Syntactic variables Syntactic variables in pupils' writings:in pupils' writings:

distinctive features of distinctive features of keyboard-typed texts?keyboard-typed texts?

Bård Uri JensenBård Uri Jensen

University of Bergen / Hedmark University of Bergen / Hedmark University CollegeUniversity College

ContentsContents

Purpose of this presentationPurpose of this presentation BackgroundBackground PilotPilot Extension to main projectExtension to main project

Why am I here?Why am I here?

Statistical resultsStatistical results Theory-based explanationTheory-based explanation

generative?generative? cognitive?cognitive? functionalfunctional??

How can a functional approach help How can a functional approach help explain differences between hand-explain differences between hand-writing and keyboard-typing?writing and keyboard-typing?

Purpose / AimPurpose / Aim

Pupils’ Pupils’ writing in school writing in school by hand by hand or word-processingor word-processing

Does production mode affect Does production mode affect syntax ? syntax ?

Syntactic variablesSyntactic variables Lexical variablesLexical variables

Background theory / previous Background theory / previous researchresearch

Word processingWord processingRussell 1999Russell 1999

Harrington, Shermis & Rollins 2000 Harrington, Shermis & Rollins 2000 Kellogg & Mueller 1993Kellogg & Mueller 1993

Computer-mediated communicationComputer-mediated communicationBaron 1998Baron 1998

Crystal 2001Crystal 2001Hård av Segerstad 2002Hård av Segerstad 2002

Production speedProduction speedHorowitz & Berkowitz 1964Horowitz & Berkowitz 1964

Written and spoken languageWritten and spoken language differences resulting from production speeddifferences resulting from production speed

Allwood 1998Allwood 1998Biber 1988Biber 1988

Halliday 1989Halliday 1989

HypothesesHypotheses

Increased production speedIncreased production speed more spontaneous languagemore spontaneous language

Improved editingImproved editing less spontaneous languageless spontaneous language

Results will depend onResults will depend on time frametime frame genregenre writing skillswriting skills computing skillscomputing skills

Pilot research questionsPilot research questions

How are the following variables How are the following variables affected by production mode in pupils’ affected by production mode in pupils’ writing?writing? Lexical densityLexical density Lexical diversityLexical diversity Rate of subordinationRate of subordination

Biber 1988, Halliday 1989Biber 1988, Halliday 1989

Rate of modal particlesRate of modal particles Rate of certain kinds of topic markersRate of certain kinds of topic markers

Faarlund, Lie & Vannebo 1997Faarlund, Lie & Vannebo 1997

Pilot research questionsPilot research questions

How are the following variables How are the following variables affected by production mode in pupils’ affected by production mode in pupils’ writing?writing? Lexical densityLexical density

Rate of subordinationRate of subordinationBiber 1988, Halliday 1989Biber 1988, Halliday 1989

Rate of modal particlesRate of modal particles

Faarlund, Lie & Vannebo 1997Faarlund, Lie & Vannebo 1997

Text collectionText collection 20 pupils in 11th year (16 years old)20 pupils in 11th year (16 years old) Three hours writing sessionThree hours writing session

little opportunity for revision / rewritinglittle opportunity for revision / rewriting No Internet connectionNo Internet connection

Text A Text A (Day 1)(Day 1)

Text B Text B (Day 2)(Day 2)

Pupil Pupil 1-101-10

HandHand KeyboardKeyboard

Pupil Pupil 11-2011-20

KeyboardKeyboard HandHand

Text lengthText length

Subordination Subordination (independent clauses)(independent clauses)

Subjunction countSubjunction count At, om, som, fordi, når, så, hvis, hvordanAt, om, som, fordi, når, så, hvis, hvordan, …, …

That, whether, which/that, because, when, so that, if, That, whether, which/that, because, when, so that, if, how, …how, …

ÅÅ (+ infinitive) (+ infinitive) ToTo (+ infinitive) (+ infinitive)

Independent clauses without Independent clauses without subjunctionsubjunction

1)1) Han sa Han sa <<atat>> han skulle komme. han skulle komme.He said He said <<thatthat>> he would come. he would come.

2)2) Bilen Bilen <<somsom>> jeg kjører, er en Toyota. jeg kjører, er en Toyota.The car The car <<thatthat>> I drive is a Toyota. I drive is a Toyota.

