• Role during the Cold War. • Role after the Cold War. • Currently follows the principle of “three pillars”

– Security, economic development, and human rights.

THE SECURITY COUNCIL (1) • Responsible for maintaining international peace

and security and for restoring peace when it breaks down.

• Decisions binding on all UN member states. • Has tremendous power to define the existence

and nature of a security threat, structure the response to that threat, and enforce its decisions through mandatory directives to UN members. – 1,700 resolutions in six decades.

THE SECURITY COUNCIL (2) • Five permanent members:

– U.S., Britain, France, Russia, and China. • Substantive Security Council resolutions

require 9 votes from among the 15 members, but a “no” vote from any permanent member defeats the resolution. – veto power.

THE SECURITY COUNCIL (3) • Council’s 10 nonpermanent members rotate onto the

Council for 2-year terms. – Elected (5 each year) by the General Assembly from

a list prepared by informal regional caucuses. – Chairperson rotates among the Council members

monthly. – Meets irregularly.

• Power limited in two major ways: – Council’s decisions depend entirely on the interests of

its member states. – Although Security Council resolutions in theory bind

all UN members, member states in practice often try to evade or soften their effect.

THE SECURITY COUNCIL (4)

• Military Staff Committee: – Formal mechanism for coordinating

multilateral military action in response to aggression.

• Proposed changes to the Security Council – Japan and Germany.

• Implications for balance.

PEACEKEEPING FORCES (1)

• Not mentioned in the UN Charter: – Charter requires member states to place

military forces at the disposal of the UN; anticipated to be used in response to aggression (under collective security).

– Neutral forces: • Problematic when one side is

identified as the aggressor (Bosnia).

PEACEKEEPING FORCES (2) • Peacekeeping missions

– Authority for these granted by the Security Council for a limited but renewable period of time

– Funds must be voted on by the General Assembly • Recent missions

– Democratic Congo – Darfur in Sudan – Bosnia – Liberia – Ivory Coast – Haiti

• Observing and peacekeeping • Peacemaking

PEACEKEEPING FORCES (3) In 1991, the Somali Government collapsed and the country fell under control of local warlords. General Mohamed Farrah Aidid took control of Mogadishu, the former capital of Somalia, and maintained power by controlling UN relief aid. The United Nations tried unsuccessfully to intervene, and Aidid maintained control of the region until his death in 1996. The collapse of the Somali State, the power wielded by Somali warlords, and the failure of international interventions in the country raise questions about the use of force and the role of the United Nations in the post-Cold War era. These concepts are central to the study of international relations today.

SOMALIA

THE SECRETARIAT • The secretary-general of the UN is the closest thing

to a “president of the world” that exists. – Represents member states. – Nominated by the Security Council.

• Secretariat is the executive branch of the UN: – Administers UN policy and programs. – Develops an international civil service of

diplomats. • Secretary-general:

– Visible figure who often serves as a mediator in international conflicts.

– Works to bring together the great-power consensus.

THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY • 192 voting members meet every year, from late

September to early January in plenary session. • Convenes special sessions every few years on

topics such as economic cooperation. • Has the power to accredit national delegations

as members of the UN. • Main power lies in its control of finances for UN

programs and operations, including peacekeeping.

• Economic and Social Council: – Has 54 member states elected by the General

Assembly for 3-year terms.

UN PROGRAMS • Uses more than a dozen major programs to

advance economic development and social stability in poor states of the global South.

• Each program has a staff, headquarters, and various operations in the field where it works with host governments in member states. – UN Environment Program. – UNICEF. – Office of the UN High Commissioner for

Refugees. – UN Development Program. – UN Conference on Trade and Development.

AUTONOMOUS AGENCIES • UN General Assembly maintains formal ties with

about 20 autonomous international agencies not under its control. – Mostly specialized technical organizations

through which states collectively address problems such as health care and labor conditions.

– International Atomic Energy Agency. – World Health Organization. – Food and Agriculture Organization. – International Labor Organization and others.

INTERNATIONAL LAW

• Derives not from the actions of a legislative branch or other central authority, but from tradition and agreements signed by states.

• Differs in: – Difficulty of enforcement, which depends

on reciprocity, collective action, and international norms.

SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

• Declarations of the UN General Assembly are not laws, and most do not bind members.

• Treaties and other written conventions signed by states are the most important source. – Are binding on successor governments

regardless of that government’s circumstances

• Custom is the second major source of international law.

• Great principles of law also serve as another source.

• Legal scholarship is a fourth source.

ENFORCEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

• International law is much more difficult to enforce. – Depends heavily on the reciprocity principle. – States also follow international law because of

the general or long-term costs that could come from disregarding international law.

– If a state breaks an international law, it may face a collective response by a group of states, such as sanctions.

– One great weakness: depends entirely on national power.

THE WORLD COURT (1)

• Rudiments of a general world legal framework found here.

