Symbolism of Garland as a Cult Object in Gandhara Art · Garland Bearers ... Figure 34 Classical...

This Master’s Thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the MA degree at

MF Norwegian School of Theology, [2016, Fall]

AVH5035, Master's Thesis (60 ECTS)

Study program: Master in Religion, Society and Global Issues

Word count (23,383)

Symbolism of Garland as a Cult Object in Gandhara

Art

Sayyada Maryam Islam

Supervisor

Professor Victor Ghica

1 | P a g e

Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................ 2

Geo-Political and Artistic History of Gandhara .............................................................. 2

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 2

Gandhara ........................................................................................................................ 4

Geography ...................................................................................................................... 4

The Term Gandhara ....................................................................................................... 5

Political History .............................................................................................................. 6

Significance: ................................................................................................................... 7

Gandhara Art .................................................................................................................. 8

Major Schools of Art ...................................................................................................... 9

Origin of Gandhara Art ................................................................................................. 10

What is a Garland? ....................................................................................................... 11

Role of Garlands in Gandhara art ................................................................................ 14

Chapter 2 ...................................................................................................................... 16

Representation of Garland in Antique Art (Greek and Roman) .................................. 16

Significance of Garlands in Greco-Roman World ........................................................ 16

May Day Celebration ................................................................................................... 17

Beltane Celebration ..................................................................................................... 18

Marriage Ceremonies .................................................................................................. 20

Panhellenic Games ....................................................................................................... 20

Carneia (Greek Karneios) ............................................................................................. 21

Animal Sacrifice ............................................................................................................ 22

Adventus (Traditional entrance of Hellenistic royals).................................................. 22

Memorial of Dead ........................................................................................................ 23

Tomb Decoration ......................................................................................................... 23

Ritual of Crowning........................................................................................................ 24

Funerary Altars ............................................................................................................. 24

Garland- a Symbolic Feature of Greek and Roman Gods ............................................ 26

2 | P a g e

Daphne ......................................................................................................................... 26

Apollo ........................................................................................................................... 27

Hyperborean ................................................................................................................ 28

Consus .......................................................................................................................... 28

Nike .............................................................................................................................. 29

Aphrodite ..................................................................................................................... 30

Jewellery ...................................................................................................................... 31

Caduceus or Kerykeion ................................................................................................. 33

Usage of Garland in Greek and Roman art .................................................................. 34

Representation of Garland in Antique Art (Greece and Rome)................................... 37

Chapter 3 ...................................................................................................................... 49

Evidence of Garland Depiction in Gandhara ................................................................ 49

Introduction ................................................................................................................. 49

Butkara III ..................................................................................................................... 50

Group 1 (Pre Soter Megas) .......................................................................................... 51

Group 2 (Soter Megas Era)........................................................................................... 52



Chatpat ......................................................................................................................... 55

Garland Bearers ........................................................................................................... 55

Shah-Ji-ki Dheri ............................................................................................................ 56

Kunala Stupa ................................................................................................................ 57

Jamal Garhi ................................................................................................................... 59

Garland Bearers at the site of Jamal Garhi .................................................................. 59

Chapter 4 ...................................................................................................................... 61

Ritual use of Garlands in Gandhara Buddhism ............................................................ 61

Buddhist Ritual Practices ............................................................................................. 61

Historical Background for the Usage of Garland in Gandhara .................................... 62

Function and Meaning of Garlands in Buddhist Rituals.............................................. 64

Celebration of Mahaparinirvana (the great enlightenment) ...................................... 65

Cremation of Buddha ................................................................................................... 65

Division of Buddha’s Relics .......................................................................................... 65

3 | P a g e

Veneration of Stupa ..................................................................................................... 66

Footprints of Buddha ................................................................................................... 68

Ketumala (Buddha’s crown) ........................................................................................ 68

Dana (charity) .............................................................................................................. 69

Buddha’s Birth at Lumbini Garden ............................................................................... 70

Buddha’s Enlightenment .............................................................................................. 70

Garland as a Key Adornment of Bodhisattvas ............................................................. 71

Buddhist Amuletic Practices or Pratisara .................................................................... 71

Buddhist Samadhi ........................................................................................................ 72

Veneration of Vajrasana (Buddha’s seat) .................................................................... 72

Patipujika (Husband honourer) ................................................................................... 73

Death of a Deity ........................................................................................................... 73

Buddhist Worshipping Rituals ...................................................................................... 74

Chapter 5 ...................................................................................................................... 76

Symbolism of Garland in Gandhara art........................................................................ 76

Role of Native Artistries in the Development of Gandhara Art ................................... 76

Bedecked Stupas in Gandhara: .................................................................................... 82

Depiction of Putti and Garland on Gandharan Panels ................................................. 85

...................................................................................................................................... 95

...................................................................................................................................... 95

Types of Garlands Carried by Cupid Figures in Gandhara Art ..................................... 95

...................................................................................................................................... 96

Jambhala ...................................................................................................................... 97

Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 106

Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 111

4 | P a g e

List of Figures

Figure 1 Map of Gandhara ............................................................................................. 5

Figure 2 Priest holding garland to perform sacrifice on altar ....................................... 12

Figure 3 Laurel garland with abundance of fruits evidenced at Rome ........................ 13

Figure 4 Red attic figure vase depicting symposium scene from Greek (490-480

BCE), Representing guest garlanded with floral wreath and reclining on couch. He is

holding flute in one and giving other hand to the dancer. ........................................... 19

Figure 5 Ancient Greek myrtle garland (330-225 BCE), which signified love and

adoration. Myrtle was a signatory plant of Aphrodite (goddess of love and beauty).

...................................................................................................................................... 20

Figure 6 Red attic figure representing Nike crowning an athlete with garland of olives.

...................................................................................................................................... 21

Figure 7 Roman relief sculpture (1st CE), portraying bull crowned with garland for

sacrifice. ...................................................................................................................... 22

Figure 8 Roman marble relief depicting death scene (late 1st century CE). The house is

decorated with garlands. Family members of the deceased are standing around and

beating their chest. ....................................................................................................... 24

Figure 9 Roman stone sculpture from prompt Julio-Claudia era (14 CE-68 CE), ....... 25

Figure 10 Marble funerary altar of young child from Rome (ca 2nd

CE). The ............ 26

Figure 11 Mosaic figure from imperial Roman times (ca 2nd

CE- ca 3rd

CE ............... 27

Figure 12 Athenian attic red figure dates back to 470 BCE ......................................... 28

Figure 13 Greek vase .................................................................................................... 29

Figure 14 Greek vase painting from late 5th

BCE ........................................................ 30

Figure 15 Greek gold olive wreath (4th

century BCE) found at Vergina. ................... 31

Figure 16 Greek Gold wreath (3rd

century BCE) ......................................................... 32

Figure 17 Gold wreath of myrtle from Greek (3rd

-2nd

century BCE). .......................... 32

Figure 18 Roman gold commemorative garland dated to 1st-2nd century CE. .......... 33

Figure 19 Caduceus of Hermes which indicates two phases of Hermes‟s attributes, i.e.

