Systems thinking for analyzing problems

PowerPoint Presentation

Systems Thinking in Analyzing ProblemsBushra Zaidi

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INTRODUCTIONS Professional InformationCompany/Overview of Role Purpose Why are you here? What do you want to take away from this course?

Personal InformationFantasy Breakfast! Who, Where, What?

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Introduction to Systems Thinking

The Dilbert System

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Introduction to the systems conceptThe six blind men and an elephantA partial truthThe moral of the story: having a holistic viewThe behaviour of a system cannot be known just by knowing the elements of the system (Meadows 2008, p.7)

Professor Ockie Bosch and Dr Nam Nguyen

6The story of the six blind men and an elephant: This story has slightly different versions in different eastern cultures. The story goes like this: Once upon a time, there lived six blind men in a village. One day the villagers told them, "Hey, there is an elephant in the village today." They had no idea what an elephant is. They decided, "Even though we would not be able to see it, let us go and feel it anyway." All of them went where the elephant was. Everyone of them touched the elephant."Hey, the elephant is a pillar," said the first man who touched his leg."Oh, no! it is like a rope," said the second man who touched the tail."Oh, no! it is like a huge snake," said the third man who touched the trunk of the elephant."It is like a big hand fan" said the fourth man who touched the ear of the elephant."It is like a huge wall," said the fifth man who touched the belly of the elephant."It is like a solid pipe," said the sixth man who touched the tusk of the elephant.I have deliberately chosen a photo of the six men wearing suites and carrying suitcases. This is to emphasise that this story is still very true in the modern world today!A partial truth: "All of them are right and all of them are wrong. The reason each of them is telling it differently is because each one of them touched a different part of the elephant. In other words, each of them has a partial truth. The elephant has all the features that each of them described, but isnt fully what they described unless we combine all of their answers. Only when each individual learns that they are part of a system, touching upon truth at some point, but probably not touching upon the total systemic truth, will each teammate seek out alternative perspectives. Many times, disagreements are not really disagreements at all, but just individuals seeing or feeling a different aspect of the system, revealing a portion of the truth, that only when combined yields the whole truth. System thinking is essential for leaders to help everyone work as a team, gathering all of the facts to accurately model the system they are working on to improve. The moral of the story: Regardless of its various versions, the key moral of the story is the importance of having a holistic view or seeing things as a whole or a system; and this is the essence of systems thinking. In other words, the behaviour of a system cannot be known just by knowing the elements of which the system is made (Meadows 2008, p.7). However, this is still a prevailing philosophy, or ways of doing things, in our society/education systems i.e. when you want to understand a system, you break it into parts and study each part separately.So, what is a system? (move to the next slide)

Reference:Meadows, D. (2008). Thinking in Systems: A Primer (Edited by Diana Wright, Sustainability Institute). USA: Chelsea Green Publishing Company.

Knowledge and Experience0510I Recognize DilbertI Have Heard of Systems ThinkingJay Forrester Sends Me Flowers On My Birthday

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The Worlds Biggest ProblemsArmed ConflictSpread of Infectious DiseaseGrowing PopulationAvailability of EnergyInternational TerrorismThe EconomyClimate ChangePoverty, Hunger, Lack of WaterDate Source: Eurobarometer survey of the EU, 2011Image Source: 123RF

What do you consider to be the worlds biggest problems? Are these problems new?8

Why Do These Problems Persist?

Schools Have Not Prepared Students to Solve Them

Learning to solve thisA car averages 27 miles per gallon. If gas costs $4.04 per gallon, which of the following is closest to how much the gas would cost for this car to travel 2,727 typical miles?A. $44.44B. $109.08C. $118.80D. $408.04E. $444.40

Question Source: ACT PrepImage Source: MarketMixup

How common is this type of problem in school?How common/important is this type of problem in life?11

wont teach you to solve this.The United States consumers more than 20% (7 billion barrels) of the worlds oil supply annually yet only has 2% of the worlds proven oil reserves. What factors will determine when we reach peak oilthe point in time when the maximum rate of

petroleum extraction is reached, after which the rate of oil production is expected to enter terminal decline?Image Source: OnlineBikeMania

How common is this type of problem in school?How common/important is this type of problem in life?

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Systems ThinkingTraditional analysis focuses on the individual pieces of what is being studied. Systems thinking focuses on how the things being studied interact with the other constituents of the system.

Instead of isolating smaller and smaller parts of the system being studied, systems thinking works by expanding its view to consider larger and larger numbers of interactions as an issue is being studied.

Image Source: Flickr Creative Commons, by erwlas

Both types of analysis/thinking are important but the latter is often missing from schools

Systems thinking is the process of understanding how a group of interacting, interrelated, interdependent components influence each other within the whole.

Traditional analysis cant always see the forest for the trees

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Problem Solving: Pest ControlProblem: Insect A is damaging cropsTraditional Analysis Approach: Spray pesticide to kill the insects

Insect A Population Insect B Population Pesticide Application Insect A Declines Crops FlourishOVER TIMEInsect B Population Explodes Crops Damaged Even More

Some studies suggest that the majority of the 25 insects that cause the most crop damage became problems because of exactly this type of approach14

A system is a set of elements or parts that is coherently organised and interconnected in a pattern or structure that produces a characteristic set of a behaviours, often classified as its function or purpose (Meadows 2008, p.188)Simply defined, a system is a complex whole the functioning of which depends on its parts and the interactions between those parts (Jackson 2003, p.3) A system is more than the sum of its parts it is the product of their interactions (Ackoff 1999) Definitions of Systems Professor Ockie Bosch and Dr Nam Nguyen

15There are several definitions of a system; for example:A system is a way of looking at the world (Weinberg 2001, p.52)A system is a collection of parts that interact with one another to function as a whole (Maani and Cavana 2007, p.7)A system is more than the sum of its parts it is the product of their interactions (Ackoff 1999)

References:Weinberg, G. M. (2001). An introduction to general systems thinking (Silver anniversary ed. ed.). New York, USA: Dorset House Publishing. Maani, K. E. and Cavana, R. Y. (2007). Systems thinking, system dynamics: Managing change and complexity. Prentice Hall, Auckland, NZ.Ackoff, R. L. (1999). Ackoff's best: His classic writings on management. Wiley, New York, USA.

What is a System?A set of elements or parts that is coherently organized and interconnected in a pattern or structure that produces a characteristic set of behaviors, often classified as its function or purpose. (Donella Meadows)

What are some common systems? What do they have in common?16

Components of a SystemElementsInter-connectionsFunction

A system is more than the sum of its partsMany of the interconnections in systems operate through the flow of informationThe least obvious part of the system, its function or purpose, is often the most crucial determinate of the systems behaviorSystem structure is the source of system behavior. System behavior reveals itself as a series of events over time.

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ElementsElementsTypically the most obvious part of a dynamic systemChanging elements often has very little effect on the system

Image Source: Armchair GM

Textbooks, curriculum, administrators, presidents, etc. dont affect major change within a system.Ex: Tony LaRussa and Albert Pujols left the Cardinals, but they are still the 11 time World Champs18

InterconnectionsInter-connectionsOften involve the flow of informationChanging relationships usually changes system behaviorImage Source: Creative Commons by ~IconTexto

Interconnects are often difficult to see but have great impact on the system.Ex: The shift from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 changed the nature of the Internet, information, and online interactions19

FunctionTypically the least obvious part of a dynamic systemA change in purpose changes a system profoundlyImage Source: Antique Radios

Function

System functions seem obvious but may not be clear to all observersEx: Raytheon Company began as the American Appliance Company, a maker of machinery, motors and components (vacuum tubes). Today they make weapon defense systems (Patriot Missles).20

A system must consist of :Elements or partsInterconnectedness & InteractionsFunction or purposeExamples: a business, football team; digestive system; school; faculty, city; corporation; animal; tree; etc.

