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PROJECTSYNOPSES

RenewableEnergyTechnologiesLong Term Research in the

6th Framework Programme 2002 I 2006

ISSN 1018-5593


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Renewable EnergyTechnologiesLong Term Research in the

6th Framework Programme 2002 I 2006

2007 EUR 22399

Directorate-General for ResearchSustainable Energy Systems


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3

Table of Contents

Foreword......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

Photovoltaics........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7

Thin Film Technologies .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

New and Emerging Concepts ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 20

Wafer-Based Silicon ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 30

Pre-normative Research and Co-ordination Activities ............................................................................................................... 36

Biomass.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 41

Biofuels for Transport............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 42

Energy from Crops...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 46

Gasification and H2-production................................................................................................................................................................................ 50

Biorefinery ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 64

Combustion and Cofiring .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 68

Pre-normative Research and Co-ordination Activities ............................................................................................................... 74

Other Renewable Energy Sources and Connection to the Grid ...................... 83

Wind .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 84

Geothermal........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 90

Ocean............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 98

Concentrated Solar Thermal .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 106

Connection of Renewable Energy Sources to the Grid .............................................................................................................. 118

Socio-economic Tools and Concepts for Energy Strategy .......................................... 133

Economic and Environmental Assessmentof Energy Production and Consumption ...................................................................................................................................................... 134

Social Acceptability, Behavioural Changes

and International Dimension related to Sustainable Energy RTD ................................................................................ 140

Annexes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 155

List of Country Codes ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 156

List of Acronyms .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 157

Energy Units Conversion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 158


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5

The use of renewable energy sources in Europe will increase, leading to a more sustainable energy

mix, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and a lower dependency from oil. In pursuit of the Kyoto

protocol and the revised Lisbon strategy the European Union has set itself the ambitious goal to

derive 12% of its total energy consumption from renewable energy sources by 2010.

The Framework Programmes for Research and Development (FP) of the European Union have contributed

from their beginning to the development of renewable energy technologies. These Community actions

have a proven European added value in terms of building critical mass, strengthening excellence and

exercising a catalytic effect on national activities. In combination with national activities, working atEuropean level with an adequate combination of innovation and regulatory measures has produced

substantial results.

For example technological progress has enabled a ten-fold increase in the sizes of wind turbines,

from 50 kW units to 5 MW, in 25 years and a cost reduction of more than 50% over the last 15 years.

In consequence, the installed capacity has increased 16 times in the last ten years to reach 40 GW in

Europe. In 2005, the world production of photovoltaic modules was 1760 MW compared to 90 MW

in 1996. Over the same period, the average module price has decreased from about 10 /W (1996)

to about 3 /W (2005).The average annual growth rate of about 35% in the past decade makes

photovoltaics one of the fastest growing energy industries.

The European technology platforms (ETPs) established in the energy field (hydrogen and fuel cells,

photovoltaics, biofuels, solar thermal technologies, wind energy, smart grids, zero-emission fossilfuels power plant) have demonstrated the readiness of the research community and industry,

together with other important stakeholders, such as civil society organisations, to develop a common

vision and establish specific roadmaps to achieve it. These technology platforms are already having

an influence on the European and national programmes. The platforms themselves are calling for

action at European level and a framework for the elaboration of large-scale integrated initiatives

needs to be developed for this to happen.

This brochure presents an overview on the 64 medium-to-long term research projects aiming at the

development of renewable energy sources and technologies, including their connection to the grid

and socio-economic research related to renewable energy sources, which were funded through the

Sustainable Energy Systems programme managed by DG Research under the 6th Framework

Programme in the period 2002-2006.

Amongst the 64 projects presented here photovoltaics and biomass were the most important sectors,supported with 66.5 M and 82.5 M respectively, while for the other sources of renewable energy

such as wind, geothermal, solar concentrating and ocean energy 45.5 M were spent in total. The

socio-economic aspects of renewable energy were also studied in projects funded to the level of 20 M.

These long-term research efforts were supplemented by short-term research and demonstration

actions in the short to medium term part of the programme, which is not included in this brochure.

The projects are grouped by energy source, i.e. photovoltaics, biomass etc. rather than funding

instrument. This allows the reader to gain a quick and comprehensive view of the European research

activities in each technical area. An electronic version of this brochure will be available on the web

(http://ec.europa.eu/research/energy/index_en.htm) allowing easy online access to the projects.

I hope that this publication will be of interest to many, and particularly those considering further

industrial development of renewable energy sources and those planning to participate in FP7.

Raffaele LIBERALI

Director

Foreword


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7

Thin Film Technologies ................................................................................................................................................................................. 8

ATHLET......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

BIPV-CIS.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12

FLEXCELLENCE................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14

LARCIS......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

SE-POWERFOIL ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 18

New and Emerging Concepts.......................................................................................................................................................... 20

FULLSPECTRUM ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20

HICONV...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24

MOLYCELL ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26

ORGAPVNET ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28

Wafer-Based Silicon............................................................................................................................................................................................ 30

CRYSTAL CLEAR ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30

FOXY............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 34

Pre-normative Research and Co-ordination Activities ....................................................... 36

PERFORMANCE ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 36

PV-CATAPULT ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38

Photovoltaics


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Challenges

Long-term scenarios for a sustainable global

development suggest that it should be feasible, by

the middle of this century, to provide over 80% of

electric power by a mix of energy from renewable

sources. Photovoltaics are one important option

which can provide a significant share of over

30% of such a mix. This Integrated Project (IP) is

focused on the development, assessment and

consolidation of photovoltaic thin film technology,

and on the most promising material and device

options, namely cadmium-free cells and modules,

based on amorphous, micro- and polycrystalline

silicon as well as on I-III-VI2-chalcopyrite compound

semiconductors.

The overall challenge is to provide the scientific

and technological basis for industrial mass pro-

duction of cost-effective and highly efficient,

environmentally sound and economically compliant

large-area thin film solar cells and modules. By

drawing on a broad basis of expertise, the entirerange of module fabrication and supporting

R&D will be covered: substrates, semiconductor

and contact deposition, monolithic series inter-

connection, encapsulation, performance evaluation

and applications. Photovoltaics have become an

increasingly important industrial sector over the

past ten years. PV is a widely accepted technology

and numerous kinds of solar modules and PV

systems are commercially available. The expansion

of the production volume of PV systems will be

accompanied by considerable cost reductions.

Therefore the main challenges are: Significantly reducing the cost/efficiency

ratio towards 0.5/WP in the long run.

Providing the know-how and the scientific

basis for large-area PV modules by identifying

and testing new materials and technologies

with maximum cost reduction.

Developing the process know-how and the

production technology, as well as the design

and fabrication of specialised equipment,

resulting in low costs and high yield in the

production of large area thin film modules.

O B J E C T I V E S

ATHLET

Advanced Thin Film Technologiesfor Cost Effective Photovoltaics

8

The overall goal of this project

is to provide the scientific and

technological basis for industrial mass

production of cost-effective and

highly efficient large-area thin film

solar modules. This includes the

development of the process know-how

and the production technology,

as well as the design and fabrication

of specialised equipment.

A successful development will

establish Europe as the leading

producer of thin film solar modules

and maintain European leadership

in photovoltaics (PV) over the longer

term. The main objectives aretwo-fold: development and

improvement of existing thin film

PV technologies, with the goal of

increasing the module efficiency/cost

ratio towards a target of 0.5/Wp,

and the establishment of know-how

and a scientific basis for a future

generation of PV modules by

developing new device concepts,

materials and production processes.