descending stage .......................................................................................................... 33

Figure 20 Classical paestan red figure dated to 360-340 century BCE ........................ 34

Figure 21 Roman sarcophagus frieze from Rome dated 130-40 CE ............................ 38

Figure 22 Marble sarcophagus from Rome (200-225 CE), .......................................... 38

Figure 23 Roman sarcophagi (130-150 CE)................................................................. 39

Figure 24 Depicting burial chamber in Licinian tomb from Rome dated 150-180 CE 39

Figure 25 Marble sarcophagus from Rome (200-225 CE), .......................................... 40

Figure 26 Garland sarcophagus from Licenian tomb (76-138 CE) .............................. 40

Figure 27 Relief from Roman burial chamber at monumental cemetery Pisa, Italy

(120-125 CE), .............................................................................................................. 41

5 | P a g e

Figure 28 Marble sarcophagi (mid 2nd

CE) .................................................................. 41

Figure 29 Roman garland sarcophagus (140-170 century CE). .................................. 42

Figure 30 Detail of Hephaistos‟s (Greek deity of craftsman) return to the Olympus. . 42

Figure 31 Red attic figure Pot depicting ritualistic act by musicians in ancient Greek

civilization (4th

century BCE). ..................................................................................... 43

Figure 32 Roman mosaic (2nd

century CE) depicting women wearing laurel garland on

her shoulder and floral circlet on head. ....................................................................... 43

Figure 33 Greek oil jars from 5th

century BCE ............................................................ 44

Figure 34 Classical vase painting depicting Greek women‟s gathering who all are

crowned with garlands. ................................................................................................ 44

Figure 35 Roman Caesar Augustus (27 century BCE-14 century CE) Crowned with

laurel garland. ............................................................................................................. 45

Figure 36 Roman carnelian intaglio (100 century CE) ................................................ 45

Figure 37 Roman sarcophagus at Ara Pacis depicting frieze carved with garlands

supported by cow’s head. ............................................................................................ 46

Figure 38 Glass ware bowl from Rome (late 1st century BCE), decorated with garlands

attached to white thread. ............................................................................................. 46

Figure 39 Roman stucco plate (early imperial, 2nd

half of 1st century CE) .................. 47

Figure 40 Roman marble relief section (late 2nd

-3rd

century CE) ................................ 47

Figure 41 Roman marble relief (300 century CE) ........................................................ 48

Figure 42 Roman wine cup (50-25 century BCE) ........................................................ 48

Figure 43 Schist panel depicting cupids holding huge floral garland. ........................ 52

Figure 44 stone relief panel representing garland ...................................................... 52

Figure 45 Relief of stupa showing flying figure and cupid with garland..................... 53

Figure 46 Depicting cupid holding massive garland of foliage and twigs in the loops

of which is depicted a female figure holding fruits in her hand .................................. 54

Figure 47 Broken piece from sculpture of garland bearer at stupa relief. .................... 54

Figure 48 Garland bearers from Chatpat ...................................................................... 56

Figure 49 illustration of relic casket donated by king Kanishka at Shah-Ji-Ki-Dheri.

The casket is decorated with depictions of garland bearers. ........................................ 57

Figure 50 Panel relief representing garland of fruits carried by cherubs. ................... 58

Figure 51 Panel depicting putti holding garland. ......................................................... 58

Figure 52 garland bearer from Jamal Garhi ................................................................. 60

Figure 53 garland bearer. ............................................................................................. 60

Figure 54 Corianthan capital (2nd century CE) excavated from the site of Jamalgarhi

depicting haloed Buddha seated on lotus throne. ...................................................... 77

Figure 55 Greek toilet tray from Gandhara portraying symposium scene. A woman is

offering garland to a man while other women is standing beside him offering

something. ................................................................................................................... 78

6 | P a g e

Figure 56 Schist stone sculpture from Gandhara (2nd-4th century CE) depicting

Mahaparinirvana (death of Buddha). devotees are illustrated mourning on his death

while one devotee is depicted holding garland of foliage. .......................................... 79

Figure 57 Schist stone sculpture (2nd-3rd century CE) portraying haloed Buddha

centered in the middle of Brahma and Indra requesting Buddha to preach after he

(Buddha) attained enlightenment. Behind him are depicted spiritual figures and

garlands hanging from Bo ............................................................................................ 80

Figure 58 Schist stone relief from Swat valley dated to 2nd century CE depicting

Buddha previous life as Dipankara Buddha. Monks are offering flowers while others

are standing in the pose of adoration. ........................................................................ 81

Figure 59 Grey schist stone sculpture (3rd

-4th

century CE) of devotee holding offering

of flowers. .................................................................................................................... 81

Figure 60 Schist stone sculpture (dated to 4th-5th century CE) of a devotee holding

bunch of flowers in his left hand and right hand is in anxiety relieving gesture. ........ 82

Figure 61 Schist relief panel of stupa (2nd-3rd century CE) depicting garland carried

by two celestial figures and two birds with outstreched wings. ................................. 83

Figure 62 Garland bearers illustrated on various relief panels on the Drum of stupas

dated to 2nd-3rd century CE........................................................................................ 84

Figure 63 Schist stone sculpture of garland bearer with a winged celestial from

Gandhara 1st century CE. ............................................................................................ 86

Figure 64 Schist stone garland bearer from Kushan era 3rd century CE. .................... 87

Figure 65 Naked figures bearing garland dated to 2nd-3rd century CE. ..................... 87

Figure 66 Garland drapery supported by putties dated to Kushan era 1st.2nd century

CE. ................................................................................................................................ 88

Figure 67 Schist relief depicting female bust holding garland dated to 2nd-3rd

century CE. ................................................................................................................... 89

Figure 68 Gandhara frieze dated to 2nd-3rd century CE depicting putti holding huge

foliage garland and male bust in the hollow of garland. ............................................. 90

Figure 69 Grey schist stone panel dated to 2nd-3rd century CE depicting cupids

holding elaborated garlands of fruits and leaves upon which birds with outstretched

wings seated. In the space between garlands there are seated winged celestial

figures with hands cla .................................................................................................. 90

Figure 70 Stone bas relief from Kunala monastery at Taxila representing garland

loaded with bunches of grapes is carried by cupids. Winged female busts are

depicted in the loop of garland. Below garland on left side are seated birds nibbling

grapes and on the rig ................................................................................................... 91

Figure 71 Painted wavy garland on Great stupa at Butkara I. ..................................... 92

Figure 72 Painted acanthus scroll from great stupa at Butkara I. ............................... 92

Figure 73 Stupa at Loriyan Tangai in Peshawar depicting narratives from the life of

Buddha. ........................................................................................................................ 94

7 | P a g e

Figure 74 Bas relief fragment from Butkara stupa at Swat representative of the

symbolic illustration of Buddha’s first Discourse after getting enlightenment. Winged

celestial beings are depicted as accompanying figures. .............................................. 94

Figure 75 Grey Schist relief fragment from stupa at Butkara I depicting Buddha. The

fragment is broken although it might suggest that celestial beings are showering

flowers on Buddha. ...................................................................................................... 95

Figure 76 Kanishka’s bronze casket with image of haloed Buddha flanked by Indra

and Brahma. Lower part of casket is engraved with images of puttis holding garland.