Basic Properties of a System Professor Ockie Bosch and Dr Nam Nguyen

21A system must consist of three kinds of things:Elements or partsThe Interconnectedness or Interactions between these parts; andFunction or purpose of the systemExamples of systems: a football team; the digestive system; a school; a city; a corporation; an animal; a tree; a forest; etcA football team is a system: with elements such as players, coach, field, and ball. Its interconnections are the rules of the game, the coachs strategy, the players communications, and the laws of physics that govern the motions of ball and players. The purpose of the team is to win games, or have fun, or get exercise, or make millions of dollars, or all of the above (Meadows 2008). NOTE: ASK STUDENTS FIRST WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS, INTERACTIONS, PURPOSE OF THIS SYSTEM?The digestive system: The elements your digestive system include teeth, enzymes, stomach, and intestines. They are interrelated through the physical flow of food, and through an elegant set of regulating chemical signals. The function of this system is to break down food into its basic nutrients and to transfer those nutrients into the bloodstream (another system) while discarding unusable wastes (Meadows 2008). A forest is a larger system that encompasses subsystems of trees and animals. Similarly, your body is a large system that consists of various subsystems NOTE: ASK STUDENTS TO NAME SOME OF THESE SUBSYSTEMS (WHAT ARE THESE SUBSYSTEMS?).

Reference:Meadows, D. (2008). Thinking in Systems: A Primer (Edited by Diana Wright, Sustainability Institute). USA: Chelsea Green Publishing Company.

Systems: Key PointsA system is more than the sum of its parts.Many of the interconnections in systems operate through the flow of information.The least obvious part of the system, its function or purpose, is often the most crucial determinate of the systems behavior.System structure is the source of system behavior. System behavior reveals itself as a series of events over time.

If you want to change (or understand) a system, you MUST focus on system structure because structure drives behavior.22

A collection is also composed of a number of parts but they are just dumped together and are not interconnected (Sherwood 2002)A marriage: a collection or a system?A Degree program?

Source: http://www.yaseenkhan.org Honey, are we a collection or a system?I hope we area system!


A System versus a Collection

23A collection or a heap is also composed of a number of parts but they are just dumped together and are not interconnected (Sherwood 2002)For example, do you think that a marriage is a collection or a system? For anyone who saw a marriage as a collection, please seek marriage counselling immediately! Other examples: 4 strangers waiting for a bus versus a family of 4 people waiting for a bus; a kitchen; database of customer names; tools in a toolbox, etc.

Reference:Sherwood, D. (2002). Seeing the Forest for the Trees: A Manager's Guide to applying Systems Thinking. London, UK: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.

Systems Thinking: The Iceberg View

EventsPatterns of Behavior Over TimeSystemic Structural Causes

Increased Leverage andOpportunity for Learningand Change

Systems Thinking: The Iceberg View

EventsPatterns of Behavior Over TimeSystemic Structural Causes

Reactive: We react to each event as it happensResponsive: We try to respond to patternsGenerative: We take the time to understand how the dynamic interaction of variables generates behavior

Systems Thinking:InterconnectionsThree ways to look at systems:A collection of partsParts in interaction with one anotherParts embedded in a system

What is Thinking?Thinking consists of two activities: constructing mental models and then simulating them in order to draw conclusions and make decisions. Barry Richmond

Understanding the concept of a tree requires more information than is available through sensory experience alone. Its built on past experiences and knowledge.

Source: Jeremy Merritt

Barry Richmond is known as leader in the field of systems thinking and system dynamics[1] and for the development of the STELLA/IThink modelling environment for simulation.[2]

The tree is actually a concept of something that exists in physical reality. The tree concept is a model.

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Mental Models

Image Source: Flickr Creative Commons, by Dave Hosford

Take a look at these images for a few moments and then think about what is happening inside your mind as you look at them. My guess is that with each image you thought about what happens next. If so, you were actually simulating a mental model forward in time. The images dont show you what happened next, but you can probably make a pretty good guess. This guess is the result of simulating a mental model of what is depicted. And, you can simulate different outcomes. Notes Source: Jeremy Merritt28

Mental ModelsImage Source: Sports in Wisconsin


Mental ModelsImage Source: The Baby Proofing Blog


Mental ModelsEmbedded assumptions, generalizations, photographs/images that impact how we see the worldDetermine how we take action Action is taken by working with our individual mental models and turning the mirror inward to unearth our internal images of the worldIn order to change mental model, one must be open to the deficiency in his or her way of viewing the world

Mental models are deeply ingrained assumptions, generalizations, or even pictures orimages that influence how we understand the world and how we take action. [] Thediscipline of working with mental models starts with turning the mirror inward; learning tounearth our internal pictures of the world, to bring them to the surface and hold themrigorously to scrutiny.36 This discipline is o

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Ladder of Inference

Changing ThinkingFold your arms the way you would if you were bored, with one falling over the other.

Uncross your arms and fold them again, the other way, with the other arm on top.

Image Source: Flickr Creative Commons by CJ Berry

Step 1: Look at your arms and notice which one is on top. Notice how this feels? Is it comfortable? Does it feel normal?Step 2: How does that feel? What do you notice?

Activity source: The Systems Thinking Playbook by Sweeney and Meadows34

Thinking in SystemsThe problems we have created in the world today will not be solved by the level of thinking that created them.--Albert Einstein

Image Source: Flickr Creative Commons, by mansionwb

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Systems thinking is a way of looking at, learning about, and understanding complex situations (Wilson 2004, p.7)Systems thinking is a way of seeing and talking about reality that helps us better understand and work with systems to influence the quality of our lives (Kim 1999, p.2) Systems thinking is a new way of thinking to understand and manage complex problems (Bosch et al. 2007; Cabrera et al. 2008)

Definitions of Systems Thinking Professor Ockie Bosch and Dr Nam Nguyen

36Different scholars define ST slightly differently, for example:Systems thinking is a way of looking at, learning about, and understanding complex situations (Wilson 2004, p.7) Systems thinking is a way of seeing and talking about reality that helps us better understand and work with systems to influence the quality of our lives (Kim 1999, p.2)Systems thinking is a big idea the idea that you really can understand and tame the complexity of the real world by seeing things in the round, as a whole (Sherwood 2002, p.1)We can see that these 3 definitions are slightly different; but they have many underlying key words that are in common.

References:Wilson, J. (2004). Changing agriculture: An introduction to Systems thinking (2nd ed.). QLD, Australia: Print on Demand Centre, University of Queensland Bookshop.Kim, D. H. (1999). Introduction to Systems Thinking. MA, USA: Pegasus Communications, Inc.Sherwood, D. (2002). Seeing the Forest for the Trees: A Manager's Guide to applying Systems Thinking. London, UK: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.

The Torn Net Professor Ockie Bosch and Dr Nam Nguyen


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Tim Pettry, 2008Lets get started

Tim Pettry, 2008Economic crisis!Due to the recent economic crisis, it has become apparent that our current system of numbers is no longer working. To address this crisis, a new set of symbols has been created to replace the current numbers 1 10.It is imperative that we learn these new symbols as quickly as possible. Our world as we know it, depends on each of us to do our best!

Click

Tim Pettry, 2008 Lets do it!1. -

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Take 45 seconds to memorizethese new symbols for the numbers1 10.

30 seconds left15 seconds left54312

That was easy!45444341423520Click once when ready.

Now wait for 45 seconds.

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Tim Pettry, 2008Write down as many of the new symbols as you can remember?Click when ready To check answers

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Tim Pettry, 20081. -

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Click to discuss when readyCheck your answers

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Tim Pettry, 2008DiscussionHow many people got all 10 symbols correct?9?8?7?6?5 and below?Were you distracted by the countdown on the left?Are there ever distractions when we are trying to learn?

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Tim Pettry, 2008Discussion continuedWhich symbols do most people get right? 1 due to repetition10 Its different and it represents the Roman numeral 10 5 Its different 7 Its similar to the number 7Most people look for a pattern and have difficulty finding it in a short amount of time.We are looking at the pieces rather than the whole.This is sometimes referred to as Silo Thinking

Click

Tim Pettry, 2008Now, for you linear thinkers

12456789310

XDoes this help?Click When ready, click

Tim Pettry, 2008Lets think lean!

12345678910 - XIs this radical thinking?So it must be Common Sense!Systems ViewNo, everyone is familiar with this.How many of you thought of this?Lean thinking is all about learning to see how things are connected within an overall system.

When ready, clickClick The outline around each number represents the new symbol!