Project Structure

To meet these challenges, existing concepts for

materials and technology will be improved and

brought to maturity in close cooperation with

industry, and new options will be investigated for

materials and new types of solar cells to provide

the scientific and technological basis for the

next generation of PV devices. Accordingly, the

research activities range from basic research to

industrial implementation. This is reflected in

the division of the project into 4 horizontal

(trans-disciplinary) and 2 vertical (along value

chain) sub-projects:

THIN F ILM TECHNOLOGIES

Two vertical sub-projects (SP) are oriented along the value

chain:

SP III focuses on large area, environmentally sound

chalcopyrite modules with improved efficiencies;

SP IV deals with the up-scaling of silicon-based tandemcells to an industrial level.

Four horizontal sub-projects have a trans-disciplinary

character:

SP V will provide analysis and modelling of devices and

technology for all other sub-project;

SP I will demonstrate higher efficiencies of lab scale cells;

SP II will focus on module aspects relevant to all thin

film technologies;

SP VI will ensure that the performed work will have a

positive impact on the environment and society.

An experienced management will help the consortium

meet its goals.


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This Integrated Project, which consists of the six

interlinked sub-projects visualised above, covers

the area of fundamental research, technological

development and production issues relating to

the most relevant photovoltaic thin film tech-

nologies. For the first time, the research on these

technologies will be carried out within a joint

scientific framework. Close cooperation of the

research teams in the horizontal and vertical

projects, in combination with common workshopsand panel discussions, will guarantee a continuous

exchange and flow of know-how in both direc-

tions. All sub-projects are embedded in a man-

agement unit. The management controls the

compliance with the objectives, which are

defined in milestones and deliverables. It will

also coordinate all reporting required, provide

legal assistance and moderate all negotiations

between project partners concerning relevant

commercial and scientific results. The six sub-

projects contain 23 work packages altogether.

Table 1: IP sub-projects and work packages

Sub-project (SP) SP leader Work packages

WP1 CIGS on flexible substrates and for tandem solar cells

I. High Efficiency Solar Cells FZJ WP2 Advanced multi-junction Si thin film solar cells

WP3 High-efficiency poly-Si solar cells

WP4 Isolated substrates

II. Thin Film Module Technology ECNWP5 Contact technologies

WP6 Encapsulation

WP7 Serial interconnection and demonstration

WP8 Process-related absorber surface modification,

wet-chemical or dry interface engineering

III. Chalcopyrite SpecificShell

WP9 Buffer layer deposition by CBD technique

Heterojunctions WP10 Buffer layer deposition by spray techniques

WP11 Buffer layer deposition by sputter technique

WP12 Low-cost reactive TCO sputtering from rotatable target

WP13 Large-area optics

WP14 Process studies and plasma diagnostics

IV. Thin Film Modules on glass UniNE WP15 Inl ine deposition of si licon

WP16 Batch deposition of siliconWP 17 Module characterisation

WP18 Advanced electrical and optical modelling

V. Analysis and ModellingUGENT

of thin film solar cells

of Devices and Technology WP19 Materials and device analysis

(structural, optical and electrical)

WP20 Sustainability assessment

VI. Sustainability, UNN- of new developments in ATHLET

Training and Mobility NPAC WP21 Thin film implementation scenarios

WP22 Mobility and training

Management HMI WP23 Consortium management


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Expected Results

The state-of-the-art for advanced thin film PV

technology and the enhancement within the

proposed project is summarised in Table 2.

ATHLET

Advanced Thin Film Technologiesfor Cost Effective Photovoltaics

10 THIN F ILM TECHNOLOGIES

Table 2: Expected enhancement of the state-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art Substrate, process Planned enhancement in IP

(efficiencies) (for Europe)

Lab cells

a-Si/c-Si 12% (Kaneka) On glass, PE-CVD 14%

11% (UniNE, FZJ)

Poly Si 9% (Sanyo) On metal substrate, SPC 15% on foreign substrates

CIGS low gap 19.2 % (NREL) On glass, co-evaporation

16-17% (NREL) On metal foi l, co-evaporation 18% on metal foil

9% on polyimide foil

CIGS wide gap 12-13% (HMI) On glass, sputtering, PVD 13-14%, advanced equipment.

10% @ 60% IR transparency

for tandem applications

CIGS tandem 7% (HMI) On glass, co-evaporation 15%

Prototypes, pilot production

a-Si/c-Si 10% (Kaneka, FZJ) On glass 30x30 cm2 (FZJ) Equipment for cost-effective

On glass 3738 cm2 (Kaneka) production of 10% modules

(1 m2 @ costs towards 0.5/Wp)

CIGS wide gap 10% (Sulfurcell) On glass 5x5 cm2, sputtering, 10% on 125x65 cm2

PVD

Commercial product

a-Si 6-7% (Unisolar, On glass, PE-CVD

SCHOTT, Kaneka,...)

CIGS low gap 10% (Shell, Wrth) On glass, co-evaporation 11-12%, cost-effectiveness,

environmentally sound


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Project Information

11

Other expected results are:

Strategic impact: reinforcing competitiveness

and solving societal problems: the aim is toimprove the cost-effectiveness of thin film

PV modules to substantially increase their

contribution to the sustainable energies supply.

Europe, Japan and the US contribute the

largest share of PV production worldwide.

Europe was on a level with Japan in 1997.

During 2002 Japan was already responsible

for almost 50% of global PV production.

Reinforcing competitiveness of small and

medium-size enterprises (SME): the technology

transfer of new solar cell technologies from

the lab to industry will help to reinforce

competitiveness of small and medium-size

enterprises (Solarion, Sulfurcell). It can be

assumed that results from this project will

inspire the foundation of new companies.

Innovation-related activities, exploitation and

dissemination plans: international consolidated

solar cell producers, like Shell Solar and

SCHOTT Solar, are an integral part of the project.

They co-operate closely with the R&D partners.

The industries will exploit the results generated

within the project. Dissemination of the R&D

results will occur internally and externally.

Added value of the work at EU level: this

project aims at decreasing the cost of PV

electricity to competitive levels by focusing

on new and improved thin film technologiesand materials.

Contract number19670

Duration48 months

Contact personProf. Dr. Martha Ch. Lux-SteinerHahn-Meitner-Institut GmbH

[email protected]

List of partnersApplied Films GmbH & Co. KG DECIEMAT ESCNRS (ENSCP) FRECN NLForschungszentrum Jlich GmbH DEFree University of Berlin DEFyzikalni ustav Akademieved Ceske republiky CZHahn-Meitner Institut GmbH DEInter-universityMicro-electronics Centre BEInstitut fr Zukunftsstudien undTechnologiebewertung GmbH DESaint-Gobain Recherche FRSchott Solar GmbH DEShell Solar GmbH DESolarion GmbH DESulfurcell Solartechnik GmbH DESwiss Federal Instituteof Technology Zrich CHUnaxis Balzers AG LIUniversity of Gent BEUniversity of Ljubljana SIUniversity of Neuchtel CH

University of Northumbria at Newcastle GBUniversity of Patras GRZSW DE

Websitewww.hmi.de/projects/athlet/

Project officerDavid Anderson

Statusongoing


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Challenges

In most cases, the integration of PV systems

gives a building a high tech modern appearance,

since most conventional PV modules have a typical

window-like surface. Considering, however, that

90% of the building stock is older than 10 years

and therefore has a more or less old-fashioned

appearance, it is evident that aesthetic building

integration of PV calls for a lot of willingness

from planners and creativity from architects.