...................................................................................................................................... 96

Figure 77 Stupa relief panel engraved on grey schist stone dated 2nd-3rd century

depicting amorino holding garland of fruits and birds with outstretched wings in the

loops of garland. .......................................................................................................... 96

Figure 78 Grey schist sculpture (2nd century CE) of divine being holding garland. .... 97

Figure 79 Buddha seated on lotus throne with hand gesture in Dharmachakra mudra

(preaching pose). He is attended by two Bodhisattvas on both sides while two are

standing behind him in adoration pose. ...................................................................... 98

Figure 80 Terracotta head of Bodhisattva bedecked with garland (dated to 5th

century CE). .................................................................................................................. 99

Figure 81 Terracotta head of Bodhisattva wearing floral garland found at Hadda

(Greco-Buddhist site) in Afghanistan (4th-5th century CE). ....................................... 99

Figure 82 Stone monument depicting Buddha seated lotus throne accompanied by

number of Bodhisattvas. Some are paying homage to Buddha while some are

standing in the gesture of adoration. Similarly two Bodhisattvas are crowning the

head of Buddha with garland..................................................................................... 100

Figure 83 Schist stone depicting haloed Buddha seated on lotus throne flanked by

Bodhisattvas and heavenly figures. Above the head of Buddha are depicted two

celestial figures crowning Buddha with garland. ....................................................... 101

Figure 84 Schist stele from stupa at Muhammad Nari village protraying flying putti

placing garland on head of the Buddha. .................................................................... 101

Figure 85 Schist stone sculpture depicting Amitabha Buddha flanked by four

Bodhisattvas. Above him are indicated six Bodhisattvas. ......................................... 102

Figure 86 Grey schist stone fragment excavated from the site of Sahri-Bahlol

depicting the jewel tree. A Bodhisattva holds a jewel garland in his hand while the

other two seated Buddhisattvas bearing a floral garland which may place on the

head of the Buddha. .................................................................................................. 103

Figure 87 Schist stone sculpture of Bodhisattva carrying bunches of flowers. ......... 103

1 | P a g e

Abstract

This study involves understanding of how garland is being remembered as an object

of devotion in various traditions from classical times to contemporary age? Main

focus of present study is to get insight into the symbolism of garland as cultic object

in Buddhist art of Gandhara. And to indicate that how this element get merged into

different sorts of learning? In order to act in accordance with these objectives, usage

of garland has been studied in antique (Greece and Rome) art and culture. Suggestions

are gathered from literary evidence and symbolic portrayals to identify that what was

the significance of garland to Greek and Roman civilization? And how this icon get

assorted into later religious settings of Asia minor and eastern countries including

Gandhara Buddhism? Purpose of the present study is to recognize that how this

element was acknowledged and modified in Buddhist rites and observances?

Buddhists in Gandhara followed the pre-Buddhist belief of communicating religious

dogma through sacred symbols. They derived those signs from ancient Iranian, Greek,

Roman and Hindu customs of adoring gods, goddesses and heroic figures with

flowers, perfumes, lamps, banners or floral garlands. It is concluded that imagery of

garland motif was first introduced in Gandhara by the Bactrian Greeks who invaded

the region in 4rd

century BCE. Although the idea was already present in Vedic

practices of worshipping divine beings in Gandhara. The acceptance of outlandish

religious values and artistic features by local people since Gandhara remained

exposed to foreign invasions from prehistoric times. Despite all these invasions,

people of Gandhara retained their originality in their art and culture.

Chapter 1

Geo-Political and Artistic History of Gandhara

Introduction

The basic theme of this research is to understand the symbolism of garlands as a cult

object in Gandhara art and, to find how the art of garland has been adopted from

Greek and Roman Art. Garlands are important symbols associated with honor,

respect, divinity, immortality and wisdom in various socio-religious beliefs. It is also

found in visual arts of world‟s different civilizations and one can find it in the

Buddhist art of Gandhara. The origin of garland, its symbolism and usage will be

investigated during research. Garland (floral decoration) is the most important feature

associated with divine beings through ages. It has also been used and incorporated in

Gandhara art.

Garlanding is a popular practice in ancient Greek and Roman religious beliefs and

customs, which has also received great attention in later cultures. A garland is a

circular band made up of different kinds of flowers, leaves and branches. It denotes

immortality, victory, honor, commitment, faithfulness, remembrance, or marks the

celebration of the entrance into life after death. From early times, it served as a ritual

object symbolizing the salutary act or the high position of the person or statue which

wore it. This symbol was consequently adopted easily in art. During Roman times,

emperors were capped with the floral garlands that depict their victory, power,

discrimination, and glory.1

Garlands have a rich cultural and religious importance from prehistoric times. In the

Egyptian civilization, floral garlands were placed on mummies, signifying entrance

into life after death. Similarly, in Greek and Roman civilizations, garlands were

mostly used to decorate the administrative buildings, houses and temples. Later on

during the Renaissance and Middle Ages (from 5th

to 16th

century CE), flowers and

1 Dragana Rogić, et al., “Wreath Its Use and Meaning in Ancient Visual Culture, Religion and

Tolerance”, Journal of the Centre for Empirical Researches on Religion, 10/18 (2012): 342.

fruit garlands have been widely used in festivals and events like wedding ceremonies.

Furthermore, they were also used to honor religious statues.2

There is a long and complex history of the garlands in regard to its usages, purposes

and meanings. Although the tradition of making garlands can be traced back to the

ancient Iranian dynasties, which used such circular bands to represent the concept of

land or territory and to a great extent the kingdom was important for the sovereignty

of the people.3

In ancient Egypt (2800-28 BCE), people used garlands of flowers such as water lilies,

jasmine and narcissus etc. in religious ceremonies, decorating tombs, and houses. In

Greece (600-150 BCE), Garlands were used in different kinds of festivities such as

marriage and birth. Similarly, they made garlands with different herbs, leaves and

flowers, e.g. grape leaves, oaks, laurel, ivy, lilies and violets, and their arrangement

were in symmetrical manner. These wreaths and garlands were associated with honor,

power and dedication. Throughout the Roman times (28-325 CE), people adopted the

same tradition of making garlands in symmetrical manner from Greeks, but the

Romans mostly used fragrant and bright colored flowers. Later on, during the

Byzantine period (320-600 CE), they have introduced a new trend consisting in

adding fruits, small flowers and more leaves in garlands. These garlands were

arranged in twisted manner and each flower corresponded to each other. During the

period 500 BC-100 CE, the Chinese utilized slightly different garlands, to which were

added artificial flowers made up of silk. They mostly used garlands in religious

ceremonies. During the course of the Renaissance period (1400-1600 A.D), flower

decorations begin in Italy which was later on adopted in all over the Europe. Artists

have painted garlands of flowers including daisies, lilies, and roses on vases, arched

roofs and walls.4

2 www.Britannica.com/art/garland-floral-decoration-retrieved: 25.11.2015.


