Synthesis Using Organometallics
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Organometallic Cross-Coupling in Synthesis
• Organometallics play a key role in C-C bond forming reactions
• Negatively polarized carbon-metal bond (C!- M!
+) is suited for this purpose
• Reactivity of organometallic generlaly increases with ionic character of the C-M bond
o
Related to the electronegativity value EN difference between the carbon and themetal (EN = electrostatic force exerted by a nucleus on the valence electrons)
• Ionic character (% ionicity) is related to difference between the EN values of the atoms of
the C-M bond• EN and ionic character are affected by substituents on carbon
• Thus, C-Li, C-Mg, C-Ti and C-Al bonds are more ionic then C-Zn, C-Cu, C-Sn, and C-B
o Latter bonds have more covalent character
• Special techniques are often required based on reactivity of C-M bonds
Organolithium reagents in synthesis
• React with a wide variety of organic substrates to form C-C bonds
• Serve as precursors for preparation of other organometallic reagents
•
Various methods can be used to prepare organolithium species depending on substrate1. Li metal and alkyl halides
• Does not work for allylic, benzylic or propargylic systems (homo coupling)
• Basicity decreases with increasing stability of carbanion
o tBuLi > sBuLi > nBuLi
2. Lithium-Halogen (Li-X) Exchange
• Proceeds forward when R-Li is a weaker base (more stable carbanion) than
R'-Li
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• Alkenyl lithium reagents
o (E) and (Z)-alkenyl halides are configurationally stable @ low temp
o Can react with various electrophiles
• Aryllithium reagents
o Li-halogen exhange is very fast @ low tempo Use of tetramethylethylene diamine (TMEDA) to accelerate
metalation more than M-X exchange
3. Transmetalation [Lithium-Metal (Li-M) Exchange]
• Used to prepare allylic, benzylic and propargylic lithium reagents
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4. Lithium-Hydrogen Exchange (Metalation)
• Use of TMEDA, HMPA, DMPU or crown ether to promote metalation
5. Metalation of "-Heterosubstituted alkenes
• Relative activating effect S > O > N (inductive effect increases acidity of C-H
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6. Directed Ortho-Metalation (DOM)
• Permits regioselective preparation of substituted benzene derivatives andheterocycles
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Organomagnesium reagents in synthesis
• Grignard reagents (Grignard, Novel Prize 1912)
• Prepared by reaction of alkyl halide with (1) activated Mg in ethereal solvent or (2) withRieke Mg (MgCl2 treated with lithium naphthalide --> Mg
0)
•
Alkenyl and phenyl Grignards prepared from corresponding halideso Grignards from (E)- And (Z)-alkenes are configurationally unstable (gives
mixtures of isomers)
• Allylic Grignard reagents
o homo coupling often a side reaction
o Barbier-type reaction is a solution (all components in one pot)
•
Alkynyl Grignard reagentso Prepared by deprotonation of 1-alkynes with EtMgBr
• Reactions of Grignards with carbonyl compounds
o Carbonyl reactivity towards Grignard reagents: aldehyde >ketone >ester > amide
o Proceed through polar-concerted reaction or a step-wise electron transfero
Often accompanied by side reactions
! enolization, reduction, or aldol condensation
BrH
Hn-C4H9
MgBrH
Hn-C4H9
CO2HH
Hn-C4H9Mg, Et2O a. CO2
b. H+, H2O
HR
EtMgBr
MgBrR
O
H
Mg
R
X
H
O
R
MgX
H+, H2O H
OH
RO
H
Mg
R
X
O
H R
Mg
X O
HR
Mg
X
enolization
OMgX
H MgX
O OMgX
H
Reduction
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Organocopper reagents in Synthesis
• Cu is less electropositive then Li or Mg
• C-Cu bond is less polarized than C-Li or C-Mg bonds
• Organocopper reagents react with alkyl, alkenyl and aryl halides to give alkylated
productso More selective
o Can be reacted with acid chlorides to form ketones without further nucleophilic
attacko Reactivity: acid chlorides > aldehydes > halides and tosylates > epoxides >>
ketones > esters > nitriles
o Prefers 1,4-addition with ",#-unsaturated carbonyls
• Class of Organocuprates1. Homocuprates (R 2CuLi, R 2CuMgX)
o Thermally-labile (need low temp)
o
Prepared from lithiates or Grignards (need 2 equivalents) and Cu(I) halide
2. Heterocuprates (R 1R 2CuM)
o More controlled reactivity (tempered)
o
Thermally more stable (less prone to #-elimination of C-H)
o Only one group transferred
! Can use a non-transferable group
o
alkynyl, 2-thienyl, PhS, tBuO, R 2 N
3. Higher Order Cyanocuprates (Lipshutz Reagents)
o
Have reactivity of homocuprates with thermal stability of heterocuprates
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4.