(Question-type(Question-type3)3) Hadde jeg ikke kommetHadde jeg ikke kommet,, ville det ikke ha skjedd. ville det ikke ha skjedd.

Had I not comeHad I not come,, it would not have happened it would not have happened..))

Results: SubordinationResults: Subordination

Significant differences in subordinations Significant differences in subordinations by number of (graphic) sentences.by number of (graphic) sentences.

One-way ANOVAOne-way ANOVA

s<.05s<.05 HandHand KeyboaKeyboardrd

MeanMean 1.151.15 1.451.45

Modal particlesModal particles Jo, vel, nok,Jo, vel, nok, da, nå, visst da, nå, visst

Jo = Jo = Assumed known to both sender and Assumed known to both sender and receiver.receiver.

1)1) Jeg kjører Jeg kjører jojo Toyota. Toyota.I drive a Toyota, I drive a Toyota, youyou knowknow..

Vel = Vel = Uncertainty, appeals to receiver’s Uncertainty, appeals to receiver’s knowledge.knowledge.

2)2) Jenter leser Jenter leser velvel mer bøker. mer bøker.Girls read books more, Girls read books more, don’t theydon’t they??

Nok = Nok = Expresses probability or beliefExpresses probability or belief3)3) Gutter driver Gutter driver noknok mer med data. mer med data.

I thinkI think boys use their computer more. boys use their computer more.Boys Boys probablyprobably use their computer more. use their computer more.

Results: Modal particlesResults: Modal particles Frequency per 1000 wordsFrequency per 1000 words No significant differences between production modesNo significant differences between production modes

JoJo, , noknok are slightly more frequent in typed texts are slightly more frequent in typed texts VelVel is slightly more frequent in hand-written text is slightly more frequent in hand-written text

Significant mean differences between essay Significant mean differences between essay questions questions

One-way One-way ANOVA, s<.05ANOVA, s<.05 Text AText A Text BText B

Mean / Mean / 10001000 8.38.3 3.03.0

Results: Modal particlesResults: Modal particles Significant positive correlation:Significant positive correlation:

Difference in rate of modal particles with Difference in rate of modal particles with production modeproduction mode

Total text length produced by pupilTotal text length produced by pupil Pearson’s correlation 0.57, s<.01Pearson’s correlation 0.57, s<.01

Pupils who generally produce long texts Pupils who generally produce long texts use more modal particles when typinguse more modal particles when typing

What characterises these pupils?What characterises these pupils? good production skills / high text competence?good production skills / high text competence? motivated?motivated? utilise increased speed to produce ”fluently”?utilise increased speed to produce ”fluently”? get carried away?get carried away?

Results: Lexical densityResults: Lexical density

Ratio of lexical words to total wordsRatio of lexical words to total words Nouns, adjectives and verbsNouns, adjectives and verbs

Minus function verbs Minus function verbs å ha (to have), å være (to be)å ha (to have), å være (to be) Lexical adverbs not includedLexical adverbs not included

Production mode or total text length show Production mode or total text length show no influenceno influence

Significant negative correlation betweenSignificant negative correlation between Difference in lexical density between Difference in lexical density between

production modesproduction modes Difference in text length between production Difference in text length between production

modesmodes Pearson’s correlation -.61, s<.01Pearson’s correlation -.61, s<.01

Results: Lexical densityResults: Lexical density

Pupils who type substantially longer than Pupils who type substantially longer than they write, also type less densely than they they write, also type less densely than they write.write.

What characterises these pupils?What characterises these pupils? good typing / word-processing skills!good typing / word-processing skills! increased motivation?increased motivation?

utilise this to produce ”more fluently”?utilise this to produce ”more fluently”? get carried away?get carried away?

influenced by CMC text-types (chat, games, influenced by CMC text-types (chat, games, etc.)?etc.)?

produce texts more oral in nature?produce texts more oral in nature?

Main project extensionsMain project extensions

More pupils (ca 60)More pupils (ca 60) gendergender writing skillswriting skills computer skillscomputer skills

Two genresTwo genres argumentative ~ narrativeargumentative ~ narrative

Two time framesTwo time frames 3 hours ~ 7 days3 hours ~ 7 days

More grammatical variablesMore grammatical variables

Grammatical variablesGrammatical variables

Inspired by previous research. Examples:Inspired by previous research. Examples: Coordination and subordinationCoordination and subordination Constituent orderConstituent order Formal subject Formal subject detdet Sentence fragments (e.g. lacking subject)Sentence fragments (e.g. lacking subject) Lexical diversity (e.g. in verbs, nouns)Lexical diversity (e.g. in verbs, nouns) Frequency of different parts of speech (e.g. Frequency of different parts of speech (e.g.

adjectives)adjectives) CleftingClefting PassivesPassives Noun : pronoun ratioNoun : pronoun ratio

Discussion related toDiscussion related tofunctional linguisticsfunctional linguistics

Do hand-written and typed texts serve Do hand-written and typed texts serve different purposes or functions?different purposes or functions?