Many PV systems integrated into existing buildings

do not harmonise with the building and its sur-

roundings, indicating a potential for conflict with

urban planners. We therefore pay special attention

to architectural and aesthetic questions. Another

key fact is that the market for refurbishing and

modernising old buildings is much larger than

the market for new buildings. Therefore, there are

not only aesthetic but also important economic

grounds for accessing this market.

O B J E C T I V E S

BIPV-CIS

Expanding the Potential for the Integrationof Photovoltaic Systems into Existing Buildings

12

Building integration of PV (BIPV)

often leads to a high-tech and

modern appearance of buildings,

caused by the typical window-like

surface of most conventional

PV modules. In many PV systems

integrated into existing buildings,

the modules do not harmonise with

the surroundings.

The objectives of this project are

to identify the potential and needs

for improved BIPV components and

systems, as a basis for developing

modules without a glass/window-like

appearance, to develop and investigate

faade elements and overhead glazing,both for the ventilated and the

insulated building skin based on

CIS thin-film technology, to develop

PV roof tiles which have a modified

optical appearance for better

adaptation to the building skin,

to fabricate and test prototypes

according to relevant standards and

carry out subsequent performance

tests, and to develop electrical

interconnection components suitablefor thin-film modules.

Project Structure

The project consortium consists of seven indus-

trial partners, two research institutes and three

universities. The project comprises a very broad

approach to the building integration of CIS

modules since two proposals were merged

together by the European Commission. The fol-

lowing topics are now being developed and

investigated within the project:

The integration of PV into the ventilated

building skin

The integration of PV into the insulated

building skin

Roof integration with CIS roof tiles.

Furthermore, we are investigating aesthetic,

technological and legal aspects of integrating

PV into existing buildings, as well as developing

module components.

As a basis for the work mentioned above, studieswere conducted into European building regulations

that strongly influence the construction and

dimensioning of the modules and often forbid the

use of what are known as standard PV modules in

building integration. Also European surveys on

roofing elements and on mullion/transom

constructions were conducted. A market study

provided information about market needs.

Cost-optimised junction boxes which are especially

suited for thin film modules are being developed in

the project. A solution for the invisible connection

of modules integrated in the insulated buildingskin will also be developed. The prototypes will be

tested in accordance with the relevant standards.



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Project Information


Duration48 months

Contact personDieter GeyerZentrum fr Solarenergie und

Wasserstoffforschung [email protected]

List of partnersDresden University of Technology DEJRC ITOve Arup & Partners Ltd GBPermasteelisa Group ITSaint Gobain Recherche FRShell Solar GmbH DESwiss Sustainable Systems CHTyco Electronics AMP GBWarsaw University of Technology PLWroclaw University of Technology PLWrth Solar DEZSW DE

Websitewww.bipv-cis.info

Project officerGeorges Deschamps

Statusongoing

13

Expected Results

The main goal of the project is to improve the

acceptance of PV in architectural environments.

For that purpose, the results of this project as

regards modification of module appearance will

be exploited by the CIS producing partners. The

junction box for thin film modules to be developed

in the project, as well as innovative edge con-

nectors, will be used by the partners in their

module production line: they will also be available

for the entire thin film module industry.

Progress to Date

PV in faades

Prototypes of CIS modules with modified optical

appearance on both front and rear sides, for

improved integration into surroundings, were

developed and characterised.

PV in overhead glazing

A prototype of novel overhead glazing includes

semi-transparent CIS modules optimised for

daylight transmission.

Interconnection

Prototypes of a small junction box especially

suited for thin-film modules were developed.

Limiting the by-pass diodes to only one per box

allows a reduction in both size and cost. It is also

possible to use the box for parallel inter-connection of the modules.

PV and architects

A workshop on the architectural fundamentals

of BIPV was held at the Glasstec fair in

Dsseldorf on 9 November 2004.

Building regulations

European surveys were conducted on building

regulations concerning PV building integration,

on architectural glass, on mullion/transom con-structions, and on roofing materials suited for PV.


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Challenges

The technical challenges of the project are, on

the one hand, to allow the module manufacturers

to implement new equipment and processes in

their production lines and, on the other hand, to

give the equipment manufacturers the possibility

of constructing and selling equipment for complete

production lines producing unbreakable modules

at unbeatable cost.

Consequently, all the commercially exploitable

results of the project are foreseen as being used

directly by the companies involved in Flexcellence:

VHF-Technologies is to set up an advanced pilot

production line for 2 MW annual capacity by

end-2006, and R&R and Exitech are expected to

be able to offer standardised roll-to-roll deposition

systems and laser scribing processes by the end

of the project.

The scientific challenges of the project are to

master the different interfaces in multi-layer

devices, to develop effective light-trappingschemes for n-i-p cells on flexible substrates, and

to understand the interaction between the depo-

sition conditions (for different kind of deposition

techniques) and device properties.

Project structure

The project is divided into eight work packages

(WP) with a minimum of three participants in

each. The composition of the WP should ensure

a maximum cross-fertilisation and exchange of

the scientific and technological know-how. Theseven R&D work packages are organised in a logical

way, starting from substrate preparation (WP 2), to

cells with increased complexity (WP 3-5), to the

monolithic interconnection issue (WP 6). Then,

the complete modules including packaging are

tested (WP 7) and finally, detailed cost assessments

for multi-megawatt roll-to-roll production lines

are given in WP 8.

The exploitation panel is formed of representatives

of the industries in order to optimise the

exploitation strategy of the project.

O B J E C T I V E S

F

LEXCELLENCE

Roll-to-roll Technology for the Productionof High-efficiency, Low-cost, and Flexible

Thin Film Silicon Photovoltaic Modules

14

The Flexcellence project aims at

developing the equipment and the

processes for cost-effective

roll-to-roll production

of high-efficiency thin film modules,

involving microcrystalline (c-Si:H)

and amorphous silicon (a-Si:H).

In particular its objectives are:

to achieve a final blueprint planning

of a complete production line for thin

film silicon photovoltaic modules with

production costs lower than 0.5/Wp;

to design and test the equipment

necessary for the realisation

of such lines; to demonstrate

the high-throughput manufacturingtechnique for intrinsic c-Si:H layer

(equivalent to static deposition rate

higher than 2nm/s); and finally

to show that the technology

developed in the project is suitable

for the preparation of flexible

c-Si:H/a-Si:H tandem cells and

modules which satisfy the strictest

reliability tests and guarantee

long-term outdoor stability.

Expected results

All aspects necessary for a successful implemen-

tation of this novel production technology are

considered simultaneously.

In order to achieve high efficiency c-Si:H/a-Si:H

tandem devices, effective light-trapping

schemes are implemented on flexible substrates

and high-efficiency solar cells and modules are

developed on these new surfaces. Laboratory-scale solar cells and mini-modules (10*10 cm2)

with 11% and 10% efficiency respectively are to

be fabricated in order to demonstrate that tandem

junction c-Si:H/a-Si:H can compete with current

technologies for electricity output par square meter.

The deposition rates of the intrinsic micro-

crystalline silicon (c-Si:H) layers need to be

increased from typically 0.1nm/s to 2nm/s: three

of the most promising techniques for high rate

deposition are being investigated: Very High

Frequency Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour

Deposition VHF-PECVD, Hot Wire ChemicalVapour Deposition HWCVD and Microwave

Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition

MW-PECVD. A benchmarking of the different

deposition techniques will take place and will

indicate which method emerges as the most

cost-effective and could be implemented in the

different pilot production lines of the partners.

In parallel system aspects, going from the cells to

the modules, is being studied. The critical aspect

of monolithic cell integration with minimum

electrical and optical losses will be solved by

using scribing/screen-printing techniques and newconcepts for more cost-effective encapsulation

materials and processes will be investigated.