Grignard-Copper(I) Reagents
o Use of catalytic copper with Grignard reagent (complexation)
o Controlled reactivity (tolerates ketone, ester, amide, nitrile groups)o Reacts with alkyl halides to give displacement products (no elimination)
• Reactions of Cuprates
o
Substitution of alkyl halides!
Two plausible mechanisms
• Depends on nature of solvent, substrate and cuprate
o Substitution of allylic halides! Competition between S N2 and S N2'
• due to overlap of Cu d orbital with $* and %* orbitals of allyl
system
! Use RCu-BF3 for predominantly S N2'
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o Reactions with vinyl and aryl halides
! Halogen displacement: more general and gives higher yields than RLi orRMgX
! Useful for biaryl coupling reactions (e.g., Ullman coupling)
o
Acylations (form ketones)
o
1,2-Additions to aldehydes, ketones and imines! Highly diastereoselective
I Me2CuLi Me
90%
NO2
BrNH3
25 ˚C
NO2
NO2
CuOTf
NBOC
OMea) sBuLiTMEDA,Et2O, -45 ˚C
b) CuI-P(OEt)3NCOB
OMe(EtO)3PCu
NRI
MeO OMe
c.
d. H+, H2O
CHO
OMe
MeON
OMe
BOC
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o Epoxide cleavage! R 2Cu(CN)Li2 reagents- mild and efficient enough for epoxide cleavage
! Stereospecific S N2 opening (addition as least substituted carbon)
o
Reactions with alkynes
nBu2CuLi
HH
Cu
H H
nBu I
H H
nBuI2
65-75%
(pentyl)2CuLi
HH
Cu
H H
Pentyl
H H
Pentyl
78%
OEt
O
H
H
CO2Et
EtMgBrHnBu
CuMgBr2
nBu H
Et
CuBr
H+H
nBu H
Et
82%
iPrCuMgBr2HnBu
CuMgBr2
nBu H
I- Pr CN
nBu H
i- Pr
92%
Cl CN
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! Formation of allenes from propargyl acetates, halides and sulfonates
o Conjugate additions
!
Organometallics may add 1,2- or 1,4-manner to ",#-unsaturated carbonyls! 1,4-Addition most successful with "soft" (relatively non-basic)
nucleophileso CN, RNH2, R 2 NH, RSH, malonates, organocuprates
! 1,2-Addition most successful with "hard" (relatively basic) nucleophiles
o
Hydrides, RLi, RMgX
! All cuprates and CuX-catalyzed additions of RMgX give 1,4-addition
!
Chemoselective (addition to less hindered C=C bond)
! Stereoselective (addition of R group from less hindered face) ! Mechanism
! For sterically-demanding cuprates or enones with steric hindrance atreaction site
OAc MeCu-LiBr-MgBrI
C H
Me
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• Add TMSCl to accelerate conjugate addition (activates carbonyl)
•
Can also use Lewis acids to activate carbonyl
!