Tolerance”, Journal of the Centre for Empirical Researches on Religion, 10/18 (2012): 342.

4 www.growerdirect.com/a Brief History on the art of Flower Arrangement: Retrieved:

29.12.2015.

http://www.britannica.com/art/garland-floral-decoration-retrieved:%2025.11.2015

http://www.growerdirect.com/a

The usage of garlands varies during course of time because it has been used by

different cultures in accordance with their social and religious needs. All prehistoric

religious convictions have built upon various symbols to communicate their basic

faiths and beliefs. Buddhists also followed the pre-Buddhist concept of expression of

different beliefs through various symbols. So the purpose of the present study is to

highlight the usage of garlands in Gandhara civilization and how this idea has been

assumed and adapted in Buddhist rituals and ceremonies?

Gandhara

Pakistan is rich in archaeological remains, representing among others the Indus valley

and Gandhara civilizations.5

The Indus valley civilization dates back to 5th

millennium BCE. After its decay, the

local culture continued to grow, however a new kind of culture in the region of

Gandhara has flourished that reached at its peak and spread throughout the north-

eastern region of Pakistan from 1st century BCE to 7

th century CE recognized as the

Gandhara civilization.6

Gandhara is considered as the homeland land for Buddhism in the same way as the

Ganges Jumna is regarded as the homeland for Hinduism and Jainism.7

Geography

Gandhara is popular for its multicultural character because from the beginning it has

been subjected to evolution in sites, culture and civilization. The region comprises the

west pool of the river Indus and the areas of Swat valley, Peshawar, Bajaur, Dir and

Boner. Its boundaries touch to the west Asia and India.8

The accounts of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen t sang (7th

century A.D) indicate that the

region covered the Peshawar valley, with hilly areas of swat and boner in the north

5 Ahmed Hassan Dani, History of Pakistan Through Ages (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publishers, 2008): 12.

6 A.M Mughal, “Gandhara Art the Pride of Pakistan” Journal of Asian Civilization, 30/2 (2007): 17.

7 Jean Boisselier, The Image of the Buddha (Chicago: Serindia Publication Inc., 1978): 59.

8 Waqar Hanif, Gandhara Culture: Cultural Caravan of Pakistan (Islamabad: Best Books Publishers,

2005): 57.

and, the Indus River in the east. Also this area includes part of eastern Afghanistan,

including Jalalabad. Nevertheless, the cultural boundaries of Gandhara are located

from Taxila to the south east.9

The Term Gandhara

The political and cultural history of Gandhara frequently counts on numismatic

evidence, art, architecture, historical documents and inscriptions. Earliest reference to

this region has mentioned in old Indian hymns of Aryans known as Rig-Veda (2nd

millennium BCE), but its detailed information is established from Chinese accounts of

Hiuen t sang who visited this region in 7th

century A.D. Local and international

epigraphic evidence show that Gandhara was a kingdom of king Darius from 528-519

BCE.

The Behestun inscriptions of king Darius indicate that Gandhara was among the 23

provinces under the rule of king Darius and were named „Gadara‟.10

Before that, Gandhara was part of Achaeminian Empire in the time of Cyrus the Great

(558-528 BCE).11

9 Saeed-ur-Rahman, “Introduction to Gandhara” Journal of Central Asia, 13/1 (1990): 47-48.

10 Muhammad Ishtiaq Khan “Buddhism in Gandhara: Some Thoughts”, Journal of Asian Civilization,

21/2(1998): 57.

Figure 1 Map of Gandhara1

It was supposed that the name of Gandhara originates from the king Gadhara who

ruled over the area for some time.12

Thus, the earliest references for Gandhara are considered the Rig-Veda (2nd

century

BCE), the Naqsh-E-Rustam and the Behestun inscriptions of king Darius. Later

literary references show that Gandhara continued to exist as the seventh province

under the Persian rule which was later on occupied by Alexander the Great in 327

BCE.13

Political History

The history of this region starts with the arrival of early Aryans, who moved from

central Asia and established themselves in the 2nd

millennium BCE) which indicates

that the region was first invaded by Aryans. Gandhara was then occupied by the

Achaeminid ruler Cyrus the Great, towards the middle of the 6th

century BCE. He

ruled over this region from 558 to 528 BCE and was succeeded by Darius (528-519

BCE). Gandhara was the seventh province among the 23 provinces of king Darius.

Then Alexander the Great subjugated this area after defeating the Persian rule in 327-

326 BCE. The region was then annexed by the Mauryan king Chandragupta Maurya

in 326 BCE. Mauryans were followers of the native religion, Hinduism. After his

death, his grandson Asoka established himself in 272BCE. Asoka was then converted

to Buddhism and during his reign, Buddhism spread throughout the Gandhara and

become a state religion.14

In 190 BCE, Mauryan dynasty was deteriorated by Bactrian, who ruled for one

hundred years (190-90 CE). Bactrian were then advanced by Saka or Scythian who

came from central Asia and later on by the end of 1st century BCE, the area was

occupied by Parthian who established themselves in Taxila valley and ruled from 90

11

W. Zwalf, A Catalogue of Gandhara Stone Sculptures in British Museum (London, The British

Museum Press, Vol.1, (1996): 15.

12 Ahmed Hassan Dani, History of Pakistan Through Ages (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publishers, 2008): 12.

13 Muhammad Nasim Khan, “Epigraphy in Pakistan”, The Glory that was Pakistan, 50 Years of

Archaeological Research in Pakistan, Department of Archaeology, University of Peshawar and

National Heritage of Pakistan (1998): 165-166.

14 R.C. Sharma, Buddhism and Gandhara Art (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989): 4-5.

BCE to 64 CE. They were masters of ancient Greek art and in this time period,

Gandhara School of art has started. Later on in 5th

century CE Gandhara and Kabul

valleys were conquered by the Kushan rulers, who came from the northwest border of

China, and under their sponsorship, Gandhara art reached its climax. Gandhara was

further invaded by foreigners, such as Sassanians (241-358A.D), Kidar Kushanas

(358-560 CE), white Huns (5th

century CE) and Hindu Shahis from (8th

-11th

century

CE).15

All these foreign invasions until the 5th

century CE contributed to producing several

forms of art, among which Gandhara art, which flourished and faced unexpected

changes for a long time.16

But despite the foreign invasions and the cultural influences deriving therefrom, the

population remained faithful to the language and culture of their forefathers. The

unifying element was the Buddhist belief, which local people have adopted during the

reign of Asoka (272-237 BCE).17

Significance:

Gandhara remain engaged in formation of culture and history of all over the

northwestern region of India and Pakistan and history of Gandhara itself. It

contributed as a meeting point between south Asia and central Asia and also acted as

a bridge for china for the spread of Buddhist faith, arts and crafts likewise the

Mathura did between Gandhara and Amravati. Gandhara is considered as a melting

pot of world big religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam as

well.18

15

Muhammad Nasim Khan, “Epigraphy in Pakistan”, The Glory that was Pakistan, 50 Years of

Archaeological Research in Pakistan, Published by Department of Archaeology, University of

Peshawar and National Heritage of Pakistan (1998): 165-166.