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Tim Pettry, 2008An organizational Window of Opportunity

156978324P E O P L ESERVICES/PRODUCTSP E R F O R M A N C EPROCESSES

Organizations must create systems that are aligned to capture and hold onto customers. Where pieces of the entire system are not aligned, organizations lose their competitive edge. Higher costs due to lower quality and productivity create opportunities for customers to want to look elsewhere. The spider must weave its web within its window of opportunity to capture and hold onto its nourishment. If there is a break in its web, the spider must act quickly to close the gap, or it goes hungry. If its web doesnt cover the entire opening, potential nourishment will continue to fly through its window of opportunity. Nourishment or Nuisance?How do you view your customers?Is your organization aligned with your thinking?Click

All organizations operate within a generic framework consisting of Products or services offered, People who do the work, Processes that facilitate the work and Performance metrics that measure success. How organizations operate within this framework determines their success.

The Habits of a Systems Thinker, developed by the Waters Foundation, encompass a spectrum of thinking strategies that foster problem-solving and encourage questioning. Though habit is defined as a usual way of doing things, the Habits of a Systems Thinker do not suggest that systems thinkers are limited by routine ways of thinking. Rather, the Habits encourage flexible thinking and appreciation of new, emerging insights and multiple perspectives.49

Image Source: Waters Foundation

Note: The following notes for the Habits slides refer to the I Love Lucy clip shown on an earlier slide.

Does the person in charge of that assembly line/factory system have the big picture? Do Lucy or Ethel?

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What elements changed in the system?51


Think about the structure of the assembly line; how does its structure affect its behavior?52


What should the supervisor have done to gain better perspective and increase understanding?53


What example of this did you see in the film clip?54


Would the short term actions (gain) taken by the supervisor lead to long term pain?55


How did the supervisor measure success? 56


Its important to note that time delays work in both directions (before and after making changes). 57


What did the supervisor see as the leverage point in the system?58


What unintended consequence(s) can you identify from the example clip?59


What was the supervisors mental model of how the system worked? Did it account for different outcomes?60


Examples from the clip?61


The I Love Lucy clip illustrated a linear process (assembly line) driven by linear thinking. The cause-effect cycle was never considered.62

Difficulties and Messes

Modeling SystemsEssentially, all models are wrong, but some are useful.--George Box (Emeritus Professor of Statistics, University of Wisconsin-Madison)

Image Source: Wikipedia

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Modeling SystemsWe are limited in our capacity to form and reform mental models. Systems modeling allows us to move from what to what if and make our thinking visible

The basic building blocks of dynamic models are stocks, flows, and loops

Everything we think we know about the world is a model. Our models have a strong congruence with the world, but fall far short of representing the real world fully.

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StocksStocks are the foundation of any system and are the elements that you can see, feel, count, or measureStocks do not have to be physical

Think of a stock as a container (e.g. bathtub) that can hold a measurable amount of something (e.g. water)76

FlowsStocks change over time through the actions of a flowA stock is the present memory of the changing flows within the system

A stock takes time to change because a flow takes time to flow77

LoopsA feedback loop is formed when changes in a stock affect the flows into or out of that same stockBalancing feedback loops are stability seeking and try to keep a stock at a certain level or within a certain rangeReinforcing feedback loops occur when a system element has the ability to reproduce itself or grow at a constant fraction of itself

The information delivered by a feedback loop can only affect future behavior; it cannot send a signal fast enough to correct behavior that drove the current feedback78

Systems ThinkingCase Study

Crop Damaging by Insects

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When an insect is eating a crop, the conventional response is to spray the crop with a pesticide designed to kill that insect.

Putting aside the limited effectiveness of some pesticides and the water and soil pollution they can cause, imagine a perfect pesticide that kills all of the insects against which it is used and which has no side effects on air, water, or soil.

Is using this pesticide likely to make the farmer or company whose crops are being eaten better off?Reducing Crop Damage by Insects:

Reducing Crop Damage by Insects:InsectsDamaging Crops

PesticideApplicationOIf we represent the thinking used by thoseapplying the pesticides, it would look like this:The letter indicates how the two variables are related: an s means they change in the same direction - if one goes up then the other goes up, and an o means they change in the opposite direction - if one goes up then the other goes down (or vice versa).

This diagram is read a change in the amount of pesticide applied causes the number of insects damaging crops to change in the opposite direction.

The belief being represented here is that as the amount of pesticide applied increases, the number of insects damaging crops decreases.

Total number of Insects damaging cropPesticideApplication

SOSNumber of Insect A Damaging Crop

Number of Insect BNumber of Insect BDamaging CropSSOReducing Crop Damage by Insects:

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Reducing Crop Damage by Insects:The problem of crop damage due to insects often does get better - in the short term. Unfortunately, what frequently happens is that in following years the problem of crop damage gets worse and worse and the pesticide that formerly seemed so effective does not seem to help anymore.This is because the insect A that was eating the crops was controlling the population of another insect B, either by preying on it or by competing with it. When the pesticide kills the insects A that were eating the crops, it eliminates the control that those insects were applying on the population of the other insects, insects B). Then the population of the insects B that were being controlled explodes and continue to damage the crops.

So now how do you solve the problem of Insect B damaging the crop?

Find the solution..

Reducing Crop Damage by Insects:

With this picture of the system in mind, otheractions with better long-term results have beendeveloped, such as Integrated Pest Management,which includes controlling the insect eating thecrops by introducing more of its predators into thearea. These methods have been proven effective instudies conducted by MIT, the National Academyof Sciences, and others, and they also avoidrunning the risk of soil and water pollution.Reducing Crop Damage by Insects

The solution:

Problem Solving: Pest Control

Insect A Population Insect B Population

Think back to our earlier example of insect control; what was the problem with that approach (Seek and Destroy) to resolving the problem?86

Seek and Destroy Model

Is this system really that simple?

Systems Thinking- Strategic Overlook of Organisation

STRATEGIC PLANNING

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The nicest thing about not planning is that failure comes as a complete surprise, and is not preceded by a period of worry and depression. -- John Perton

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STRATEGY The word strategy derives from the Greek "" (strategia), "office of general, command, general-ship", A strategy is a course of action.

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The Strategic Management ProcessStrategic managementThe process of identifying and executing the organizations mission by matching its capabilities with the demands of its environment. 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.392

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VISION

A general statement of its intended direction that evokes emotional feelings in organization members.

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What are you doing?I am cuttingwoodI am buildingthat castle

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Business MissionMissionSpells out who the company is, what it does, and where its headed.395

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SWOT AnalysisA SWOT analysis is a strategic planning tool used to evaluate strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. A SWOT analysis informs the goal-setting process and provides a context for future strategic planning discussions.

Strengths and weaknesses are internal to an organization.Opportunities and threats originate from outside the organization.

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External AnalysisIdentify strategic opportunities and threats in the operating environment.Macro-environmentNationalImmediate (Industry)

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Internal AnalysisIdentify strengthsQuality and quantity of resources availableDistinctive competenciesIdentify weaknessesInadequate resourcesManagerial and organizational deficiencies

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Strengths and WeaknessesOpportunities and Threats(SWOT Analysis)Strategic ChoiceBusinessFunctionalGlobalCorporateSWOT and Strategic Choice

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TYPES OF STRATEGIES

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Types of StrategiesCorporate-level strategyIdentifies the portfolio of businesses that, in total, comprise the company and the ways in which these businesses relate to each other.Diversification strategy implies that the firm will expand by adding new product lines.Vertical integration strategy means the firm expands by, perhaps, producing its own raw materials, or selling its products direct. Consolidation strategy reduces the companys sizeGeographic expansion strategy takes the company abroad.3101

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Business-level/competitive strategyIdentifies how to build and strengthen the businesss long-term competitive position in the marketplace.Cost leadership: the enterprise aims to become the low-cost leader in an industry.Differentiation: a firm seeks to be unique in its industry along dimensions that are widely valued by buyers.Focus: a firm seeks to carve out a market niche, and compete by providing a product or service customers can get in no other way.3102Types of Strategies cont-

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Functional strategiesIdentify the basic courses of action that each department will pursue in order to help the business attain its competitive goals.3103

Types of Strategies cont-

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If you Fail To Plan,You Plan to Fail.

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Systems Thinking:Tools & Concepts

Context: messysituaDon

YOUTheObserver

Always think SUDA!

Systems Theory + Practice

Unlock the power to think differently

Systems Thinking Vs Other types of thinking

Diagramming-Sensing

Optimist International146MIND MAPPINGDefinition : A visual picture of a group of ideas, concepts or issues.