All the innovative results, hardware develop-

ments, concepts and designs developed in the

project will lead to new systems (substrate

preparation/deposition reactor/laser scriber/

screen-printer) that will be integrated directly

into the pilot production lines. They will also be

used for the final blueprint of multi-megawatt

production lines that can achieve the production

of modules with production costs of less than

0.5/Wp.



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Project Information


Duration36 months

Contact personsProf. C. Ballif / Dr. V. TerrazzoniUniversity of Neuchtel

[email protected]

List of partnersECN NLExitech GBFraunhofer Gesellschaft (FhG-FEP) DERoth und Rau DEUniversity of Barcelona ESUniversity of Ljubljana SIUniversity of Neuchtel CH

VHF- Technologies CH

Websitewww.unine.ch/flex


Statusongoing

15

Progress to date

As regards the high-quality and cost-effective

substrates, a first generation of metal foils with

insulating layers and plastic webs with nano-

textured surfaces has been developed. High-

quality reflectors have already been obtained on

PET and PEN (Fig 1(b)). The first devices deposited

on these substrates coated by FEP have reached

efficiencies higher than 7% and 8% for a-Si:H

and c-Si:H cells respectively (laboratory scale).

Single junction a-Si:H modules (surface area:

30*60cm2) with stable efficiency higher than 4%

have been obtained on flat substrates on the

pilot production line at VHF-Technologies.

With respect to the high-throughput manufac-

turing technique, ECN and R&R are commissioning

a roll-to-roll MW-PECVD deposition system and

the UBA is designing a new laboratory scale

HW-CVD reactor. On its side, UniNE has already

demonstrated the possibility of depositing

device-quality intrinsic c-Si:H layers at 1.7nm/son 35*45 cm2 substrate area.

For the series connection, two priorities are

currently addressed by EXI and VHF: the melting

induced by the laser scribing at the edge of the

laser line, which must be minimised, and the

removal of the ITO layer on top of the silicon

that must be further developed. On its side, the

UL-FEE succeeded in developing a 2D electrical

model which already provides information on

suitable designs for the metallic contact on VHF-

Technologies modules.

Finally, VHF-Technologies has conducted a cost

simulation for 1 Mio m2 per year capacity plants

for different type of cell technologies on polymer

substrates. Preliminary results show that:

The standard EVA/ETFE encapsulation materials

dominate the bill for single and tandem cells.

The production costs could be reduced to less

than 0.8/Wpeak for 5% efficiency a-Si:H

modules.

The preliminary estimation for c-Si:H/a-Si:H

tandem cells (10% efficiency) leads to pro-

duction cost lower than 0.6/Wpeak.


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Challenges

The parallel development objectives of increasing

the production yield and efficiencies on large areas

and, at the same time, reducing manufacturing

costs and material costs are not self-evident.

However, these production-relevant criteria are

not independent of each other. Some challenges

to be overcome in this context are:

CIS coevaporation approach on an area of60 x 120 cm2: to reduce absorber thickness (i.e.

materials consumption) but also to increase

large-area efficiencies above 13% at the

same time; to demonstrate high efficiencies on

large area by 3-stage in-line CIS coevaporation.

CIS electrodeposition approach: to demonstrate

homogeneous large-area CIS deposition

providing modules with efficiencies > 10% at

high production yield; precise know-how

about the hydrodynamic flux of the reactant is

necessary to obtain high lateral homogeneities

on large areas.

To implement a Cd-free buffer for large-area

application on coevaporated and electro-

deposited absorbers, resulting in at least the

same module efficiencies, yield and production

costs as for those with CdS buffer.

To find appropriate in situ and ex situ CIS

growth control methods to be implemented

in a production line for both electrodeposited

and coevaporated modules.

O B J E C T I V E S

LARCIS

Large-area CIS-based Thin-film SolarModules for Highly Productive Manufacturing

16

The overall objective of the project

is to develop advanced manufacturing

technologies for CIS thin film solar

modules both for the electrodeposition

and coevaporation approach.

The project will improve the

manufacturing techniques for low-cost,

stable and efficient CIS thin film

large-area solar modules.

This includes work on the molybdenum

back contact, the buffer layer,

the CIS absorber, and the quality

and process control. Special emphasis

is placed on the development of

cadmium-free large-area modules

and of electrodeposition methodsfor CIS absorbers. The project will

provide a framework for the

knowledge, know-how and

cross- fertilisation between the groups

and technologies involved in the

project, i.e. between coevaporation

and electrodeposition.

Project Structure

The consortium, 10 partners from five countries,

consists of four independent industrial firms,

three research institutions and three universities.

Three firms are CIS module producers in the

starting phase or already in an advanced state.

The fourth company is a leading European glass

manufacturer equipped to provide back-contact-

coated substrates on a production level for the

CIS module plants. The research institutes and

universities offer expertise in the different and

complementary approaches to the development

of high-quality and low-cost CIS modules and

will enable the industrial companies to reach

their ambitious goals.

The project work is distributed between seven

work packages (WPs) which are generally fur-

ther split into sub-WPs (see Figure 1). Two main

approaches are investigated, aiming at the cost

effective development of:

Large-area modules based on coevaporatedCu(In,Ga)Se2 absorbers (60 x 120 cm2)

Large-area modules based on electrodeposited

Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 absorbers (30 x 30 cm2).

Common targets are high production yields and

high efficiencies at reduced costs. The WPs such

as contact layers, buffer, quality/process control

and technological/economic assessment provide

results and tools which support both absorber

approaches.


Figure 1: Work packages


19/163

Project Information


Duration48 months

Contact personDr. Michael PowallaZentrum fr Sonnenenergie-

und Wasserstoff-ForschungBaden [email protected]

List of PartnersCNRS FRElectricit de France FRHahn-Meitner Institut DESaint Gobain Recherche FRSolibro SEUniversity of Barcelona ESUniversity of Uppsala SEWrth Solar DEZSW DEZrich University of Technology CH

Websiteto be defined

Project officerGeorges Deschamps

Statusongoing

17

Expected Results

Overall result should be to leverage the

European CIS technologies and to improve their

competitiveness, both in relation to established

PV technologies and to international markets.

The cooperation and cross-fertilisation of different

institutes, firms and approaches are expected to

result in:

Large-area modules manufactured bycoevaporation and applying cost-effective

methods with efficiencies > 13.5% on 0.7 m2.

The development of cadmium-free buffer

layers for modules on an area of up to 0.7 m2

with an efficiency > 12%.

The development of electrodeposited low-

cost CIS modules with efficiency > 10% on

0.1 m2 (estimated cost < 0.8 /Wp).

It is expected that basic investigations at universities

and R&D institutes on, for example, stabilisation of

the back contact, in situ and ex situ CIS processcontrol, substitution of the CdS buffer by an

environmentally harmless and physically superior

alternative, will be successfully transferred to

production-relevant areas. Thus any result

achieved can be directly exploited within the

consortium.

Progress to Date

All activities and work packages are within the

time schedule. Very promising results have already

been achieved with a novel chemical-bath-deposited Zn(S,O) buffer layer resulting in at least

the same efficiencies as achieved by standard

CdS buffers. Best cell efficiencies with this novel

buffer on inline-deposited CIS exceed 15%.

Within the first months of the project, four

additional bilateral meetings were held between

UB-EME and EDF/CNRS and between ZSW and

CNRS/EDF in order to organise the cooperation

in detail.