16 Muhammad Ishtiaq Khan, “Buddhism in Gandhara: Some Thoughts”, Journal of Asian Civilization,

21/2 (1998): 53-57.

17 Saeed-Ur-Rahman, “Introduction to Gandhara”, Journal of Central Asia, 13/1 (1990): 49.

18 A.M Mughal, “Gandhara Art the Pride of Pakistan”, Journal of Asian Civilization,30/2 (2007): 18-

19.

Due to its geographical situation, Gandhara provided a trade route and means of

communication between Iran, Europe and central Asia. It served as a hub in which

different civilizations intermingled. Gandhara is known as a homeland for Buddhism

because of its flourishing in this region and the religious missions sent therefrom to

neighboring territories. The Gandharis adopted several foreign influences in terms of

art and architecture and introduced a new kind of art that was totally Buddhist in

nature and Gandharan in expression.19

The large amount of surviving archaeological sites and sculptures showing a strong

religious inspiration demonstrate the commercial importance and the wealth of

Gandhara.20

Gandhara was a center of attraction in terms of education and culture during the time

period of Brahmanas and the compilation of the Upanishads. Because during this

time, highly educated and experienced teachers were there in Gandhara and students

from far regions came to this region for the acquisition of knowledge. 21

Gandhara Art

The main flourishing period of Gandhara art is Buddha‟s life story (from his birth to

Mahaparinirvana, „enlightenment‟, as well as his previous lives). The art reached at

its peak during the 1st and 2

nd century CE, but the destruction was caused by white

Huns during the 3rd

century CE.22

Gandhara art possess homogeneity in its outlook, which throws light on social issues

and the ideology of the people who inhabited the area. Despite of all the foreign

influences absorbed, artists produced nonetheless an art which remained Buddhist.

19

Saif-ur-Rahman Dar, “A Fresh Study of Four Unique Temples at Takshasila (Taxila)”, Journal of

Central Asia, 3/1 (1980): 91-96.

20 Y. Krishan, The Buddha Image, Its Origin and Development (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal

Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1996): 20.

21 Ahmed Hassan Dani, History of Pakistan Through Ages (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publishers, 2008):

87-88.

22 Badshah Sardar & Saleem-Ul-Haq “Gandhara: A Buddhist School of Art”, Journal of Central Asia,

20/1 (1997): 23.

The art flourished from the 1st to the 8

th century CE, but the heyday of Gandhara art

covers the Kushan period (2nd

to 3rd

century CE).23

Gandhara art is not a result of merger of different cultures but it is a geographical

location and trade contacts between the Kushan rulers and west which was enhanced

for the development of a style that was different from the specific Indian style.

However, the main theme is Indian in nature. It is assumed that Gandhara art is an

authorized art of the Kushan ruler Kanishka and his predecessors.24

Gandhara art performed a key role in the propagation of Buddhist beliefs. It reflects

the Hindu-Buddhist philosophical thoughts as well as the socio-economic conditions

of the Gandhara.25

This pictorial representation of Sakyamuni Buddha‟s life events was helpful for those

who were illiterate, so that they could easily understand their religious beliefs.26

Gandhara School was stopped for few centuries and, after the invasion of white Huns

in 6th

century CE, this school of art totally disintegrated. White Huns were followers

of Saivism who destroyed Buddhist stupas and monasteries and hindered the

propagation of Buddhism.27

Major Schools of Art

There are two major schools of thought in Buddhism, Hinayana and Mahayana. The

earliest school of art is known as Barhut and Sanchi which was under the values of

Hinayana or Theravada Buddhism and the later school of art which is termed as

Gandhara art is actually a result of Mahayana thought.

23

A.M Mughal, “Gandhara Art the Pride of Pakistan” Journal of Asian Civilization, 30/2 (2007): 19-

22.

25www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/king-kaniska-conquest-administration-and-culture,

Retrieved: 15.01.2016.

25 Ghani-Ur-Rahman, “The Battle for Enlightenment: Buddha Success Against the Temptation and

Assaults by Mara in Gandhara Art” Journal of Asian Civilization, 32/1 (2007): 60.

26 Saeed-Ur-Rahman, “Introduction to Gandhara”, Journal of Central Asia, 13\1 (1990): 49.

27 Muhammad Ishtiaq Khan, “Buddhism in Gandhara: Some Thoughts”, Journal of Asian Civilization,

21/2(1998): 61.

http://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/king-kaniska-conquest-administration-and-culture

Sanchi is situated in central India and considered as a home town of the great

monuments of the Buddhist faith. In this school of art, Buddha is not represented in

human form but with various symbols like stupa that signifies the Mahaparinirvana

(enlightenment), chakra (wheel) represents first preaching of Dharma (doctrine), and

Bodhi tree indicates the tree under which Buddha got his ultimate enlightenment.28

The aniconism in early art relies on Buddhist legendry sources, and also parallel to the

Jaina art, numismatic evidence and Brahmi inscriptions as well. For example, in Jains

art, Mahavira (founder of Jainism) is indicated symbolically as the sacred Caiteya

tree, dharma chakra, stupa and sun symbol etc.29

During the era of Kushan, artist started producing images of Buddha. Prior to that,

different symbols were used, which were taken from episodes related with Buddha`s

life like Paduka (foot prints), stupa, wheel (solar symbol), pipal tree, turban etc. In the

Gandhara and Mathura schools of art, Buddhists introduced a new element by

depicting Buddha anthropomorphically.30

Origin of Gandhara Art

Scholars remained divided regarding the exact origin of Gandhara art. Some consider

it as Greco-Buddhist art while others characterized it as Romano-Buddhist art. Ahmed

Hassan Dani held in his book history of Pakistan through ages that the Roman

sources are predominant because Gandhara art flourished after the Christian epoch in

which the Roman art dominated.31

28

Henry Sterlin, The Cultural History of India, 2nd ed., (London: Wiley Black Well Publishers,1983):

16.

29 Y. Krishan, The Buddha Image, Its Origin and Development (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal

Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,1996): 13-14.

30 Anjan Chakraverty, Sacred Buddhist Paintings (New Delhi: Lustree Press Private Ltd., 1998): 25.

31 Ahmed Hassan Dani, History of Pakistan Through Ages (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publishers, 2008):

120-121.

In his book Buddhism, Richard Gombrich argues that the art of Gandhara got sway of

Hellenistic art that assorted in local Indian artistic traditions in the same way as

Persian art influenced Gandhara art.32

Scholars have tried to establish the chronology of Gandhara art, but this is still open to

debate. We can say however that the Buddhist art of Gandhara developed out of the

amalgamation of Greek, Roman, Persian and Indian artistic influences.33

What is a Garland?

The garland has been part of religious and socio-cultural traditions from ancient

times. It can be defined as an arrangement of flowers, fruits or branches in a band

which can be joined at the ends to form a wreath or hanged on in loops like festoons.