Purpose : Unblock our thinking. See an entire idea or several ideas on one sheet of paper. See how ideas relate to one another. Look at things in a new and different way. Look at an idea in depth.

146The instructor asks the participants to turn to page 13 in their workbook (see pages 22-24 of Instructors Workbook). Review the definition and the purpose of mind mapping (you can cover the slide with a piece of paper while you solicit ideas from the participants as you discuss the definition and purpose). You may ask if any participants are familiar with this technique, if so, ask them to share their experience with mind mapping with the group.

What are mind maps? Mind maps are not spider diagrams.A mind map is a diagram used to represent themes of understanding linked a central key word or ideaMind maps are, by definition, a graphical method of taking notes. Their visual basis helps one to distinguish words or ideas, often with colours and symbols.They generally take a hierarchical or tree branch format, with ideas branching into their subsections

Key features of mind mapsThe process starts around a central idea or pictureKey themes are established through branches with sub branchesKey terminology is usedSingle words or phrasesThemes are connected through coloursImages reinforce meaningIt allows you to freely associate and link ideas

Not just pretty picturesMind mapping is about the ability to analyse and make connections, to use knowledge effectively, to solve problems and think effectively. It requires skill to search out meaning and impose structure. It goes beyond learning information by rote and equips students to deal systematically with problems and adopt a critical attitude to argument and information.

How to create a mind mapStart with a large piece of paper in a landscape position. Create a large colourful central imageCreate main branches for ideas in different colours ( use the same colour for sub branches)Use key words only and adapt the size of the word based on importance

Mind Mapping Basics

How to create a mind mapUse images that remind you of the key topics ( you dont have to be an artist)Use arrows and symbols to connect ideasLeave space to add to your mind mapFind a style which works for you.

Optimist International161Mind Mapping Exercise Over-sized blank sheet of paper. Select word, phrase or problem statementto serve as a focus for discussion. Print it in the middle of the paper. Encloseit in a box or oval. Let a word pop out of your mind.Print it anywhere on the paper. Underline it and connect the line with theproblem statement (or key phrase or word)you are working. Record the next idea and connect it tooriginal focus point or the prior thought. Continue printing and connecting words.1. Initial Tumble of Ideas.

Think freely!!MotivatingMembers

Methods

How

161Use these guidelines to assist the participants to learn how to use mind mapping.An example is on the next slide; the basics are illustrated on this slide.See pages 22-23 of Instructors Workbook.Initial Tumble of Ideas.1. Start with an over-sized blank sheet of paper. (a flipchart is ideal)2. Select a single word, phrase or problem statement (focal point) that will serve as a focus for the discussion.Print it in the middle of the paper. Enclose it in a box or oval.(Be sure the group agrees!) 4. Let a word pop out of your mind. Print it anywhere on the paper.Underline it and connect the line with the problem statement (or key phrase or word) you are working. See example next chart5. Record the next idea and connect it to either the original focus point or the prior thought.6. Continue printing and connecting words as they come into your mind. Dont be afraid to think freely!!

Optimist International162Mind Mapping Exercise EXAMPLE

Resources

People

MotivatingMembers

Helping Others

Purpose

Learning

Results

Fun

Methods

How

162Refer participants to page 14 in their workbook to see a diagram of a mind map.

Optimist International163Mind Mapping Exercise-- Helpful Hints Keep your printing large and easy to read.

Feel free to use symbols and or pictures.

Have some fun using different colors.A

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Rich pictureDr Niraj ThurairajahBirmingham City University

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OverviewWhat is a rich picture?Elements of rich pictureTechniques to create good rich pictureExamplesYour activity

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What is a rich picture?A cartoon-like representation that identifies all the stakeholders, their concerns, and some of the structure underlying the work context(Monk and Howard, 1998)A pictorial summary of the actual situation in the systems world based on inquiries or observations of the real world(Patching, 1990)

Components of rich pictureRepresent the followingStructureProcessConcerns

StructureAspect of the work context that are slow to change. Such as;Stages of constructionFirms/ organisationsGeographical localitiesStakeholdersPeople

Source: Monk and Howard, 1998

ProcessRefers to the transformations that occur in the process of the work. Such as the flow of Information/dataGoods and servicesOther resources


ConcernsPerspectives/viewpoints of each individuals/firms motivationCaptures different perspectives of the themeIdentifies tensions between stakeholders, a useful preliminary step to identifying the conflicting concerns and how they may be resolved.


Dos and dontsInclude structureInclude process

Include concerns Use any pictorial or textual device that suitsInclude only enough structure to allow you to record the process and concerns.Do not attempt to record all the details of process; a broad brush approach is usually all that is neededPresent the concern in a thought bubble There is no correct way of drawing a rich picture. There are as many styles as analysts and the same analyst will find different styles useful in different situationsElementComment

Rich picture of the construction of the Humber Bridge (adapted from Stewart and Fortune, 1994)

Development project: Rich PictureProduce a rich picture of how the different professions, stakeholders and processes fit into a typical construction process.For your activity, consider rich diagram as a pictorial representation of construction process that identifies situations, stake holders, their actions/ interaction and the outcome over time.Due to the progressive nature of construction projects, this mapping activity can be done in a chronological mannerAcknowledge the complexity and characteristics of a typical construction project

183

Problem Resolution

Decision Making, Learning and Creativity

7-186

Decision MakingDecision MakingThe process by which managers respond to opportunities and threats that confront them by analyzing options and making determinations about specific organizational goals and courses of action.

186

SWOT StrengthsWeaknesses1. What are the advantages of your plan? 2.What will go well?Consider this from your point of view; be realistic.1. What could be improved? 2. What is done badly?3. Should anything be avoided?Again, be realistic.OpportunitiesThreats1. What are the good chances that arise from your course of action? 2. What good things happens as a result of your decision? 1. What obstacles might you face? 2. What might other people want you to do?

187

7-188The Nature of Managerial Decision MakingDecisions in response to opportunitiesoccurs when managers respond to ways to improve organizational performance to benefit customers, employees, and other stakeholder groupsDecisions in response to threatsevents inside or outside the organization are adversely affecting organizational performance

7-189 Decision MakingProgrammed DecisionRoutine, virtually automatic decision making that follows established rules or guidelines.Managers have made the same decision many times beforeLittle ambiguity involved

189

7-190Decision MakingNon-Programmed DecisionsNonroutine decision made in response to unusual or novel opportunities and threats.The are no rules to follow since the decision is new.Decisions are made based on information, and a managers intuition, and judgment.

190

7-191Decision MakingIntuition feelings, beliefs, and hunches that come readily to mind, require little effort and information gathering and result in on-the-spot decisions

7-192Decision MakingReasoned judgment decisions that take time and effort to make and result from careful information gathering, generation of alternatives, and evaluation of alternatives

7-193Question?Which decision model assumes the decision maker can identify and evaluate all possible alternatives?Neo-classicalClassicalAdministrativepractical

193The correct answer is B classical. See next slide.

7-194The Classical ModelClassical Model of Decision MakingA rigid model of decision making that assumes the decision maker can identify and evaluate all possible alternatives and their consequences and rationally choose the most appropriate course of action.Optimum decisionThe most appropriate decision in light of what managers believe to be the most desirable future consequences for their organization.

194

7-195The Classical Model of Decision MakingFigure 7.1

7-196The Administrative ModelAdministrative Model of Decision MakingAn approach to decision making that explains why decision making is inherently uncertain and risky and why managers can rarely make decisions in the manner prescribed by the classical model

196

7-197The Administrative ModelAdministrative Model of Decision Making Bounded rationalityThere is a large number of alternatives and available information can be so extensive that managers cannot consider it all.Decisions are limited by peoples cognitive limitations.Incomplete informationBecause of risk and uncertainty, ambiguity, and time constraints

197

7-198Why Information Is IncompleteFigure 7.2

7-199Causes of Incomplete InformationRiskPresent when managers know the possible outcomes of a particular course of action and can assign probabilities to them.UncertaintyProbabilities cannot be given for outcomes and the future is unknown.

199

7-200Causes of Incomplete Information Ambiguous InformationInformation whose meaning is not clear allowing it to be interpreted in multiple or conflicting ways.