• Only states can sue or be sued in the World Court.

• Is a panel of 15 judges elected to 9-year terms by a majority of both the Security Council and the General Assembly.

THE WORLD COURT (2) • Meets in The Hague, the Netherlands. • Great weakness:

– States have not agreed in a comprehensive way to subject themselves to its jurisdiction or obey its decisions.

– Only a third have signed the optional clause in the treaty agreeing to give the Court jurisdiction in certain cases.

• Main use of the World Court now is to arbitrate issues of secondary importance between countries with friendly relations overall.

INTERNATIONAL CASES IN NATIONAL COURT (1)

• A party with a dispute that crosses national borders gains several advantages by pursuing the matter through the national courts of one of the relevant states. – Judgments are enforceable. – Individuals and companies can pursue legal

complaints through national courts, whereas in most areas of international law, states must themselves bring suits on behalf of their citizens.

– There is often a choice of more than one state within which a case could legally be heard; one can pick the legal system most favorable to one’s case.

INTERNATIONAL CASES IN NATIONAL COURT (2)

• U.S. is a favorite jurisdiction within which to bring cases for two reasons: – U.S. juries have a reputation for

awarding bigger settlements. – Because many people and governments

do business in the U.S., it is often possible to collect damages awarded by a U.S. Court.

• Extradition. • Immigration law.

LAW AND SOVEREIGNTY: LAWS OF DIPLOMACY (1)

• Bedrock of international law is respect for the rights of diplomats.

• Diplomatic recognition: – Credentials.

• Diplomats have the right to occupy an embassy in the host country as though it were their own state’s territory.

• Diplomatic immunity: – Espionage.

LAW AND SOVEREIGNTY: LAWS OF DIPLOMACY (2)

• Diplomatic pouches. • Interests section.

– When two countries lack diplomatic relations, they often do business through a third country willing to represent a country’s interests formally through its own embassy.

• Formal complaints. • Terrorism – in this context the law of diplomacy

is repeatedly violated. – Tempting targets for terrorists.

JUST-WAR DOCTRINE • International law distinguishes just wars (wars that are

legal) from wars of aggression (which are illegal). • Today, legality of war is defined by the UN Charter, which

outlaws aggression but allows “international police actions.” – Strong international norm. – States have a right to respond to aggression.

• This is the only allowable use of military force according to just-war doctrine.

• Just-war approach explicitly rules out war as an instrument to change another state’s government or policies, or ethnic and religious conflicts.

HUMAN RIGHTS: INDIVIDUALS VERSUS

SOVEREIGNTY (1) • The idea of human rights flies in the face of sovereignty and territorial integrity.

• Consensus on the most important human rights also lacking. – Rights are universal versus relativism.


SOVEREIGNTY (2) • Concept of human rights comes from at least three sources: – Religion. – Political and legal philosophy. – Theory of natural law and natural rights

(political revolutions brought theory to practice).


SOVEREIGNTY (3) • No globally agreed-upon definitions of the essential human rights exist.

• Often divided into two broad categories: – civil-political “negative rights” – free speech,

freedom of religion, equal protection under the law, freedom from arbitrary imprisonment.

– economic-social “positive rights” – rights to good living conditions, food, health care, social security, and education.

HUMAN-RIGHTS INSTITUTIONS (1)

• Universal Declaration of Human Rights: – Does not have the force of international law. – Does set forth international norms. – Since its adoption, the UN has opened 7 treaties for

state signature to further define protections of human rights.

• Two important treaties: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights.

• Convention Against Torture (CAT), 1987.

HUMAN RIGHTS INSTITUTIONS (2)

• Convention on Rights of the Child (CRC),1990: – Every country except Somalia and the

U.S. has approved it. • Role of IOs in protecting human rights. • Today, NGOs play a key role in efforts to

win basic political rights in authoritarian countries. – Amnesty International.

WAR CRIMES (1)

• Large-scale abuses of human rights often occur during war.

• International law is especially difficult to enforce during war. – But extensive norms of legal conduct in

war, as well as international treaties, are widely followed.

– After war, losers can be punished for violations of the laws of war.

WAR CRIMES (2)

• Crimes against humanity: – Genocide. – International Criminal Court (ICC).

• Universal jurisdiction. – International Committee of the Red

Cross (ICRC). • Lack of declaration of wars.

EVOLUTION OF WORLD ORDER • The most powerful states, especially hegemons, have

great influence on the rules and values that have become embedded over time in a body of international law. – Free passage of the seas and the role of the powerful

Dutch in 1600s. – 20th century – powerful United States of America:

• World too large for any single state to police effectively.

• World goes along but tries to influence the rules themselves.

• New international norms: – unsettled

Tabakian Pols 7 Fall/Spring 2014 Power 12

Education

Transcript of Tabakian Pols 7 Fall/Spring 2014 Power 12