It was a regular style in relief sculptures of classical times, and Renaissance period.34

In his book A dictionary of symbols, Juan Eduardo Cirlot held that from ancient times

it is thought that the whole universe is bound in a garland. It represents a logical

connection between certain events. Garlands provide its different meanings of its

representation. Most people used to hang garlands on the main door of temples in

classical times and it was the symbol of fellowship and it was also worn as a crown by

their prisoners of war. Similarly, in Egyptian, Greek and Roman cultures, people

offered garlands to their guests, which were woven with particular flowers that

signified life and death, momentary or short-lived attractiveness and differentiation.35

Crowns of garlands are mentioned in the Bible (James 1: 2) as stephanos which

means to enclose, or to garland or festoon. Here stephanos is regarded as a winner‟s

crown, a symbol of victory in Olympic games, and a symbol of honor, celebration,

sovereignty and inauguration of a king, etc. In early times laurel wreaths were

32

Richard Gombrich, et al., Buddhism (London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.,1984): 105.

33 Tahira Tanveer & Amanullah, “Historical Development of the Buddhist Art of Gandhara: A Stylistic

Analysis”, Journal of Central Asia, 27/1 (2004): 29.

34 www.britannica.com\art\garland-floral-decoration, Retrieved: 12.12.2015.

35 Juan Eduardo Cirlot, A Dictionary of Symbols, 2

nd edition, (Mineola, New York: Dover Publications

Inc., 1971): 115.

http://www.britannica.com/art/garland-floral-decoration

awarded to the conqueror as a sign of success. Later on such crowns of garlands were

then woven with oak plant, ivy, myrtle, parsley and olive foliage and twigs.36

William Smith said in his book A dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities that

garland is described as Serta (the art of weaving garlands) to certain persons for their

distinguished services. These garlands were woven with fruits, leaves, flowers and

branches in most delightful fashion. When the priest was about to perform a sacrifice,

he was always seemed wearing garlands which were planned to be placed on the

target‟s head, or main entrance of the temple, or on the facade of the altar. They were

also placed on funerals and then renewed every year.

Example of laurel garland is evidenced on funerary boxes at Rome. The garland was

hanged with bands at both ends, and its terminal was enclosed with acanthus leaves.

Such laurel garland was woven with variety of fruits such as pomegranate, apple,

pears and grapes.

36

www.Bibletools.org\garland-as-symbol.htm, retrieved: 12.01.2016.

Figure 2 Priest holding garland to perform sacrifice on altar

There was an industry established in Athens (στευανοπλόκιον), during which women

and girls were appointed to the production of garlands.37

Garlands have different forms, functions and meanings according to which situations

they were used in. For example, in Greek and Roman culture, circular floral garlands

were placed on the heads of the emperors that signifies their power, merits, glory and

distinctive position in the society and priest wore them around their heads or neck

while celebrating religious festivals or other historical events. Similarly, it also acted

as a source of getting divine blessings for the followers from their deities while

offering those garlands.38

Garlands made up of plant leaves and branches were dedicated to the Greek deities:

the garland made up of oak plant was dedicated to Zeus, the laurel garland to Apollo, a

herbaceous plant garland to Ceres, etc. Similarly, in Roman culture, successes in the

fields of education, games and poetry were also honored with such floral garlands.39

The act of garlanding is regularly practiced in Hindu culture from ancient times, in the

form of Varmala (garland for proposal and wedding), Gajra (for good fortune and

wealth) etc. There are certain varieties of garlands for various purposes, for example,

37

William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities (London: John Murray, 1857): 1029-

1030.


Tolerance” Journal of the Centre for Empirical Researches on Religion, 10\18 (2012): 342.

39 Ibid (2012): 343.

Figure 3 Laurel garland with abundance of fruits evidenced at Rome

money garlands (for the priceless groom), wedding garland, flower garland (symbol

of honor for the deities), betel garland (offered to Hindu gods after food offering

during worship), neem leaf garland (offered to female goddess Kali for protection

against evil) We cannot see a single example of altar or temple without garland

decorations. Similarly flower garlands are offered to the guests that symbolize

respect, happiness, and honor for them.40

Hindu object of devotion has great influence over the Buddhist practices. The practice

of offering garlands, incense, music and dance are likely exemptions. Such offerings

were mostly related to the actions of giving respect and presence to Buddha. Garlands

and incense are common offering and the other two acts as fundamental part of the

cult. Monks attributes the sovereignty of the Buddha by wearing fine clothes, garlands

and perfumes. People feel great happiness and satisfaction by giving reverence to

relics through offerings of fragrances and wreaths, which were reflected as an

admirable object for donation.41

Role of Garlands in Gandhara art

There is a rich historical significance of festoons or garlands in Buddhism so as in art.

Kings used to cover stupas with garlands to honor the Buddha. This tradition of

garlanding as a sign of adoration is still practiced in Sinhala society in Sri Lanka.

These garlands were attached to the reliquary casket, Bodhi tree and stupa. Later on

when the Buddhist art has flourished, the artists started representing garlands in

paintings as ornamental designs on stupas and temple walls. The purpose of painting

garlands was to earn merit and to show honor and respect to Buddha and other holy

figures portrayed on temple walls. Mostly painted garlands on walls include pala-pety

(lotus flower garland) and liya-vala (include all floral garlands with the profusion of

twigs and leaves).42

40

www.littleindiadirectory.com\ulimate Guide-to-Indian-Flower-Garlands, Retrieved: 31.01.2016.

41 Kevin Trainer, Relics, Ritual and Representation in Buddhism (UK: Cambridge university press,

1997): 161,171.

42 Stephan C. Berkwitz, et al., Buddhist manuscript cultures (Abingdon: Routledge, 2009): 167-168.

http://www.littleindiadirectory.com/ulimate

Followers placed garlands on altars to attribute Dhamma (Buddha‟s teachings). It is

said that Kambakaya (altar) was thought simply to receive garlands. The purpose of

offering garlands to Buddha was to;

1. Attain nirvana (to get rid of birth-rebirth cycle)

2. To repeat oneself about the idea of transience.43

The sculptural art of Gandhara is varied than Central Asian art because it is

significantly subjective to the Greek and Roman artistic themes in relation to the

sculptural adornment with winged graphics, putti with flower garlands, loops, scrolls,

Corinthian and Ionian capitals, plants, acanthus leaves and grapes bunches.44

Certain examples of garland-bearers are frequently shown beneath the dense rounded

python in Gandhara sculptures.

43

Ibid.163.