Can perform tandem 1,4-trapping
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! Understanding conjugate addition
• Sterics and electronic play big role
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Organopalladium reagents in synthesis
• Pd-catalyzed coupling reactions (one of most versatile tools for C-C bond formation
o (Nobel Prize 2010- Heck, Negishi, and Suzuki)
• Organo-Pd species usually generated in situ
•
High chemo-, regio-, and stereoselectivities• Usually low catalyst loading
• Pd chemistry dominated by Pd0-Pd
II:
o Pd(0), d10
: zero valent state
o Pd(II), d8: +2 state
• Palladium (0) complexes
o readily accessible, easily prepared and easily handled
o Phosphine ligands provide high electron density on the metal! Pd-P complex favors oxidative addition
! Pd-P complex favors dissociation of ligand to coordinating unsaturated
complex
! Electron-rich, nucleophilic species!
Prone to oxidation, ligand dissociation, insertion, and oxidative coupling
reactions
! React with a broad range of halides having proximal $-bonds to form %-
organoPd(II) complexes (oxidative addition)
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• Pd(II) complexes
! electrophilic species
! Undergo ligand association and reductive coupling reactions
• Basis for Pd cross-coupling chemistry
o
Oxidative additiono Transmetalation
o Reductive elimination
• Common Pd(0) complexes: Pd(PPh3)4 (yellow, crystalline material); Pd2dba3
• Pd(0) complexes prepared in situ from Pd(II) in presence of phosphines
o PdCl2, Pd(OAc)2, Pd(PPh3)Cl2
• Pd(II) also reduced to Pd(0) by amines, alkenes or R-M
• Oxidative additions occur readily for aryl and vinyl halides at RT
o Vinyl halide retain stereochemical integrity
• Alkyl halides give alkyl-Pd(II)-X complexes
o If substrate contains #-H on sp3 carbon
! Rapid dehydropalladation (#-hydride elimination)!
Many new methods overcoming this issue with choice of catalyst, ligand
• 16-electon Pd(II) complex can acquire second substrate by insertion into alkene or bytransmetalation with an organometallic
o Central theme for Pd chemistryo Plays key role in organic synthesis
• Pd-C % bond is stable to many functional groups (NO2, Cl, CO2R, CN, NR 2, NHCOR)
O
Ph Ph
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Mizoroki-Heck Reaction
• Coupling of alkenyl or aryl halides with alkenes in presence of Pd(0) and base to give
alkenyl- or aryl-substituted alkenes
• Catalytic Cycle
o Generally gives (E)-alkenes (sterics during syn elimination TS)
• Advantages
o Widely used
o Compatible with many functional groups and alkenes
o Modern modifications use Pd/C (cheap), use of water-soluble Pd catalysts
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• Disadvantages
o Cannot have hydrogens on #-carbon
o Often requires high temp (50-160 ˚C) for couplingo Aryl chlorides are not good substrates (react slowly)
o
More substituted alkenes give slower reaction
• Scope and limitationso Common catalysts: Pd(OAc)2, PdCl2, Pd2dba3, Pd(PPh3)4 o Representative ligands: PAr 3, dppp, BINAP
o X: iodide, bromide, triflate
o Polar solvents often used: DMF, CH3CN, MeOH
o Addition of phase-transfer catalysts help reactivity
o Electron-releasing groups on C=C lead to increased addition to most electron-
deficient carbon (electron-poor olefins react faster)
o Reactivity order of aryl halides in oxidative additions:! Ar-I > Ar-OTf > Ar-Br >> Ar-Cl
o Aryl substituents do not interfere with coupling (Cl, CN, CO2R, CHO, NMe2)
o Vinyl triflates prepated from enolizable ketones with PhNTf 2 (N-phenyl
triflamide)
R
O
R
R
O
R
hindered
base Tf2O
or
PhNTf2
R
OTf
R
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• Vinylation of alkenes
•
Intramolecular Heck Reactiono Construction of carbocyclic and heterocyclic ring systemso Can be performed enantioselectively using chiral auxiliaries or with chiral ligands
• Larock Annulation (Larock Indole Synthesis)
o
Useful pharmaceutical process
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Pd-Cross Coupling with Organometallics and Borates