Do (some) pupils perceive them as Do (some) pupils perceive them as serving different purposes or functions?serving different purposes or functions?

Do characteristics of other kinds of Do characteristics of other kinds of keyboarded texts (sms, chat, games, ...) keyboarded texts (sms, chat, games, ...) rub off on typical school writings?rub off on typical school writings?

Is length a signal of function?Is length a signal of function?

ReferencesReferences Allwood, Jens (1998). Some Frequency based Differences between Spoken and Allwood, Jens (1998). Some Frequency based Differences between Spoken and

Written Swedish. In proceedings from Written Swedish. In proceedings from the XVI:th Scandinavian Conference of the XVI:th Scandinavian Conference of LinguisticsLinguistics,,

Department of Linguistics, University of TurkuDepartment of Linguistics, University of Turku Baron, N. S. (1998). Letters by phone Baron, N. S. (1998). Letters by phone or speech by other means: the linguistics of email. or speech by other means: the linguistics of email. Language & Communication, Language & Communication, 1818(2), 133-170.(2), 133-170.

Biber, D. (1988). Biber, D. (1988). Variation across speech and writingVariation across speech and writing. New York: Cambridge . New York: Cambridge University Press.University Press.

Crystal, D. (2001). Crystal, D. (2001). Language and the InternetLanguage and the Internet. Cambridge: Cambridge University . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Press.

Faarlund, J. T., Lie, S., og Vannebo, K. I. (1997). Faarlund, J. T., Lie, S., og Vannebo, K. I. (1997). Norsk referansegrammatikkNorsk referansegrammatikk. Oslo: . Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.Universitetsforlaget.

Halliday, M. A. K. (1989). Halliday, M. A. K. (1989). Spoken and written languageSpoken and written language (2nd ed.). (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford Oxford: Oxford University Press.University Press.

Harrington, S., Shermis, M. D., og Rollins, A. L. (2000). The influence of word Harrington, S., Shermis, M. D., og Rollins, A. L. (2000). The influence of word processing on English placement test results. processing on English placement test results. Computers and Composition, 17Computers and Composition, 17(2), (2), 197-210.197-210.

Horowitz, M. W., og Berkowitz, A. (1964). Horowitz, M. W., og Berkowitz, A. (1964). Structural advantage of the mechanism of Structural advantage of the mechanism of spoken expression as a factor in differences in spoken and written expression. spoken expression as a factor in differences in spoken and written expression. Perceptual and motor skills, 19Perceptual and motor skills, 19, 619-625., 619-625.

Hård af Segerstad, Y. (2002). Hård af Segerstad, Y. (2002). Use and Adaptation of Written Language to the Use and Adaptation of Written Language to the Conditions of Computer-mediated Communication.Conditions of Computer-mediated Communication. Göteborg University, Göteborg. Göteborg University, Göteborg.

Kellogg, R. T., og Mueller, S. (1993). Kellogg, R. T., og Mueller, S. (1993). Performance amplification and process Performance amplification and process restructuring in computer-based writing. restructuring in computer-based writing. International Journal of Man-Machine International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 39Studies, 39(1), 33-49.(1), 33-49.

Russell, M. (1999). Testing on computers: A follow-up study comparing performance Russell, M. (1999). Testing on computers: A follow-up study comparing performance on computer and on paper. on computer and on paper. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 7Education Policy Analysis Archives, 7(20).(20).

Corpus sizeCorpus size

Difficult to obtain significanceDifficult to obtain significance Some substantial differences / Some substantial differences /

correlationscorrelations Less substantial differences may be Less substantial differences may be

significant in a larger corpus.significant in a larger corpus.

Unit of measurementUnit of measurement Basic principle:Basic principle:

Number of occurances per possible places of Number of occurances per possible places of useuse

SubordinationSubordination Per graphic sentence (i.e. between <. ! ?>)Per graphic sentence (i.e. between <. ! ?>) Should be per independent clause.Should be per independent clause.