44 www.matk.gr\en\collections\south-east-asian-art-colection\thematicunits\the Art of Gandhara,


http://www.matk.gr/en/collections/south-east-asian-art-colection/thematicunits/the

Chapter 2

Representation of Garland in Antique Art (Greek and Roman)

Significance of Garlands in Greco-Roman World

It is clearly identified from earliest classical writtings that garland has played a

significant role in Greek and Roman way of life. Countless books were inscribed

about its proper usage and symbolism i.e how to wear it? And what kind of flowers

and twigs should be used according to the occasion? Though garlanding was a

common practice during those days. Numerous industries were established to make

wreaths for events like wedding ceremonies, funeral services, home decoration and

ornamentation of graves and statues. It has also been woven as a gift to honor

victorious in Olympics, martyrs, poets, and guests. For Greeks, garland was a mark of

commitment and loyalty. Later on Romans followed same practice of making

garlands for diverse festivals, but garlands they used were very decorative, fragrant

and heavy.45

Garlanding was correspondingly practiced in both Greek and Roman sacrificial

processions and annual feasts to assign strength and return of life. Among other

festoons, wreaths made of laurel plant was very popular because of its evergreen

nature. People identified it with eternal life and mostly used them to honor soldiers

suggesting that laurel wreath is intended to clean them from blood. Later on this idea

was thought related with circlet given to winners in Olymic games, Also newlywed

couples were adorned with wreaths on their heads. 46

Aspect of garlanding expressed

various implications according to its location, style and material used. When placed

on head, it signified spiritual importance of head with a belief that it is closer to

heaven. Whereas person standing upright and wearing garland, illustrated his

preparation for the accomplishment of a particular duty for which he was being

chosen. Garlands with no beginings nor endings gaves an idea about eternal life. In

45 Norah T.Hunter, The Art of Floral Design, 2

nd edition (New York: Delmar Publications, 2008): 4-

5.

46

Fernando Lanzi & Gioia Lanzi, Saints and Their Symbols: Recognizing Saints in Art and in Popuar

Images, Translated by Matthew J.O. Connell (Italy: Liturgical Press, 2004): 25.

the same way round circlets indicated person‟s knowledge of excellence and

contribution in heavenly life.47

Early Greek and Roman believers had strong belief in Genii (unseen guiders) who

supported people from birth to death with love and guidance. Such invisible forces, on

their brithdays were venerated with incense, wine and garlands.48

Mireille M. Lee apprehended in his book “Body, dress and identity in ancient Greece”

that garland had diverse meanings carried by the participants in cult practices such as

symposium (drinking parties), Arkteia (festival for young girls), panhellenic games,

funeral rites etc. Diverse plants and flowers were associated with gods and goddesses

which were woven into garlands and offered to them as an object of devotion on their

festivals, For example ivy or grapevine with Dionysus (god of wine) and laurel with

Delphi and Apollo. Similarly champions in panhellenic games were bestowed with

wreaths of olives at Olympia, pine at Ishtmia and wild celery at Nemea. Even

audience at the contest be dressed in garlands to signify ritual purpose of game. 49

Some festivals and cult practices in Greek and Roman societies are discussed below;

May Day Celebration

For both Greeks and Romans, garland was a sign of inner connection between

everything. Symbolically it acted like a bond between events and seaons, that is

widely indicated in Greek and Roman art. Certain goddesses are depicted with

holding flower garlands. Principally flower garland was allied to goddess May who

was regaraded as a fertility goddess. May day festival (celebrated on first may)

actually has its origin in classical world, where celebration of floralia (occurred on 1st

may) was practiced. In this festival, garlands and flowers were offered to Roman

goddess Flora and Maia for their productiveness and fruitfulness. On May day a high

47

Ibid (2004): 26.

48 Helene E. Robert, Encyclopedia of Comparative Iconography: Themes Depicted in Works of Art

(Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1998): 919.

49 Mireille M. Lee, Body, Dress and Identity in ancient Greece (New York: Cambridge University

Press, 2015): 144.

wooden stick (named as may pole) was prepared (mainly from birch, cypress or elm

tree) and adorned with flowers, branches and colored ribbons. These poles were

carried by dancers who performed around a tree to make sure abundance. Similarly

pole decorated with garlands symbolized fruitfulness for the forthcoming summer and

harvest season. Maypole is identical to Herms or Hermai, a pillar (indicated upper

body of god and life-force). It was positioned at sideways in ancient Roman eras.

Herm was a figure of richness and fertility. During May, it was decorated with

garlands where people offer sacred donations to it. This element was imbibed by

Romans from paganist rituals in Italy. 50

In ancient Greece, one day before may festival, people gathered fresh flowers from

their gardens and make festoons which they placed on their doors to welcome may.

They also add fruits and foliage along with garlic (to protect from evil eye) in making

wreaths. Garlic was constantly used as it was deemed to protect from wicked eyes and

opponents. 51

Beltane Celebration

Beltane or garland day celebration is one of among four main Celtic celebrations i.e

Beltane, samhain, ughnasahd and imbolc. In ancient celtic time, Beltane festival was

usually held before changing of calendar in May. In May, flowers were plenty to be

used for making May day garlands. The purpose of Beltane celebration was to say

goodbye to winter and welcome to summer. It was a conviction that summer brings

fertility and life to the world. Later on Belatane or garland day was then evolved into

May day festivals held on 1st May. Another common May day celebration is

associated with queen maya who is honored on that day and join by a group of little

girls carrying garlands. 52

50 Raven, Grimassi, Spirit of the Witch: Religion and Spiriuality in Contemprory Witchcraft (USA:

Llewellyn worldwide st.paul Publishers, 2003): 39-41.

51

Christian. Roy, Traditionl Festivals: A Multicultural Encyclopedia, Vol.1 (California: ABC-CLIO

Inc., 2005): 281.

52

Ibid (2003): 39-41.

Symposia (social gathering)

In Greek culture, drinking and eating together in the evening was an essentially a

religious and social event. Such gathering had specific rules in a sacred manner for

instance, guests after finishing dinner were offered with garlands, and subsequently

sacred offering was performed as the host put some drops of wine on ground,

Afterwards song or chant was sung to begin drinking process. Indications of such

gathering scenes are depicted on pottery, vases and wares, etc. 53

The spiritual aspect of such gathering was to bring veneration to Greek gods such as

Dionysus (god of wine), Zeus Soter (god of safety), Apollo (god of music), Hygieia

(goddess of health) and Agathos Daimon (god of prosperity and abundance). 54

Romans trade marketing of gardening was primarily depended on large scale

selling of garlands, perfumes and flowers which were extended from small towns

such as Delos, Paestum and Pompeii to the big cities.55

53

Robert Garland, Daily Life of Ancient Greeks, 2nd

Edition (London: Green Wood Press, 2009): 146.

54

John Wilkins & Robin Nadeau, A Companion to Food in The Ancient World (United Kingdom: John

Wiley and Sons, 2015): 234, 235,171.

55

John Wilkins & Robin Nadeau, A Companion to Food in The Ancient World (United Kingdom:

John Wiley and Sons, 2015): 234, 235,171.

Figure 4 Red attic figure vase depicting symposium scene from Greek (490-480 BCE),

Representing guest garlanded with floral wreath and reclining on couch. He is holding flute in one

and giving other hand to the dancer.1

Marriage Ceremonies

Garlands has abundant historical importance in Greek and Roman weddings.