• Similar to Heck except alkenyl and aryl organometallics and borates are used instead ofalkenes
• Role of organometallic:
o
Transfer of alkenyl or aryl group onto R-PdL2X in exchange for halide or triflate• Reagents containing Zn, Al, Zr (Negishi); Boron (Suzuki); and Sn (Stille) are the most
widely used
• Reagents are more compatible with fiunctional groups like esters, amides, nitriles, nitro
groups than R-Li or R-MgX
• General catalytic cycle:
Negishi Reactions (Couplings with Organo Zn, Al and Zr)
• Organozinc reagents
o the C-Zn bond is highly covalent and less reactive toward electrophileso Preparation of organozinc compounds
! Alkylzinc halides
• Prepared by direct insertion of Zn into alkyl halides or treating
alkyl halides with Rieke zinc (reduction of zinc halides with
potassium)
• High functional group tolerance! Dialkylzincs
• Obtained by transmetalation of zinc halides with R-Li or R-MgXreagents or I-Zn exchange catalyzed by CuI
! Zinc carbenoids
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• Oxidative addition of zinc metal to ICH2I gives [ICH2ZnI]
(Simmons-Smith reagent)
o Reactions
! Transmetalations
•
Coupling of alkenyl, aryl and alkynyl halides with unsaturatedorganozincs in presence of Pd(0)
o Preparation of stereodefined aryl alkenes, aryl alkynes,conjugated dienes and enynes
• Advantages:
o Efficient transmetalation to Pd
o
Readily available or easily prepared
o Functional group tolerance
• Organo Al reagentso Coupling of alkenyl, aryl and alkynyl halides with unsaturated organoaluminumso
Prepared in two ways:
1. Hydroalumination
• cis addition of Al-H to C&C bond to product stereodefined alanes
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• Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling of alkenyl alanes with (E)- or (Z)-
alkenyl halides
o Stereoselective synthesis of 1,3-dienes
2. Carboalumination
•
Treatment of alkynes with AlMe3 in presence of Cp2ZrCl (cat) o Regioselective cis-addition of Al-Me to C&C bond
o Attempts to introduce other 1˚ alkyl group (from AlR 3) gives
mixtures of regioisomers
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• Organo Zr reagents
o Produced by treatment of alkynes with Cp2Zr(H)Cl (Schwartz reagent)
o Regioselective cis-addition of Zr-H to C&C bond! Zr occupies less substituted carbon
o Unsymmetrical alkynes give mixtures of regioisomers
! Use excess Cp2Zr(H)Cl- isomerizes to preferred form with Zr @ sterically lesshindered carbon
o Alkenyl Zr compounds couple efficiently with alkenyl and aryl halides in presence of Pd(0) catalysts
Suzuki Reaction (Couplings with Organoboron compounds)
• General method for stereo- and regiospecific synthesis of conjugated dienes, enyne, arylsubstituted alkenes, biaryls
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• Pd-catalyzed cross couplings of vinyl or aryl halides with vinyl, aryl, or alkynyl boron
reagents
• Preserves the alkene geometry of both haloalkene and alkenyl boron in product
• Tolerance of wide range of functional groups
• Readily available or easily synthesized starting materials
• Base required (hydroxypalladation or alkoxypalladation)
o K 2CO3, hydroxide, alkoxide
o Coordination with boron to form complex
!
Enhances nucleophilicity of organic group and facilitates its transfer to Pd! R"OM activates Pd by forming R-Pd-OR"
• Classic Reaction: Use of organoboranes: 1-alkenyl- and arylboroic acids (RB(OH)2) or boronate esters (RB(OR')2)
o Prepared by treatment of R-MgX or R-Li with B(OR)3
o
Acid hydrolysis of boronate ester gives boronic acid
o
Often problems with preparing boron reagents! Purification (low yields), polymerization, lack of atom economy
• To alleviate issues: use of potassium organotrifluoroborates (crystalline solids: readilyisolated, air and moisture-stable)
• (E)- and (Z)-alkenyl boranes and boronic esters or K-trifluoroborateso
Can also be prepared by hydroboration of terminal alkynes or 1-halo-1-alkynes
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@2.