Requires time-consuming manual analysis.Requires time-consuming manual analysis. Modal particlesModal particles

Per 1000 wordsPer 1000 words Should be per indpendent clauseShould be per indpendent clause

Lexical densityLexical density Per total number of wordsPer total number of words

Knowledge of normsKnowledge of norms

Long sentences,Long sentences, Independent clauses often piled onto Independent clauses often piled onto

each othereach other Without conjunctionsWithout conjunctions Without full stopsWithout full stops Without commas, sometimesWithout commas, sometimes

Often seem quite oral in natureOften seem quite oral in nature If pupils don’t know the norms, can’t If pupils don’t know the norms, can’t

be expected to strive towards thembe expected to strive towards them Maybe differences will only show in Maybe differences will only show in

pupils with good writing skills?pupils with good writing skills?

Categorization of pupilsCategorization of pupils

Results: Lexical diversityResults: Lexical diversityDistribution of word Distribution of word

frequencyfrequency WrittenWritten

10 words = 19%10 words = 19% 50 words = 38%50 words = 38%10.000 words = 87%10.000 words = 87%

HandHand 10 words = 10 words = 24%24% 50 words = 50 words = 53%53%700 words = 700 words = 91%91%

SpokenSpoken 10 words = 23%10 words = 23%

50 words = 52%50 words = 52%

10.000 words = 97%10.000 words = 97%Allwood Allwood

19981998

PCPC 10 words = 10 words = 24%24% 50 words = 50 words = 53%53%700 words = 700 words = 90%90%

Hand Hand PCPC11 detdet itit 4,004,00 4,04,0 detdet itit 4,014,01 4,04,0

22 erer isis 3,813,81 7,87,8 erer isis 3,623,62 7,67,6

33 ogog andand 3,173,17 11,011,0 ogog andand 3,363,36 11,011,0

44 somsom that (adj)that (adj) 2,302,30 13,313,3 somsom that (adj)that (adj) 2,292,29 13,313,3

55 ikkeikke notnot 2,192,19 15,515,5 åå to (inf.)to (inf.) 2,242,24 15,515,5

66 ii inin 1,911,91 17,417,4 påpå onon 1,891,89 17,417,4

77 påpå onon 1,841,84 19,219,2 atat that (subs)that (subs) 1,831,83 19,219,2

88 atat that (subs)that (subs) 1,711,71 21,021,0 ikkeikke notnot 1,761,76 21,021,0

99 åå to (inf.)to (inf.) 1,701,70 22,722,7 dede theythey 1,741,74 22,722,7

1010 dede theythey 1,651,65 24,324,3 forfor forfor 1,631,63 24,424,4

1111 jegjeg II 1,581,58 25,925,9 enen a/ana/an 1,481,48 25,825,8

1212 medmed withwith 1,411,41 27,327,3 jegjeg II 1,451,45 27,327,3

1313 enen a/ana/an 1,331,33 28,628,6 ii inin 1,421,42 28,728,7

Hand Hand PCPC11 detdet itit 4,004,00 4,04,0 detdet itit 4,014,01 4,04,0

22 erer isis 3,813,81 7,87,8 erer isis 3,623,62 7,67,6

33 ogog andand 3,173,17 11,011,0 ogog andand 3,363,36 11,011,0

44 somsom that (adj)that (adj) 2,302,30 13,313,3 somsom that (adj)that (adj) 2,292,29 13,313,3

55 ikkeikke notnot 2,192,19 15,515,5 åå to (inf.)to (inf.) 2,242,24 15,515,5

66 ii inin 1,911,91 17,417,4 påpå onon 1,891,89 17,417,4

77 påpå onon 1,841,84 19,219,2 atat that (subs)that (subs) 1,831,83 19,219,2

88 atat that (subs)that (subs) 1,711,71 21,021,0 ikkeikke notnot 1,761,76 21,021,0