Figure 7.3Young Woman or Old Woman

200

7-201Causes of Incomplete InformationTime constraints and information costsmanagers have neither the time nor money to search for all possible alternatives and evaluate potential consequences

7-202Causes of Incomplete InformationSatisficingSearching for and choosing an acceptable, or satisfactory response to problems and opportunities, rather than trying to make the best decision.

202

7-203Causes of Incomplete InformationManagers explore a limited number of options and choose an acceptable decision rather than the optimum decision.This is the typical response of managers when dealing with incomplete information.

7-204Six Steps in Decision MakingFigure 7.4

7-205Decision Making StepsStep 1. Recognize Need for a DecisionSparked by an event such as environment changes.Managers must first realize that a decision must be made.Step 2. Generate AlternativesManagers must develop feasible alternative courses of action.If good alternatives are missed, the resulting decision is poor.It is hard to develop creative alternatives, so managers need to look for new ideas.

205

7-206Decision Making StepsStep 3. Evaluate AlternativesWhat are the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative?Managers should specify criteria, then evaluate.

206

7-207Decision Making Steps

Step 3. Evaluate alternatives

207

7-208

Figure 7.5General Criteria for Evaluating Possible Courses of Action

7-209Decision Making StepsStep 4. Choose Among AlternativesRank the various alternatives and make a decisionManagers must be sure all the information available is brought to bear on the problem or issue at hand

7-210Decision Making StepsStep 5. Implement Chosen AlternativeManagers must now carry out the alternative.Often a decision is made and not implemented.Step 6. Learn From FeedbackManagers should consider what went right and wrong with the decision and learn for the future.Without feedback, managers do not learn from experience and will repeat the same mistake over.

210

7-211Discussion Question?Which step in the decision making process is the most important?Generating alternativesChoosing an alternativeEvaluating alternativesLearning from feedback

211There is no one best answer. Each step is important. Ignoring a step will keep managers from making the best decision.

7-212Feedback ProcedureCompare what actually happened to what was expected to happen as a result of the decisionExplore why any expectations for the decision were not metDerive guidelines that will help in future decision making

7-213Cognitive Biases and Decision MakingHeuristicsRules of thumb that simplify the process of making decisions.Decision makers use heuristics to deal with bounded rationality.If the heuristic is wrong, however, then poor decisions result from its use.Systematic errors errors that people make over and over and that result in poor decision making

213

7-214Sources of Cognitive Bias at the Individual and Group LevelsFigure 7.6

7-215Types of Cognitive BiasesPrior Hypothesis BiasAllowing strong prior beliefs about a relationship between variables to influence decisions based on these beliefs even when evidence shows they are wrong.RepresentativenessThe decision maker incorrectly generalizes a decision from a small sample or a single incident.

215

7-216Types of Cognitive BiasesIllusion of ControlThe tendency to overestimates ones own ability to control activities and events.Escalating CommitmentCommitting considerable resources to project and then committing more even if evidence shows the project is failing.

216

7-217Team Decision MakingSuperior to individual makingChoices less likely to fall victim to biasAble to draw on combined skills of group membersImprove ability to generate feasible alternatives

7-218team Decision MakingAllows managers to process more information Managers affected by decisions agree to cooperate

7-219team Decision MakingPotential DisadvantagesCan take much longer than individuals to make decisionsCan be difficult to get two or more managers to agree because of different interests and preferencesCan be undermined by biases

7-220team Decision MakingGroupthinkPattern of faulty and biased decision making that occurs in groups whose members strive for agreement among themselves at the expense of accurately assessing information relevant to a decision

220Usually occurs when group members rally around a central managers idea , and become blindly commit to the idea without considering alternatives.The groups influence tends to convince each member that the idea must go forward.

7-221Improved team Decision MakingDevils AdvocacyCritical analysis of a preferred alternative to ascertain its strengths and weaknesses before it is implementedOne member of the group who acts as the devils advocate by critiquing the way the group identified alternatives and pointing out problems with the alternative selection.

221

7-222Improved team Decision MakingDialectical InquiryTwo different groups are assigned to the problem and each group is responsible for evaluating alternatives and selecting one of themTop managers then hear each group present their alternatives and each group can critique the other.Promote DiversityIncreasing the diversity in a group may result in consideration of a wider set of alternatives.

222

7-223Devils Advocacy and Dialectical InquiryFigure 7.7

7-224Organizational Learning and CreativityOrganizational LearningManagers seek to improve a employees desire and ability to understand and manage the organization and its task environment so as to raise effectiveness.The Learning OrganizationManagers try to maximize the peoples ability to behave creatively to maximize organizational learning.

224

7-225Question?What is the ability of the decision maker to discover novel ideas leading to a feasible course of action?OriginalityImaginationCreativityIngenuity

225The correct answer is C creativity. See next slide.

7-226Organizational Learning and CreativityCreativityThe ability of the decision maker to discover novel ideas leading to a feasible course of action.A creative management staff and employees are the key to the learning organization.

226

7-227Senges Principles for Creating a Learning?Figure 7.8

7-228Creating a Learning OrganizationPersonal MasteryManagers empower employees and allow them to create and explore.Mental ModelsChallenge employees to find new, better methods to perform a task.Team LearningLearning that takes place in a group or team.

228

7-229Creating a Learning OrganizationBuild a Shared VisionPeople share a common mental model of the firm to evaluate opportunities.Systems ThinkingKnowing and understanding how actions in one area of the firm will impact other areas of the firm.

229

7-230Building Group CreativityBrainstormingManagers meet face-to-face to generate and debate many alternatives. Group members are not allowed to evaluate alternatives until all alternatives are listed.When all are listed, then the pros and cons of each are discussed and a short list created.

230

7-231Building Group CreativityProduction BlockingOccurs because group members cannot simultaneously make sense of all the alternatives being generated, think up additional alternatives, and remember what they were thinking

7-232Building Group CreativityNominal Group TechniqueProvides a more structured way to generate alternatives in writing and gives each manager more time and opportunity to come up with potential solutionsUseful when an issue is controversial and when different managers might be expected to champion different courses of action

232

7-233Building Group CreativityDelphi TechniqueWritten approach to creative problem solving.Group leader writes a statement of the problem to which managers respondQuestionnaire is sent to managers to generate solutionsTeam of managers summarizes the responses and results are sent back to the participantsProcess is repeated until a consensus is reached

233

7-234EntrepreneurshipEntrepreneursIndividuals who notice opportunities and take the responsibility for mobilizing the resources necessary to produce new and improved goods and services.

234

19

Entrepreneurs start new businesses and carry out all of the management functions.Entrepreneurs assume all of the risks for losses and receive all of the returns (profits) from their ventures.

7-235EntrepreneurshipIntrapreneursIndividuals (managers, scientists, or researchers) who work inside an existing organization and notice an opportunity for product improvements and are responsible for managing the product development process.

235

19

Intrapreneurs frustrated with the lack of support or opportunity at their firm often leave and form their own new ventures.

7-236Intrapreneurship and Organizational LearningLearning organizations encourage their employees to act as intrapreneurs: Product champions: taking ownership of a product from concept to market.Skunkworks: keeping a group of intrapreneurs separate from the rest of the firm.Rewards for innovation: linking innovation by workers to valued rewards.

236

23

7-237Movie Example: Youve Got MailHow will Kathleen use the decision making process with the arrival of the Fox Book Superstore?

237Leonard Maltin describes Youve Got Mail as a long, but entertaining remake of THE SHOP AROUND THE CORNER, with Meg Ryan as the proud proprietor of a neighborhood bookstore, and Tom Hanks as the head of a superstore chain poised to put her out of business.

In Ch 6 Life Observed Kathleen (Meg Ryan) and her employees discover the identity of the new construction nearby is a Fox Books Superstore. Kathleen has many decisions regarding her future, the future of her business and that of her employees.

Students should be able to discuss alternatives and chances for success of each alternative.

PROBLEM SOLVING238

A Butterflys Lesson

One day, a small opening appeared in a cocoon; a man sat and watched for the butterfly for several hours as it struggled to force its body through that little hole.239

Then, it seems to stop making any progress.

It appeared as if it had gotten as far as it could and it could not go any further.

240

So the man decided to help the butterfly: he took a pair of scissors and opened the cocoon.

The butterfly then emerged easily.

But it had a withered body, it was tiny and shriveled wings.

241

The man continued to watch because he expected that, at any moment, the wings would open, enlarge and expand, to be able to support the butterflys body, and become firm.