Figure 2: Faade integration of CIS modules:the Schapfenmhle tower in Ulm (Germany) with

1400 frameless CIS modules of 60 x 120 cm2.


20/163

Challenges

Solar energy is the ultimate future energy

source. It is a clean and sustainable source of

energy that can provide a significant share of

our energy needs and greenhouse gas emission

reductions. At present, solar energy is much

more expensive than conventional energy.

SE-Powerfoil aims at the development of roll-to-

roll manufacturing technology for production ofhigh-efficiency flexible photovoltaic (PV) modules.

These photovoltaic modules allow for easy

integration and installation leading to low-cost

PV systems. This is essential to create mature

subsidy-independent markets for solar electricity,

cost-competitive with conventional electricity

sources. The target is to develop 12% efficient PV

modules, with more than 20 years outdoor lifetime

and manufacturing costs below 0.5/Wp.

Flexible PV laminates will allow versatile use in

growth markets with billion-size economic

potential:

Large power markets in which the PV laminates

will substantially contribute to European

objectives to establish a future dent electricity

supply system and to strengthen the

European industry and export position.

Mass markets where flexible solar cell laminates

provide cost-efficient lightweight portable

power, including, for example, personal

electronics, ICT, security, leisure, medical,

military and affordable power for electrifi-

cation in rural and remote regions.

O B J E C T I V E S

S

E-POWERFOIL

Development of Roll-to-roll ManufacturingTechnology for Production of High-efficiency

Flexible Photovoltaic Modules

18

SE-PowerFoil focuses on high-efficiency

flexible thin film silicon PV modules,

produced in a roll-to-roll process on

metal foil. The scientific and technical

objectives are to achieve high

efficiency 12% thin film silicon

laboratory devices, the development

of 10% tandem or triple- junction

large-area pilot line modules,

and a high rate (1-3 nm/s) industrial

plasma deposition technology for

high-performance microcrystalline

silicon layer deposition.

The innovative deposition technology

in the pilot line for novel transparent

conductive oxide (TCO) ina high-throughput thermal CVD

deposition process will be tested, and

a prototype flexible module installed

in representative outdoor monitoring

stations for lifetime monitoring,

demonstrating less than 2%

performance decrease per year and

improved yield compared to existing

PV technologies. A full economic

assessment of/kWh potential

of project results will be included.

Project Structure

At the beginning of the project, a small work

package WP 1 is devoted to detailing the specifi

cations of the high-performance flexible

PV modules and underlying systems. In WP 2 the

full efficiency potential of flexible thin film silicon

PV modules is explored on a lab scale: the chal-

lenge in this WP is to assemble all individually opti-

mised building blocks of a micromorph device

and drive their cooperative performance in an

actual flexible module to a world class level of

12% stable efficiency. The basic approach will be

to pursue parallel research on the individual

building blocks and systematically measure

progress by integration into complete flexible

micromorph modules.

WP 3 deals with the production cost of flexible

thin film PV modules. Focus will be on the crucial

production steps of the applied roll-to-roll proces-

sing technologies. This includes the development of

large-scale, reliable and fast homogeneousdeposition technologies for the high-performance

transparent conductive oxide (TCO) window

layer and for the active silicon layer. In WP 4,

pilot line PV flexible thin film Si PV modules will

be manufactured, with an efficiency of 10%, based

on existing know-how and the (preliminary)

results of the WPs 2 and 3. At the start of the

project as well as at mid-term, PV modules from

the pilot line will be exposed to outdoor climate

conditions for true power output monitoring.

This work package also deals with an accelerated

lifetime assessment in accordance with to IEC

standard 61646.



21/163

Project Information


Duration36 months

Contact personDr. R. SchlatmannHelianthos

[email protected]

List of partnersCNRS FRCVD Technologies Ltd GBForschungszentrum Jlich DEHelianthos b.v. NLInstitute of Physics, Academy of Scienceof the Czech Republic, Prague CZUniresearch b.v. NLUniversity of Salford GBUniversity of Utrecht NL

Website

www.se-powerfoil.project.eu


Statusongoing

19

Combination of the results of WP 2 (efficiency),

WP 3 (crucial elements of production cost) and

WP 4 (pilot line manufacturability, monitored

output and accelerated lifetime) will allow for a

realistic overall economic assessment of flexible

thin film Si PV modules produced in a full

production plant.

Expected Results

Highly efficient lab-scale PV module devices

Processing technologies for the TCO, silicon

and back contact layers

L x 30 cm2 modules with 10% efficiency and

20 years lifetime.

Detailing (WP 1) Project potential Objectives andassessment criteria

Efficiency Device potential Light managementTransparent conductive oxideTop cellBottom cellTandem

= Work package 2 Triple

Production costs Manufacturing potential Roll to roll manufacturing techniqueAutomatedand continuous processFast deposition techniquesLow costs metal subtrates

= Work package 3

Lifetime Economic potential Pilot line module manufacturingStability and climate tests (IEC 1646)Outdoor monotoringEconomic evaluation

= Work package 4

Project management Business potential Planning monitoringand controlExplotation and IPR management

= Work package 5 Dissemination

12%

< 05 /Wp

> 20 year


22/163

Challenges

Solar radiation is a diluted energy source: only

approximately 1000 Joules of energy per second

per square meter are accessible. It is clear to us

that strategies to reach the ultimate goal of a

module cost of 1/Wp will necessarily have to

go through the development of concepts capable

of extracting the most of every single photon

available. In this respect, each of the five activities

envisaged in this project to achieve the general

goal has to confront its own challenges.

The multi-junction activity pursues the develop-

ment of solar cells that approach 40% efficiency.

To achieve this, it faces the challenge of finding

materials with a good compromise between lat-

tice matching and band-gap energy. The

thermophotovoltaic activity bases part of its

success on finding suitable emitters that can

operate at high temperatures and/or adapt their

emission spectra to the cells gap. The other part

relies on the successful recycling of photons sothat those that cannot be used effectively by the

solar cells can return to the emitter to assist in

keeping it hot.

The intermediate-band solar cell approach

addresses the challenge of proving a principle of

operation which would see a significant

improvement in the performance of the cells.

The activity devoted to the search for new molecules

engenders the challenge of identifying molecules

capable of undergoing two-photon processes:

that is molecules that can absorb two low-energy

photons to produced a high-energy excitedstate or, for example, dyes that can absorb one

high-energy photon and re-emit its energy in

the form of two photons of lower energy.

Among all of the above concepts, the multi-

junction approach appears to be the most readily

available for commercialisation. For that, the

activity devoted specifically to speeding up its

path to market is the development of trackers,

optics and manufacturing techniques that can

integrate these cells into commercial concentrator

systems.

O B J E C T I V E S

FULLSPECTRUM

Towards the Productionof Cost-competitive Photovoltaic Solar Energy

by Making the Most of the Solar Spectrum

20

FULLSPECTRUM is a project whose

primary objective is to make use

of the full solar spectrum to produce

electricity. The need for this research

is easily understood, for example, from

the fact that present commercial solar

cells used for terrestrial applications

are based on single-gap semiconductor

solar cells. These cells can by

no means make use of the energy

of below band-gap energy photons

since these simply cannot be absorbed

by the material.

The achievement of this general

objective is pursued through five

strategies: the development of highefficiency multi-junction solar cells

based on III-V compounds;

the development of thermophotovoltaic

converters; research into

intermediate-band solar cells;

the search for molecules and dyes

capable of undergoing two photon

processes; and the development

of manufacturing techniques suitable

for industrialising the most promising

concepts.