•
Reaction scopeo
Conjugated dienes and enynes are easily synthesized
o Facile synthesis of aryl-substituted alkenes
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• Allows for alkyl-alkenyl or alkyl-aryl coupling
o Use B-alkyl-9-BBN derivatives
o Key feature: no #-hydride elimination
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• Allows for carbonylative coupling in presence of CO
o Valuable procedure for synthesizing unsymmetrical ketones
Stille Reaction (couplings with organotin compounds)
• Coupling of organotin compounds with electrophiles
• E+ = acid chlorides, R-X, R-OTf
• Stereospecific and regioselective
• Mild conditions
• High functional group tolerance
• Major disadvantage: organotin reagents are highly toxic (especially alkyltin derivatives)
•
Reactions performed in polar solvents (THF, DMF, etc.)• Vinyl iodides react very fast (work at low temp)
• Use 1-2 mol % Pd catalyst (Pd(II) reduced to Pd(0) by organotin compound)
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@2A
• Transfer of R' group from R'SnBu3 occurs as follows:
•
Organotin reagents prepared in two primary ways:1. Radical Sn-H addition to alkynes to give vinyl stannane2. Transmetalation with other organometallics
• Cross coupling Reactivity
o Gives high yields
o Retention of alkene stereochemical integrity
o For allylic systems --> attack at least substituted terminus
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@2B
• When carried out in CO atmosphere --> carbonylation to give ketones
Sonagashira Reaction
• Coupling of aryl or vinyl halides or triflates with terminal alkynes
• Use of catalytic amount of Pd(0) or Pd(II) precatalysts
• Often in present of cocatalyst (usually CuI)
•
Often performed in amine solvent
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@2C
• Catalytic cycle:
• Use of Cu: Castro-Stephens Reaction
•
Sonagashira reaction is milder and safer alternative
• Preparation of conjugated enynes
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@2D
• Preparation of conjugated enediynes
• Preparation of conjugated diynes
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Tsuji-Trost Reaction
• Allylic substrates with good leaving groups are excellent reagents for joining an allylmoiety with a nucleophile
• Reactions are limited- competition between S N2 and S N2'
•
Pd-catalyzed nucleophilic substitution of allylic substrates allows for formation of newC-C and C-heteroatom bonds
• Control of both regio- and stereoselectivity
•
Use of chiral ligands for asymmetric synthesis
• Most effective leaving groups: esters, carbonates, phosphates, OPh
•
Soft nucleophiles give best results for C-C bond formation (malonates, enolates, etc.)
• Nucleophilic addition usually occurs at least hindered (less substituted) site
• Examples:
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@./
• Stereochemical outcome: retention of stereochemistry
Buchwald-Hartwig Amination
• Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling of amine with aryl halides
• Extremely powerful and efficient approach to nitrogen containing compounds and C-N bonds
• Has been applied to C-O bond formation as well
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• Very robust
• Intramolecular reactions
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Olefin Metathesis
• 2005 Nobel Prize in chemistry (Chauvin, Shrock and Grubbs)
• Allows exchange of substituents between different olefins (transalkylidenation)
• General mechanism:
• Grubbs's catalysts most often used in synthesis
•
Ring-closing methathesis (RCM) o Efficient formation of small-, medium- and large-sized rings
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• Ring opening metathesis
o
Reverse of RCM (relief of ring strain)o Can be used in tandem with other reactions
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• Cross metathesis
o Intermolecular olefin metathesis reaction (forms acyclic substituted alkene)
• Alkyne metathesis
o Inter- or intramolecular metathesis reaction of alkynes
o Often used to install cis- or trans-alkene
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• Enyne metathesis
o Metathesis reaction between alkene and alkyne (generates a diene moiety)