242

Neither happened!In fact, the butterfly spent the rest of its life crawling around with a withered body and shriveled wings. It never was able to fly.

243

What the man, in his kindness and his goodwill did not understand was that the restricting cocoon and the struggle required for the butterfly to get through the tiny opening, were Gods way of forcing fluid from the body of the butterfly into its wings, so that it would be ready for flight once it achieved its freedom from the cocoon.

244

Sometimes, struggles are exactly what we need in our life.

If God allowed us to go through our life without any obstacles, it would cripple us. We would not be as strong as we could have been. Never been able to fly.

245

What is a Problem?Desired ConditionActual Condition-Problem=Want

Have

-Problem=

Subject Definition246

First, let us define what is a problem.Problem is the difference between the desired condition and actual condition.Taking into a different definition, the desired condition is the want and the actual condition is what you have. Thus the difference between what you want and what you have is a problem.246

What do you do for a one-time problem?Monday


If you have a problem, what do you do to resolve it, especially if it is a one-time problem? Like if you have a headache, what do you immediately do? Do you immediately drink medicine?247

TuesdayThursdayWednesdayFridaySaturdayProblemBut What If the Problem Recurs?


But, what if your problem keeps on happening? Instead of you having a headache on one-day, you are having it daily? Do you think that drinking medicine would resolve your headache? Are you willing to drink medicine daily? Probably not.

Arent you going to try to find out what causes your headache?248

What, specifically, is a problem?

Problems can be classified in three ways:Problems that have already happenedProblems that lie aheadProblems you want to prevent from happening

Problem Solving: Defined249

There are three ways to approach problems. You can stall or delay until a decision is no longer necessary, or until it has become an even greater problem. You can make a snap decision, off the top of your head, with little or no thinking or logic.You can use a professional approach and solve problems based on sound decision-making practices.

Approach to Problem Solving250

Think of an individual that you think is good at solving problems.Describe the traits, characteristics, and behaviors that made the individual a good problem solver.

The Ideal Problem Solver251

Some abilities of Good Problem Solvers: Keen ObservationEstablish links, similarities and differencesLook at the other sideTranscend conventional rulesCombine two elements to produce new ideas252

Creative thinking is something every individual is uniquely equipped to do. Each one of us can be more creative by knowing that change is a matter of having the awareness and knowledge of the process and a matter of believing that change can happen.

Discuss: What are the abilities of creative people?

Ask the group to respond and the presenter to write responses on the flipchart. Ensure that the list covers:

Keen observationEstablish Links, Similarities and DifferencesLook at the other side or from another point of view.Transcend conventional rules, try a fresh approachCombine 2 elements to produce new ideasAdd your own...

In order to find sustainable solutions to our problems, we will: Encourage everyone to participate. Encourage new ideas without criticism, since new concepts come from outside our normal perception. Build on each others ideas. Whenever possible, use data to facilitate problem solving. Remember that solving problems is a creative processnew ideas and new understanding often result.Steps to Problem Solving253

Problem solving styles

254

Accomodators

255

assimilators

256

diverger

257

converger

258

In order to reach win-win decisions, we will:Make decisions based on data whenever possible.Seek to find the needed information or data.Discuss criteria for making a decision (cost, time, impact, etc.) before choosing an option.Encourage and explore different interpretations of data.

Steps to Decision Making259

We tend to make three kinds of decisions.Autocratic: Made by yourselfConsultative: Made by yourself, but talk it over with others. Group: Many people participate in the decision.

Decision Making: Typology260

J.R Richmond classification for employees approach to problemsNot my problem. Dont ask me. What now? Some well-meaning employees cant seem to mature into independent problem solvers. Straight liner. Straight liners know how to solve straightforward problems. Creative problem solver.261

Problem Solving within an individualExercise: Problem Solving Styles Questionnaire262

The Problem-Solving-Decision-Making Model

263

The PSDM Model

264

Key Aspects

265

Phase One:PerceptionDefinitionAnalysisThe PSDM Model

266

Phase Two:Alternative Generation (Brainstorming, random word method)Decision Making The PSDM Model

267

CHOOSING APPROACH TO DECISION MAKING

268

Phase Three:PlanningImplementation

The PSDM Model

269

Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Process

270

In this figure we see the six steps we just discussed but with details and examples for each.

Teaching Tips:In your student teams, please review these six steps, the detail and the example. Then please come up with a new example for each step. We will share examples with the class.Answers will vary.

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING

271

271Before you begin this workshop, ensure you have the following materials available: Overhead projector, flip chart paper, colored markers for groups, masking tape (optional if you want to put finished charts on wall), booklets or handouts for each participant..Review the Instructors and Participants Workbooks. Useful background information is covered on page 2 of Instructors Workbook.

272

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVINGPURPOSE:

To develop the awareness and the skills necessary to solve problems creatively.

273

273The instructor then tells the purpose of the workshop.

274Some Additional ThoughtsThe creative person uses information to form new ideas.

The real key to creative problem solving is what you do with the knowledge.

Creative problem solving requires an attitude that allows you to search for new ideas and use your knowledge and experience.

Change perspective and use knowledge to make the ordinary extraordinary and the usual commonplace.

274Refer participants to page 2 of their workbook (page 4 of the Instructors Workbook) for additional thoughts, which are covered in the workbooks.The creative person wants to know about all kinds of things. Because he/she never knows when these ideas might come together to form new ideas.

Knowledge is the stuff from which new ideas are made. Yet, knowledge alone wont make a creative person or solve a problem. The real key to creative problem solving is what you do with the knowledge.

Creative problem solving requires an attitude that allows you to search for new ideas and use your knowledge and experience.

By changing ones perspective and playing with our knowledge, one can make the ordinary extraordinary and the usual commonplace.

Also, One may use seemingly crazy, foolish and impractical ideas as bridges to practical ideas. One might break the rules, so to speak, and search for ideas in unusual places.

275DEFINITION Creative problem solving is -

275

276DEFINITIONCreative problem solving is - looking at the same thing as everyone else and thinking something different.

Adapted from a famous quote from a former Nobel prize winner, Albert Szent-Gyorgi.

276Conclude the discussion with this definition. While there may be other valid definitions, this provides a good transition to the remainder of the workshop.

277EXERCISE

277The instructor tells the participants that they are now going to have an opportunity to apply some creative thinking to solve a problem. She/he directs the participants to turn to page 3 of their workbook with nine dots on the page.The instructor then reads the following instructions, word for word, to the participants.

Connect all nine dots with four (4) straight continuous lines without your pen (or pencil) leaving the paper.

The instructor gives the participants five (5) minutes to complete the exercise. He/she may draw the nine dots in the same pattern up on a flipchart. Then, the instructor asks is anyone thinks they have gotten the answer and would they like to draw it on the flipchart.The next slide has the solution.

278A SOLUTION

278The instructor asks who got the answer. Then, asks participants what happened? Lead a discussion about the barriers to creative problem solving.

Narrow thinking keeps people within the imaginary boundaries of the box and stuck dealing with the same old problems.

Creative thinking goes outside the imaginary box and discovers innovative ways of solving problems.

Are you faced with s lingering problem that you could solve by thinking and going outside your box?

LETS TALK ABOUT: Why dont we think creatively more often?

What are the barriers that get in our way?279

279Ask the participants two questions to engage them in the discussion.The instructor or one of the participants may record the participants comments on a flipchart.

As a follow-up question to further stir their thinking, the instructor may ask the participants to think of things they do automatically, without really thinking.

The instructor may want to flip through the next series of slides one at a time or go to chart 24.

280BARRIERS THAT GET IN OUR WAY Time Why change? Usually dont need to be creative Habit Routine Havent been taught to be creativeWhat are some other barriers that get in our way?

280After the initial discussion, refer participants to page 4 of their workbook and cover the main points (pages 7-8 of Instructors workbook).

Once you cover the main points, ask about other barriers to keep participants actively involved.

281MENTAL BLOCKSMental blocks are reasons (attitudes) why we dont think something different.

281Most of us have certain attitudes that keep us thinking the same way (blocks our thinking). There are 10 main mental blocks.

282MENTAL BLOCKS1. The _______ answer.2. Thats not _________.3. __________ the rules.4. Be ______________.5. ________ is frivolous. 6. Thats not my _____.7. ________ ambiguity.8. Dont be _________.9. __________is wrong. 10. Im not __________.