Project Structure

The Project is coordinated by Prof. Antonio

Luque (Instituto de Energa Solar) assisted by

Projektgesellschaft Solare Energiesysteme GmbH

(PSE). The Consortium involves 19 research insti-

tutions listed at the end of this text.

As mentioned, to make better use of the afore-

mentioned solar spectrum, the project is structured

along five research development and innovation

activities:

Multi-junction solar cells. This activity is led by

FhG-ISE with the participation of RWE-SSP,

IES-UPM, IOFFE, CEA-DTEN and PUM.

Thermophotovoltaic converters. Headed by

IOFFE and CEA-DTEN. IES-UPM and PSI are

also participating in this development.

Intermediate-band solar cells. This activity is

led by IES-UPM. The other partners directly

involved are UG, ICP-CSIC and UCY.

Molecular based concepts. This activity is led byECN. The other groups involved are FhG-IAP,

ICSTM, UU-Sch and Solaronix.

Manufacturing techniques and pre-normative

research. This activity is led by ISOFOTON. IES-

UPM, INSPIRA and JRC are also involved.

In addition, every two years, the project sponsors

a public seminar on its results and provides

grants to students worldwide to enable them to

attend the seminar as part of dissemination

activities. Formal announcements are made on

the FULLSPECTRUM webpage.

NEW AND EMERGING CONCEPTS


23/163

21

Expected Results

The multi-junction solar cell approach pursues

the better use of the solar spectrum by using

a stack of single-gap solar cells incorporated in

a concentrator system, in order to make

the approach cost-effective (Fig. 1). The project,

at its outset, aimed at cells with an efficiency

of 35%. This result has already been achieved

by FhG-ISE in the second year of the project and

the consortium now aims to achieve efficiencies

as close as possible to 40%.

In the thermophotovoltaic approach the sun heats

up, through a concentrator system, a material

called the emitter, leading to incandescence

(Fig. 2). The radiation from this emitter drives an

array of solar cells, thus producing electricity.

The advantage of this approach is that, by an

appropriate system of filters and back-reflectors,

photons with energy above and below the solar

cell band-gap can be directed back to the emitter,

helping to keep it hot by recycling the energy ofthese photons that otherwise would not be con-

verted optimally by the solar cells. By the conclusion

of the project, it is expected that the system,

made up basically of the concentrator, emitter and

solar cell array can be integrated and evaluated.

The intermediate-band approach pursues better

exploitation of the solar spectrum by using

intermediate-band materials. These materials are

characterised by the existence of an electronic

energy band within what otherwise would be a

conventional semiconductor band-gap. According

to the principles of operation of this cell, the inter-mediate band allows the absorption of low

band-gap energy photons and the subsequent

production of enhanced photocurrent without

voltage degradation. The project also expects to

identify as many intermediate-band material

candidates as possible, as well as demonstrate

experimentally the operating principles of the

intermediate-band solar cell by using quantum

dot solar cells as workbenches.

Figure 1: Schematic illustrating the operation

of a multi-junction solar cell in a concentrator system

Fig. 2. Emitter heated up by the sun through

a concentrator system.


24/163

As mentioned under the molecular based concepts

heading, it is expected to find dyes and molecules

capable of undergoing two-photon processes.

Dyes - or quantum dots - suitable for incorporation

into flat concentrators are also being evaluated. Flat

concentrators are essentially polymers that, by

incorporating these special dyes into their structure,

are capable of absorbing high-energy photons and

re-emitting them as low-energy photons that

match the gap of the solar cells ideally. This

emitted light is trapped within the concentrator

usually by internal reflection and, if the losses

within the concentrator are small, can only

escape by being absorbed by the cells.

Within the manufacturing activity, it is expected

to clear the way towards commercialisation for

the most promising concepts. This is the case for

multi-junction solar cells and, within this activity,

it is expected to develop for example trackers with

the necessary accuracy to follow the sun at1000 suns, and pick and place assembly techniques

to produce concentrator modules at competitive

prices, as well as draft the regulation that has to

serve as the framework for the implementation

of these systems.

FULLSPECTRUM

Towards the Productionof Cost-Competitive Photovoltaic Solar Energy

by Making the Most of the Solar Spectrum

22

Progress to date

As far as multi-junction activity is concerned,

monolithically stacked triple-junction solar cells

(GaInP/GaInAs/Ge), with an efficiency exceeding

35% at a concentration of 600 suns, have been

obtained. Because of their band-gap (1 eV),

(GaIn)(NAs) solar cells are being researched for

their possible implementation as the fourth cell

in a four-junction monolithic stack, in order to

approach the goal of 40% efficiency. In this

regard, efficiencies of 6% have been measured

for this cell.

The technological processes related to the

mechanical stacking of thin film GaAs solar cells

onto silicon as well as the mechanical stacking

of a dual-junction GaInP/GaAs cell onto a GaSb cell

have also been experimentally studied. In this

respect, it has been necessary to research the crystal

growth of GaSb using the Czochralski method of

sufficient quality. As a result, a 6%-efficient GaSb

solar cell has been obtained when operatedbelow a GaInP/GaAs solar cell at 300 suns.

In the thermophotovoltaic activity, GaSb solar

cells with 19% efficiency, for integration in a

thermophotovoltaic system with a tungsten

emitter, have been measured. Moreover, in con-

nection with the multijunction activity, these

cells show 6% efficiency when used at the back of

a GaInP/GaAs dual-junction cell in a mechanical

stacked multi-junction approach operated at

300 suns. Two geometries (cylindrical and conical)

have been analysed for the chamber that has to

contain the cells. The cylindrical configuration hasbeen found to be more suitable for final system

production.

Within the framework of research into the inter-

mediate-band solar cell, test devices have been

manufactured using quantum dots (Fig. 4). These

devices have demonstrated the production of

photocurrent for sub-band-gap energy photos,

and experiments have been best interpreted when

a quasi-Fermi level has been associated with each

band, just as the related theory has proposed.

Chalcopyrite semiconductors substituted by

several transition metals have been identifiedrecently as plausible intermediate-band materi-

al candidates. These add up to the TiGa3As4 and

TiGa3P4 systems previously identified and

whose energetics as intermediate-band materials

has been studied. The analysis has revealed that


Figure 4: Atomic force microscope image

of a layer of quantum dots.


25/163

Project Information


Duration60 months

Contact personProf. Antonio LuquePolytechnical University of Madrid

[email protected]

List of partnersCommissariat lEnergie Atomique FRConsejo Superiorde Investigaciones Cientificas ESECN NLFraunhofer Gesellschaft (FhG-ISE) DEFraunhofer Gesellschaft (FhG-IAP) DEImperial College GBIoffe Physico-Technical Institute RUInspiria S.L. ESIsofoton S.A ESJRC ITPaul Scherrer Institute CHPhilipps University of Marburg DEPolytechnical University of Madrid ESProjektgesellschaftSolare Energiesysteme mbH DERWE Space Solar Power DESolaronix CHUniversity of Cyprus CYUniversity of Glasgow GBUniversity of Utrecht NL

Websitewww.fullspectrum-eu.org

Project officerGarbie Guiu Etxeberria

Statusongoing

23

the incorporation of Ti is characterised by figures

similar to those of Mn in GaAs, a system in which

such incorporation has been found experimentally

to be possible.

As regards research into new molecules and

dyes for a better use of the solar spectrum, the

efficiency of some solar cells has been improved

by the application of a polymer coating containinga luminescent dye that shifts the spectrum

towards wavelengths that are better converted

into electricity by the cells. The research on

a dye-doped flat concentrator has increased its

efficiency from below 1% to over 1.7% through

the application of better mirrors and dyes.