99 åå to (inf.)to (inf.) 1,701,70 22,722,7 dede theythey 1,741,74 22,722,7

10 de they 1,65 24,3 for for 1,63 24,4

1111 jegjeg II 1,581,58 25,925,9 enen a/ana/an 1,481,48 25,825,8

1212 medmed withwith 1,411,41 27,327,3 jegjeg II 1,451,45 27,327,3

1313 enen a/ana/an 1,331,33 28,628,6 ii inin 1,421,42 28,728,7

Hand Hand PCPC11 detdet itit 4,004,00 4,04,0 detdet itit 4,014,01 4,04,0

22 erer isis 3,813,81 7,87,8 erer isis 3,623,62 7,67,6

33 ogog andand 3,173,17 11,011,0 ogog andand 3,363,36 11,011,0

44 somsom that (adj.)that (adj.) 2,302,30 13,313,3 somsom that (adj.)that (adj.) 2,292,29 13,313,3

55 ikkeikke notnot 2,192,19 15,515,5 åå to (inf.)to (inf.) 2,242,24 15,515,5

66 ii inin 1,911,91 17,417,4 påpå onon 1,891,89 17,417,4

77 påpå onon 1,841,84 19,219,2 atat that (subs)that (subs) 1,831,83 19,219,2

88 atat that (subs)that (subs) 1,711,71 21,021,0 ikkeikke notnot 1,761,76 21,021,0

99 åå to (inf.)to (inf.) 1,701,70 22,722,7 dede theythey 1,741,74 22,722,7

1010 dede theythey 1,651,65 24,324,3 forfor forfor 1,631,63 24,424,4

1111 jegjeg II 1,581,58 25,925,9 enen a/ana/an 1,481,48 25,825,8

1212 medmed withwith 1,411,41 27,327,3 jegjeg II 1,451,45 27,327,3

1313 enen a/ana/an 1,331,33 28,628,6 ii inin 1,421,42 28,728,7

Hand Hand PCPC11 detdet itit 4,004,00 4,04,0 detdet itit 4,014,01 4,04,0

22 erer isis 3,813,81 7,87,8 erer isis 3,623,62 7,67,6

33 ogog andand 3,173,17 11,011,0 ogog andand 3,363,36 11,011,0

44 somsom that (adj.)that (adj.) 2,302,30 13,313,3 somsom that (adj.)that (adj.) 2,292,29 13,313,3

55 ikkeikke notnot 2,192,19 15,515,5 åå to (inf.)to (inf.) 2,242,24 15,515,5

66 ii inin 1,911,91 17,417,4 påpå onon 1,891,89 17,417,4

77 påpå onon 1,841,84 19,219,2 atat that (subs)that (subs) 1,831,83 19,219,2

88 atat that (subs)that (subs) 1,711,71 21,021,0 ikkeikke notnot 1,761,76 21,021,0

99 åå to (inf.)to (inf.) 1,701,70 22,722,7 dede theythey 1,741,74 22,722,7

1010 dede theythey 1,651,65 24,324,3 forfor forfor 1,631,63 24,424,4

1111 jegjeg II 1,581,58 25,925,9 enen a/ana/an 1,481,48 25,825,8

1212 medmed withwith 1,411,41 27,327,3 jegjeg II 1,451,45 27,327,3

1313 enen a/ana/an 1,331,33 28,628,6 ii inin 1,421,42 28,728,7

Hand Hand PCPC11 detdet itit 4,004,00 4,04,0 detdet itit 4,014,01 4,04,0

22 erer isis 3,813,81 7,87,8 erer isis 3,623,62 7,67,6

33 ogog andand 3,173,17 11,011,0 ogog andand 3,363,36 11,011,0

44 somsom that (adj.)that (adj.) 2,302,30 13,313,3 somsom that (adj.)that (adj.) 2,292,29 13,313,3

55 ikkeikke notnot 2,192,19 15,515,5 åå to (inf.)to (inf.) 2,242,24 15,515,5

66 ii inin 1,911,91 17,417,4 påpå onon 1,891,89 17,417,4

77 påpå onon 1,841,84 19,219,2 atat that (subs)that (subs) 1,831,83 19,219,2

88 atat that (subs)that (subs) 1,711,71 21,021,0 ikkeikke notnot 1,761,76 21,021,0

99 åå to (inf.)to (inf.) 1,701,70 22,722,7 dede theythey 1,741,74 22,722,7

1010 dede theythey 1,651,65 24,324,3 forfor forfor 1,631,63 24,424,4

1111 jegjeg II 1,581,58 25,925,9 enen a/ana/an 1,481,48 25,825,8

1212 medmed withwith 1,411,41 27,327,3 jegjeg II 1,451,45 27,327,3

1313 enen a/ana/an 1,331,33 28,628,6 ii inin 1,421,42 28,728,7