282Refer participants to page 5 of their workbook (pages 8-13 of Instructors Workbook) and ask them to take notes as each point is covered.

283MENTAL BLOCK # 1The right answer.

Only one?

283Throughout our school years, we have all been taught to look for the right answer. What happens is that if we think there is only one right answer, then we will stop looking as soon as we find it. Our creative thinking process stops with that one right answer. When we allow ourselves to use our imagination, we are able to discover many answers.For example: Tests in schools that are multiple choice and true/false questions look for only one right answer.

284MENTAL BLOCK # 2The right answer.Thats not logical.

284We have been taught throughout life to look at things as right or wrong, as works or does not work or as black or white. That type of logic implies that there is a definite right and wrong answer. We often do not look at the gray because it is not logical. That is really a shame because looking at the gray can be playful, funny, and creative.

When we think only of what is right or wrong or black or white, our focus may be so narrow that we miss out on some good ideas.

For Example: What do a cat and a refrigerator have in common?. Logical thinking would say NOTHING. However, creative thinking may see a number of things a cat and a refrigerator have in common: they both have a place to put fish, they both have tails, they both come in a variety of colors, they both purr, they both have a lifetime of about fifteen years, etc.

285MENTAL BLOCK # 3The right answer.Thats not logical.Follow the rules. Why rules should be challenged:1. We make rules based on reasons that make a lot of sense.2. We follow these rules.3. Time passes, and things change.4. The original reasons for the generation of these rules may no longer exist, but because the rules are still in place, we continue to follow them.

285We are under a lot of pressure to follow the rules. We are taught this from the time we are children.

Often, challenging the rules is good creative thinking strategy. Also, if we never challenge the rules, we may get locked into one approach or method without seeing other approaches that may also work.

For Example: Every night at the dinner table, Jane sits next to her mother. From the time Jane was a baby and began to eat food she was seated next to her mother so that it was convenient for her mother to feed her. Well, Jane is a young adult who no longer needs her mothers assistance; however, her assigned seat remains next to her mother.

286MENTAL BLOCK # 4The right answer.Thats not logical.Follow the rules.Be practical.

286We so often focus on what is practical, on what we already know works. When people look at new ideas, they tend to be critical and focus on what is out of the ordinary. Often the comments made are negative, for instance, that wont work. We have been trained to respond to the unusual by saying thats not practical, instead of hey, that sounds like a neat idea.

For Example: Just imagine the creative ideas we would have if we were to look at the way things were and asked what if, what if we did it differently. What if we only went to work three days a week and did the rest of the work at home? What if we ate dinner for breakfast and breakfast for dinner?

287MENTAL BLOCK # 5The right answer.Thats not logical.Follow the rules.Be practical.Play is frivolous.

When do you get your best ideas?

287Ask the question - When do you get your best ideas? Some people will respond by saying:When I have a problem.When something breaks down, and I have to fix it.When I have a deadline.These are common responses and are quite acceptable to most people. These types of responses indicate that we are creative when it is necessary for us to be creative.

288MENTAL BLOCK # 6Thats not my area.

288The type of work people do is becoming more and more specialized. Our focus is becoming more narrow. For instance, the days of an auto mechanic working on all kinds of cars are gone. Auto mechanics typically specialize on one type of car, for instance Japanese cars or BMWs or Fords. Well, with specialization, people begin to think they do not have anything to offer outside their area of specialization.

It is important to realize that very few problems are related to just one area. Most problems are related to many different areas. Just because it is not our area, does not mean that we dont have something to offer.

For Example: Think of yourself as an explorer. Wherever you go, there are new ideas waiting for you to discover.

289MENTAL BLOCK # 7Thats not my area.Avoid ambiguity.

AMBIGUITY

289Generally, people do not like ambiguous statements or situations because they can be confusing and may cause problems communicating.

For Example: When asked directions to the nearest gas station an ambiguous response would be - Go down the road, over the hill, across the bridge and take a left at the big old maple tree.

As a result, we have learned to avoid ambiguity. There are times when it is important to avoid ambiguity, such as when giving directions, drawing up a contract, and making a major purchase. In these situations, it is important to be clear, precise, and specific. Although, at times, it is important to be unambiguous, yet, there are other times when it may limit our thinking.

There are times when ambiguity can stir our imagination. Ambiguity helps us ask questions like:Whats going on here?What does this mean?How else could someone view this?

290MENTAL BLOCK # 8Thats not my area.Avoid ambiguity.Dont be foolish.

290We have learned that the best way to get along is to go along with the crowd. We tend to conform so that we do not look foolish. If you dont conform, you might look like you dont know what you are doing.

The problem is that when we try to conform with our thinking, we end up thinking like everyone else. Our creativity and imagination gets stifled. We begin to look at an idea in the same way.

For Example: To be creative, sometimes we have to take a risk and allow ourselves to look at things differently. Try it, you just may find that people appreciate another viewpoint and that your creative idea may help someone out.

291MENTAL BLOCK # 9Thats not my area.Avoid ambiguity.Dont be foolish.To err is wrong.

291Many people are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system has taught us to look for the right answers. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. From this, we learn to be right as often as possible, to make as few mistakes as possible. In other words, we learn that to err is wrong.

The sad part of this line of thinking is that it does not allow us to learn from our mistakes. When we do not allow ourselves to make mistakes, we are not allowing ourselves to think creatively. Mistakes are not bad, they are a learning experience. At the very least, we learn what does not work and from there, we very well may learn what does work.

Errors are a sign that you are breaking new ground and are trying new things. Remember, if you fail you learn what doesnt work. The failure gives you an opportunity to try a new approach.

For Example: The comedian and film director Woody Allen once said, If you are not failing every now and again, its a sign youre not trying anything very innovative.

292MENTAL BLOCK # 10Thats not my area.Avoid ambiguity.Dont be foolish.To err is wrong.Im not creative.

292If we see ourselves as not creative, then we will not be creative. People who do not think they are creative never put themselves in a position where they can use their creativity. Because they do not think they are creative, their creativity stays locked away.

For Example: A major difference between creative people and lesser creative people is that creative people give themselves a chance to pay attention to their ideas. They allow themselves to play with their small ideas. Even is the idea is small, they know that a small idea may lead to a big breakthrough and they believe that they are capable of making it happen.

293BEING MORE CREATIVEHow can we be more creative?

Jot down at least 3 ideas that come to your mind.

293Refer participants to page 6 of their workbook.Ask the participants for ways in which we can be more creative and have them write down their thoughts in the workbook. The instructor or one of the participants can record the participants thoughts on a flipchart.

Following the group discussion, the facilitator shares with the participants the following golden rules of creative thinking.

294Golden Rules of Creative Thinking

Start small trying to discover new ways to be creative, ___________.__________ to abandon the old, obsolete ways of doing things and explore new ways.It is not possible to change the way we think about everything. ________ in which to try creative thinking techniques.Understand that creative thinking requires __________, but it is worth it!Remember that creative thinking is both _______ and__________!!!

294Refer participants to the rules on page 6 of their workbook (page 14 of the Instructors Workbook).ANSWERS:1. but start.2. Give yourself permission3. Target specific areas4. time5. hard work and fun!!!

295Golden Rules of Creative Thinking (Continued)

_________ on what you can reasonably do. Trying to do too many things at once compromises the effort and may take away from the results._________creative thinking for today as well as tomorrow.Include other people in the creative thinking process with you. __________fosters creative thinking.Include _______ and ______ in your creative thinking process as well as ___________.Keep ________________.

295ANSWERS:6. Focus7. Practice8. Collaborationnew and different innovating

29610 Questions To Encourage Ideas

What if?How can we improve?How will the Optimist Member and/or the community benefit?Are we forgetting anything?Whats the next step?

296Review the 10 questions with the participants, provided on the 2 charts.

Explain that these are questions that can be asked to get the thinking process started and to keep it going.

Participants will have an opportunity to practice these questions with the exercises that follow.

29710 Questions To Encourage Ideas

What can we do better?What do you think about?What should we add?What should we eliminate?What other ideas do you have...?

297

298TOOLS & TECHNIQUESBRAINSTORMING

Purpose: To generate a large number of ideas in a short period of time.