Moreover, the use of quantum dots has also

been anticipated in order to increase the photo-

generated current of a solar cell by spectrum

shifting. Optical modelling has been developed and

has become a valuable tool in the optimisation of

the flat concentrator.Among the concepts above, multi-junction solar

cells are closest to commercialisation. In this

regard, significant progress has been made, for

example, in aspects related to the manufacture of

the optics, and the development of encapsulation

and trackers with high pointing accuracy to operate

these cells in high-concentration systems. Up to

five new releases of advanced concentrators

(primary) have been moulded (Fig. 6), improving

moulding conditions in order to achieve the

highest possible optical efficiency. More than

100 optical assemblies with these new releaseshave been encapsulated on 1mm-2--single

junction III-V-cells Off-track angle under 0.1

with 95% probability for several complete days

has been proven in first trials. As for the devel-

opment of a pre-regulation for the deployment of

concentrator systems, the consortium is partici-

pating in the preparation of the IEC TC82 WG7

regulation. Solar simulators for the characterisation

of concentration modules are also being developed.

Thus far, results achieved comprise:

35.2% efficient multijunction solar cell at

600 suns

6% efficient (GaIn)(NAs) solar cell

19% GaSb solar cell in thermophotovoltaic

system

Different configurations for the thermo-

photovoltaic systems studied

Quantum dot intermediate-band solar cell

test devices operational

Chalcopyrite substituted by several transition

metals studied as IB materials

Spectrum shift achieved using polymer coating

with luminescent dyes

Advanced compact concentrators

Trackers of increased accuracy.

Figure 6: Computer-assisted design of an advanced

concentrator.


26/163

Challenges

Existing and innovative solar concentrators were

evaluated for their properties in high-concen-

tration photovoltaics. Plant types were identified

that fulfil the technical requirements of

homogenous irradiation distribution with solar

concentration factors of 500 to 2000 suns and

cost-effective implementation perspectives. The

conclusions were that Modified Spherical Dish

(Tailored Concentrator) configurations look

more suitable for meeting current technology

requirements than classical Parabolic Dish solu-

tions. The results shown with this design are

promising. It has been proposed to build and test

a tailored concentrator for HICONPV technology

with this design.

An innovative heliostat variant was evaluated

for its properties in high-concentration photo-

voltaics, demonstrating that the proposed

Torque Tube Heliostat design concept promises

significant cost advantages over existing heliostat

designs. This can be achieved with a much lowerconstruction height of the TTH, which reduces

drastically the wind loads on the structure and

the required specific drive power.

The aim of this tailor concentrator is to prove

the real possibilities of this innovative conceptual

design, and to see the performance of the concept

O B J E C T I V E S

HICON-PV

High Concentration PV Power System

24

The aim of this project is to develop,

set up and test a new

high-concentration 1000x or more

PV system with a large-area

III-V-receiver. This will be achieved

by integrating two technology fields:

the high concentration of the sunlight

will be obtained using technologies

experienced in solar thermal systems

like parabolic dishes or tower systems.

The high-concentration photovoltaic

receiver is based on the III-V solar cell

technology. To deal with the high

concentration, Monolithic Integrated

Modules (MIM) will be developed

and will be assembled as CompactConcentrator Modules (CCM).

The CCM prototypes will be

implemented at three solar test

installations in Cologne, Almera and

Israel. The tests will be evaluated and

compared with other types of systems.

The objectives of the project are

directed towards high-efficiency

concentrating photovoltaics to reach the

system cost goal of 1/Wp by 2015.

under real manufacturing constraints. The proposed

final configuration was not optimised for 1000x

but rather close, so it is necessary to take into

account the optimised structural heliostat concept,

where the shape of the concentrator is no

longer round but rectangular. Rectangular con-

centrators allow us to keep the gravity centre

lower for the same aperture area. This has a

strong influence on the structural design and

the final cost.

Project Structure

In this project, two ways will be explored in

order to reach a cost-effective solution: the use

of existing mature concentrators and the use of

a new tailored concentrator. During development,

the focus will be on significant cost reduction.

Therefore, current cost-efficient concentrators

developed in the area of concentrating solar

thermal power plants will be used in combinationwith high-concentration PV. The concentrator

system has to meet specifications on flux distri-

bution and accuracy, safe operation and reliability.

Taking advantage of the achievements in

concentrating solar thermal systems, this will

reduce system costs significantly due to mass

production. Further cost reduction aspects of

the selected concentrator system will be

addressed.

Expected Results

The concept of this research project focuses

specially on:

New monolithic integrated modules with

efficiencies of 20% and above.

Module design for irradiation up to 1000 suns.

Adaptation of already proven concentrators

concepts that promise high quality and high

reliability.



27/163

Project Information


Duration36 months

Contact personValerio Fernndez QueroSolucar

[email protected]

List of partnersBen Gurion University of Negev ILCIEMAT ESDLR DEElectricit de France FRFraunhofer Gesellschaft (FhGISE) DEPSE GmbH DERWE Space Solar Power GmbH DESolcar Energa, S.A. ESUniversity of Malta MT

Website

www.hiconpv.org

Project officerRolf Ostrom

Statusongoing

25

High cost-reduction potential due to the use of

adapted concentrators that will be produced in

high numbers for solar thermal power plants.

The result will be a high-quality, high-concen-

trating PV system prototype that promises high

cost-reduction potentials compared to non-

concentrating PV. This concept is unique in the

world and will be an import step for the EUtowards the most competitive and dynamic

knowledge-based economy in the world in this

targeted area.

Progress to Date

An advanced heliostat concept has been

developed with small low-cost ganged units: this

has the potential to reduce the concentrator cost

to below 500/kW of capacity.

A spherical concentrator has been proposed

for small systems with up to 5 m of focal length.

With a central and a peripheral reflector, this

will be able to provide flux profiles whichseem appropriate for PV arrays. It is an on-axis-

design with two-axis tracking that provides

even power levels over the whole year.

Drawings have been presented.

An industrial dish concentrator design has

been prepared. The concentrator is composed of

hexagonal spherical-curved low-cost mirror

facets. Prototype components are in preparation.

IMs have been delivered for the prototype

modules. A prototype CCM has been fabricated

and successfully tested at the solar furnace.Several MIM modules and CCM prototypes

have been prepared and delivered to the test

facilities. Tests have been performed at the

big-dish Petal facility at Ben Gurion

University and at the DLR solar furnace.

A test set-up has been developed for the PSA

solar furnace for solar flashing of prototype

cells by means of a mechanical shutter and a

high-speed control and data acquisition system.

CCM interconnection schemes have been

studied and the inverter design has been

optimised for the high currents and the modular

concept.


28/163

Challenges

To reach MOLYCELL goals, the following points

are addressed in parallel:

Design and synthesis of new materials to

overcome the large mismatch between the

absorption characteristics of currently available

polymer materials and the solar spectrum, and

also to improve the relatively slow charge

transport properties of organic materials.

Development of two device concepts to

improve efficiencies: the all-organic solar

cells concept and the nanocrystalline metal

oxides/organic hybrid solar cells concept.

All-organic solar cells

Devices are based on donor-acceptor bulk hetero-

junction built by blending two organic materials

serving as electron donor (hole semiconductor,

low band-gap polymers) and electron acceptor

(n-type conductor, here soluble C60 derivative) inthe form of a homogeneous blend and sandwiching

the organic matrix between two electrodes. One of

these electrodes is transparent and the other is

usually an opaque metal electrode. In addition

to the incorporation of polymers with improved

light harvesting and charge transport properties,

two concepts are developed to improve efficiencies:

An innovative junction concept based on the

orientation of polar molecules

A multi-junction bulk donor-acceptor hetero-

junction concept.