298Cover the PURPOSE with a piece of paper.Ask the participants the purpose and the rules of Brainstorming. Ask these questions first in the event some of the participants are familiar with brainstorming. It is helpful to the learning process to invite them to share their understanding. After a brief discussion of the purpose, remove the paper to expose the answer and continue discussion of the rules of Brainstorming.

Systematic BrainstormingBrainstorming is a technique of getting a large number of ideas from a group of people in a short time. It can used effectively in numerous situations and has relevance for us in problem solving: to identify problems, sort out causes from effects, and come up with creative solutions.

299

Brainstorming Avoid criticism Free wheel Go for quantity Record Dont Judge your team mates Incubate

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Brainstorming:Brainstorming is a technique of getting a large number of ideas from a group of people in a short time. It can used effectively in numerous situations and has relevance for us in problem solving: to identify problems, sort out causes from effects, and come up with creative solutions.There are certain rules for brainstorming which must be followed for the technique to be effective, which are as follows:1.No criticism: participants should contribute ideas without fear of criticism from others. Likewise, they should suspend judgment on the ideas of others.2.Freewheel: the process of brainstorming should promote the free flow of ideas without analysis or evaluation. It allows wild or even apparently silly ideas which may develop into something useful. 3.Go for quantity: the aim is to get as many different ideas as possible in the allotted time. Everyone should contribute something, however unimportant it may appear to be. 4.Record: write down all ideas, even repetitions, on a flip chart for all to see. The written words themselves will trigger other ideas from the team. 5.Cross-fertilize: use other peoples ideas as a springboard for your own. Building on ideas is an effective way of creating the best ideas.6.Incubate: after the allotted time for generating ideas, each person should identify those ideas he finds most useful. The team can then select the ideas which should be developed.

Brainstorming TechniquesListing:Listing of ideas as soon as they are said.Word AssociationFinding a new idea or slogan through associating wordsClustering or MappingClustering, like free-word association, is a brainstorming technique to help you spill out flashes of inspiration in unplanned relationships. Free WritingFree writing can be guided or unguided. It is a good technique for bringing ideas to the surface

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Steps to Brainstorming Review guidelines Warm up Volunteer to write ideas Be a cheerleader and make it fun Encourage wild ideas Incubate

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Steps to brainstorming: To run a successful brainstorming session, the team leader should follow these steps:

1.Review the guidelines for brainstorming with the team and post these where everyone can see them.2.Warm up for a few minutes with a practice brainstorming. It is helpful to use some simple, such as the uses of a paperclip, or a brick, or a wooden pencil.3.Choose a volunteer to write up all the ideas on the flipchart as they are brainstormed. (Never pressurize anyone into being a volunteer.)4.Maintain a cheerleader role with the team keeping up the momentum for ideas. Make it fun. Laughter is often a sign of creativity.5 .When the team dries up, try to get more ideas of your own, urging them on, or by selecting the wildest idea and building on it.6.Incubate ideas. Help each person identify those ideas he or she finds most useful. Team members might be asked to place a tick mark next to the ten ideas they find most valuable. Find the idea which is most widely accepted.

Reverse brainstorming. At times it helps to think of all the things that could go wrong with the ideas the team has selected.Case Study 2 b: Brainstorm all possible solutions for the case study 2.

Case Study

You are the manager of a division and you hear from various sources that one of your Supervisors is pushing employees beyond their limit. He never listens to what the employees have to say, is extremely authoritarian and as a result the morale of the group is very low.304

Case study 1: (Discuss as a group)You are the manager of a division and you hear from various sources that one of your Supervisor is pushing employees beyond their limit. He never listens to what the employees have to say, is extremely authoritarian and as a result the morale of the group is very low. Task: Work out Phase 1, 2 and 3.

Phase One:PerceptionDefinitionAnalysis

Phase Two:Alternative Generation (Brainstorming, random word method)Decision Making

Phase Three:PlanningImplementation

Root cause analysis is the process of finding the underlying reasons that is causing a problem.What is Root Cause Analysis?Fixing the root cause will permanently remove the problem.


There comes the importance of understanding the causes of your headache. This is what we call Root Cause Analysis This is the process of finding the underlying reasons that is causing a problem.

Finding the right root cause will permanently remove your problem.305

5 Why Technique applied to Root Cause Analysis

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It is: Root Cause Analysis tool Part of the Problem Solving Techniques The outcome of the 5 Whys analysis is identifying the reason(s) why the problem originated

It is not:A complicated techniqueThe resolution of the problem itself What is (or is not) 5 Whys?


One important and basic tool in understanding root causes is the 5-Why Analysis You might have experience a small kid who is repeatedly asking you Why because they are so curious of understanding things.

To understand more of the 5-Why analysis, we have to know that this is a part of a Problem Solving Technique which is used to understanding the reason(s) why the problem originated.

It is quite important also to know that the 5-why is not a complicated technique and in itself would not resolve your problem.307

The Why Graph


This Why Graph represents the ideal level to judge if you came across the right root cause.Rule of thumb, once you reach the 4th & 5th Why that is the ideal level to say that you arrive with the proper root cause of the problem.

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Why did the machine stop? Why there was an overload? Why was it not lubricated sufficiently? Why was it not pumping sufficiently Why was the shaft worn out?

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The actual principle here is less tied to the number of times you ask why than to your asking it enough times to discover the actual cause of a particular problem. We must resist the temptation to accept the path of least resistance and accept the first reasonable or plausible answer, Taiichi Ohno, former Toyota Motor vice president, provides the following example of finding the real cause of a machine stoppage.First Why:Why did the machine stop?First Answer:There was an overload and the fuse blew.Second Why:Why there was an overload?Second Answer:The bearing was not sufficiently lubricated.Third Why:Why was it not lubricated sufficiently?Third Answer:The lubrication pump was not pumping sufficiently.Fourth Why:Why was it not pumping sufficiently?Fourth Answer:The shaft of the pump was worn and rattling.Fifth Why:Why was the shaft worn out?Fifth Answer:There was no strainer attached and metal scrap got in.By repeating why at least five times, the team can identify the real cause and hence the real solution; attaching a strainer to the lubricating pump. If team members had not carried out the questioning, they might have settled with an intermediate and plausible solution, such as replacing the fuse. But this would not have gotten at the root cause, and the problem would reappear. Asking why over and over uncovers the problems cause deep in the system, a cause that is often hidden behind more obvious symptoms. When we identify a problem we often find a solution without truly analyzing if this is the root cause or the problem or not.

Five Why - helps find point of origin Why - keeps running out of parts

Why - low inventory held Why - parts listed as low turnover Why - stores not told of higher usage Why - communication breakdownProblem: A worker is idle for long periods310

Five why- Finding the Point of Origin When we identify a problem we often find a solution without truly analyzing if this is the root cause or the problem or not.

Solution finding is often the easy part, it is identifying the root cause which is difficult, because this is often hidden. It is not fair to ask someone to deal with the effects of a problem if nothing has been done to tackle the factors that are causing it in the first place.What is the point of origin? An example of a cause and effect might be:

Problem: A worker is idle for long periods

WHY?Keep running out of partsWHY?Low inventory heldWHY?Parts listed as low turnover WHY?Stores not told of higher usageWHY?Communication Breakdown

Remember: Be like a child asking WHY? until you get to the root of the problem.

The Problem-Solving Toolkit

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What are some ways that we can think outside the box to reach a creative solution?What can we do to maximize the effects of brainstorming (before, during, and after)?Use the random word method Dont re-invent the wheel!

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Disneyland will never be completed, as long as there is imagination left in the world. Walt Disney313

Q and A: If you have any questions on what we have covered in this program, please ask me.

Close: Walt Disney said, Disneyland will never be completed, as long as there is imagination left in the world.

Food for ThoughtIf you don't ask the right questions, you don't get the right answers. A question asked in the right way often points to its own answer. Asking questions is the ABC of diagnosis. Only the inquiring mind solves problems.

Edward Hodnett

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Criteria

LegalityIs the alternative legal and will not violate any domestic and international laws or government regulations?

Ethicalness

Is the alternative ethical and will not bring harm stakeholders unnecessarily?

Economic FeasibilityCan organizations performance goals sustain this alternative?

Practicality

Does the management have the capabilities and resources required to implement the alternative?

Systems thinking for analyzing problems

Business

Transcript of Systems thinking for analyzing problems