Nanocrystalline metal oxides/organichybrid solar cells

Devices are based upon solid-state hetero-junctions

between nanocrystalline metal oxides and

molecular/polymeric hole conductors. Two

strategies are addressed for light absorption: the

sensitisation of the hetero-junction with molecular

dyes, employing transparent organic hole transport

materials and the use of polymeric hole conductors

having the additional functionality of visible

light absorption.

O B J E C T I V E S

MOLYCELL

Molecular Orientation, Low Band-gapand New Hybrid Device Concepts for

the Improvement of Flexible Organic Solar Cells

26

Molycell aims at demonstrating the

technical feasibility of organic solar

cells. The project has targeted two

different technologies: hybrid

organic/inorganic solar cells and bulk

hetero-junction organic solar cells.

Project Structure

The project is managed as a series of six linked

work packages, covering a large field of research

from the development of new materials to their

characterisation, the elaboration of solar cells

and their evaluation.

WP 1: Design, Synthesis and Basic Chemical

Analysis of Novel Organic Hole Conductors: the

objective of reducing the band-gap of conjugatedpolymers to 1.8 eV in a first stage and then to 1.6 eV

have been achieved through the development of

efficient synthetic strategies. The charge carrier

mobilities of these polymers are in line with

expectations, and hole mobilities above 10-4 cm2/V.S

have been demonstrated.

WP 2: Metal Oxide Development: new low-

temperature processes for the deposition of

mesoporous nanocrystalline metal oxide films

on flexible substrates have been developed for

the elaboration of solid-state nanocrystalline

metal oxide/organic hybrid solar cells. Due toaccelerated recombination of injected electrons,

the efficiencies of cells built on these films

remain low compared to benchmark devices, and

further studies should reveal the exact origin of

this behaviour.

To overcome this difficulty, an alternative strategy

based on the elaboration of cells on flexible

Ti foils has been developed, leading to an inverted

structure which shows highly promising initial

results. Alternative methodologies for the fabri-

cation of mesoporous nanocrystalline metal

oxide films have also been studied. Amongthese, evaluation of mesoporous films made by

supramolecular templating has led to promising

results and a novel approach has been developed

in which the porous metal oxide layer is replaced

by a blend of TiO2 nanorods with a conjugated

polymer.

WP 3: Advanced Characterization and Modelling:

a detailed understanding of the fundamental

properties and behaviour of the novel materials

developed in WP 1 and WP 2 is necessary to check

their mutual compatibility and suitability for

improved solar cell energy conversion efficiency.



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Project Information


Duration30 months

Contact personsStphane GuillerezCommissariat lEnergie Atomique

[email protected]

List of PartnersCommissariat lEnergie Atomique FRECN NLEcole Polytechnique Fdralede Lausanne CHFraunhofer Gesellschaft (FhG-ISE) DEImperial College GBInter-university Microelectronic Centre BEJ. Heyrovsky Instituteof Physical Chemistry CZJohannes Kepler University of Linz ATKonarka Austria ATKonarka Technology AG CHSiemens DEUniversity of Ege TRUniversity of Vilnius LT

Websitehttp://www-molycell.cea.fr/

Project OfficerGarbie Guiu Etxeberria

Statusongoing

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For that, quantitative models of device function

have been developed and validated by a range of

experimental data, leading to:

Identification of parameters limiting device

performances.

Identification of specific design improvements.

Prediction of optimum device efficienciesachievable with each device concept.

WP 4: All-Organic Device Development: based

on the donor-acceptor bulk hetero-junction

concept, two innovative principles are explored

in parallel and low band-gap polymers issued from

WP 1 are tested. The two innovative principles

explored are one based on a junction induced by

the orientation of polar molecules, and one

based on a multi-junction bulk donor-acceptor

hetero-junction concept. Proofs of concept

studies for the innovative devices are now in

progress. First two-terminal multi-junction solarcells, in particular, were shown with near doubling

of the open-circuit voltage as compared to the

single-junction device. A prototype device with

a certified efficiency of 4% on 1 cm2 glass substrate

has been realised, and an efficiency of 3% on

10 cm2 flexible substrate has also been

demonstrated.

WP 5: Metal Oxide/Organic Hybrid Device

Development: solid-state metal oxide/organic

solar cells on glass and flexible substrates have

been developed following two distinct routes

and employing an optically transparent organichole conductor or an organic material that

serves the functions of both hole transport and

light absorption. Using different organic or

inorganic dyes, in combination with a transparent

molecular hole conductor, efficiencies of over

4% have been reached.

WP 6: Device Evaluation/Cost Assessment: an initial

evaluation of device processing and stability for

metal oxide/organic and all organic devices has

been carried out, leading to the identification of

critical stress factors. A definition of the speci-

fications requested for a 4% flexible solar cell (5%

on glass substrate) has also been established.

Expected Results

The results expected at the end of the project

with one or both devices concepts are:

Certified 5% solar to electric energy conversion

efficiency under Standard Test Conditions

(AM1.5 simulated sunlight, 100 mW/cm2, 25C)

for a 1 cm2 cell on glass substrate.

Certified 4% solar to electric energy conversion

efficiency under Standard Test Conditions

(AM1.5 simulated sunlight, 100 mW/cm2, 25C)

for a 1 cm2 cell on flexible substrate.

Fabrication methodologies compatible with

large-scale reel-to-reel production on flexible

substrates.

3000 hours of stable operation under indoor

conditions, defined in consultation with end-

users, with a roadmap for establishing the

stability required for outdoor operation.

Fabrication from non-toxic materials.Materials and fabrication costs determined

to be consistent with projected production

costs < 1/Wp.


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Challenges

One can observe a strongly growing R&D effort

in the domain of solar cells based on organic

layers. This progress is essentially based on the

introduction of nano-structured material systems

to enhance the photovoltaic performance of

these devices. The growing interest is fuelled by

the potentially very low cost of organic solar cells,

thanks to the low cost of the involved substrates,

the low cost of the active materials of the solar

cell, the low energy input for the actual solar

cell/module process and, last but not least, the

asset of flexibility.

In addition, the ease of up-scalability of the

required application technologies lowers the

threshold for new players to enter this field.

These efforts have resulted in the creation of

technologies which are approaching the stage of

first industrialisation initiatives. These industrial

activities target in the first instance the market

of consumer applications where energy autonomycan be ensured by integrating these flexible

solar cells with a large variety of surfaces.

O B J E C T I V E S

O

RGAPVNET

Coordination Action Towards Stableand Low-cost Organic Solar Cell Technologies

and their Application

28

The goal is the establishment of

a common understanding for future

investments and strategies concerning

organic photovoltaics by allowing

closer relations between the various

organisations of scientific and

technological cooperation in the two

largest organic solar cell communities

in Europe; by facilitating the transfer

of results from European research to

the European PV industry,

and by fostering measurement

standards and prediction of the

performance of organic PV cells

and modules. Other objectives are to

disseminate results to the whole

sector by means of various tools suchas an OrgaPvNet website and

identification of technology gaps and

determination of requirements for

sustainable future growth. The result

will be an integrated vision in the

form of a European Organic

Photovoltaics Technology Roadmap.

In order to have a real impact on the PV market,

additional progress is needed at the level of

efficiency, stability and application technologies

to allow the exploitation of these solar cell

technologies for power generation on a larger scale.

The OrgaPvNet coordin

Synopses Res En

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