Brides were adorned with garlands of orange flowers to signify self denial, peace

and love. Similarly freshly married couples were adorned with garland of

marjoram herb (symbol of gratification) and myrtle to ensure matrimonial

harmony, love and happiness which god has bestowed upon them. Garlands were

also used as decorations at wedding receptions.56

Panhellenic Games

In ancient Greece, athletic games played an important role to build peace and

harmony between Greek nationals living round the world. In Greek society, such

physical activities were thought as profoundly linked with the training of soul and

mental health. Such games had sacred purpose of uniting all Greeks to consolidate

their ideology, self realization and patriotism. Sports were played in large stadiums

with a reservation of sacred areas at Delphi, Nemea, Isthmus, and Olympia. The

only prize for victorious was floral garland which signified champion‟s honor and

attainment of endless prestige as well as integrity for his city. Different forms of

wreaths were received according to the venue where games were held. For

56 Roberta Wilson, Aromatherapy: Essential oils for Vibrant Health and Beauty (New York:

Penguin Putnam INC., 2002): 91, 98.

Figure 5 Ancient Greek myrtle garland (330-225 BCE), which signified love and adoration. Myrtle was a

signatory plant of Aphrodite (goddess of love and beauty). 1

example at Olympia, victor received olive crown, laurel wreath at Delphi, pine

crest at Isthmus and wild celery at Nemea.57

Greeks assumed that all success and

prestige comes from gods. God of victory and success was personified as Nike

(Greek word meaning victory). Nike (a feathered lady) acted as a messenger from

god who sent her on earth to bestow winner participant with celestial wreath (as

divine blessings showers over selected person in the form of a garland). 58

Carneia (Greek Karneios)

Among Greeks, Carneia was a significant religious celebration which was

primarily practiced by dorean (language) speaking people in Greek. The festival

occurred during month of August. In this celebration, a young man was fully

adorned with garlands and other five men (known as karneatai) selected from each

clan. Accordingly person crowned with garlands was supposed to run and rest of

five had to surpass him. Accomplishment of task was considered good sign of the

times. 59

57 http://www.panhellenicgames.org/ancient_greece/index.html, Retrieved: 06.03.2016.

58

http://www.olympic.org/documents/reports/en/en_report_658.pdf, Retrieved: 07.03.2016.

59

Jacob E. Safra, Encyclopedia of World Religions (Chicago: Britannica Encyclopedia, INC.,

2008): 184.

Figure 6 Red attic figure representing Nike crowning an athlete with

garland of olives.1

http://www.panhellenicgames.org/ancient_greece/index.html

http://www.olympic.org/documents/reports/en/en_report_658.pdf

Animal Sacrifice

Greeks believed in anthropomorphic nature of gods who acted like human beings.

For them the ultimate endeavor of honoring their gods was sacrifice. They assumed

that sacrifice will bring their all wishes come true and will produce a strong

bonding between a believer and god. 60

For Greeks animal sacrifice formed a unique bonding between god (the eternal and

infinite), man (temporal and dutiful to the will of god) and animal (a source of

man‟s worship to his god). Strict rules were followed throughout sacrifice in

which the animal was adorned with flower garlands and brought in front of the

altar. After that a priest recite prayer, to declare the purpose of sacrifice and begin

the process. According to the Greek philosopher Theophrastus, the Greeks had

three goals of sacrificing animals to their gods, i.e.

1. To worship and show appreciation.

2. To bring veneration.

3. To get approval from gods.61

Adventus (Traditional entrance of Hellenistic royals)

60 Richard Bulliet, The Earth and Its People: A Global History, 6

th edition (Stamford: Cengage

Learning, 2014): 127.

61 Carroll Moulton, Ritual and Sacrifice in Ancient Greece and Rome: An Encyclopedia for Students,

Vol. 3 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1998): 178-180.

Figure 7 Roman relief sculpture (1st CE), portraying bull crowned with garland for sacrifice. 1

The adventus ceremonial was a most special custom to welcome the emperors

when they entered their territory. The ritual got more inspiration during reign of

king Augustus and was strictly regulated to the royal families. When the emperors

were supposed to arrive, whole city was decorated with fresh flowers and other

decorations. The town‟s personages welcomed kings at city gateways by honoring

them with floral garlands and olive wreaths. 62

Memorial of Dead

Celebration of dead was regularly practiced in Roman times and for this purpose,

different festivals (both regular and irregular) were arranged such as Rosalia (rose)

occurred once a year for the commemoration of dead, during which family

members and relatives of departed gathered at mausoleum and covered his\her

grave with roses. They believed that after death body becomes united with an

undistinguishable class who is decent as divine spirits, So they honored them like

heavenly beings. Another fixed commemoration was parentalia that occurred

between 13th

to 21st of Febuary. In parentlia, family members organized a small

gathering on the last day of festival (on 21st Febuary) and next day they arranged

feralia (a community ritual) on 22nd

Febuary. On that day, a large feast was

arranged to honor the deceased and express reverence by offering him garlands of

flowers, wheat grains, fruits, salt and bread. Such events were arranged only by

rich families in Rome. 63

Tomb Decoration

In Greek, ritual of tomb adornment was a regular custom for showing reverence

and honor to the departed fellow of family. The person who should responsible for

the decoration of tomb must be father. Unmarried or male with no children could

not do such activity. Thus male members of family were responsible to transmit the

tradition to generations. Therefore family members presented donations to the

62 Michael Gagarin & Elaine Fantham, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Vol.1

(New York: Oxford University Press, 2010): 123.

63 Ibid (2010): 366-367.

deceased that involved a large banquet at mausoleum, embellishment of tomb with

garlands and offerings of honey and milk.64

Ritual of Crowning

Crowns of garland were widely used for several edications in classical times. Priest

worn them while performing rituals. Whereas guest participating at symposium

were offered with floral wreaths. Such crowns were constantly awarded as a crest

of distinction to competitors in Olympics, artists, poets and debaters. It became a

sign of virtue in other zones as well, For example circlets of garlands was granted

to the state and was repeatedly acknowledged and offered by opponents in warfare

soon when Alexander the great died. Later on garland became a precious article

that it was required at any cost. Usage of garlands were then adopted throughout

the byzantine era as a toll or fee. 65

Funerary Altars

64 John D. Mikalson, Ancient Greek Religion, 2

nd edition (United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell

Publishers, 2010): 127.

65

Nigel Wilson, Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece (New York: Routledge Publishers, 2006): 188.

Figure 8 Roman marble relief depicting death scene (late 1st century CE). The house is decorated with

garlands. Family members of the deceased are standing around and beating their chest.1

Both Greeks and Romans built funerary altars, where sacrifices were made to

pursue a right path and gain favor from gods. During Archaic and Hellenistic times

(600-323 BCE), maximum altars were fabricated of stones rarely erected in round

shape, but mostly had square and rectangular shapes. Altar‟s walls were made by

columns or cut slabs, the sides of which were usually decorated with both vertical

and horizontal columns, garlands and bucrania (animal skulls). Similarly both

outer and inner walls were adorned with reliefs and regular friezes which depicts

religious practices. Bondaries of such reliefs (depicting ritualistic scenes) were

adorned with libation bowls and heavely loaded garlands of fruits and flowers

supported by animal skulls or bucrania. While façades were decorated with

acanthus rolls which signified abundance carried by king Augustus in Rome. In

imperial times, altars were richly embellished with garlands hanging from animal‟s

head, jugs, bowls and other instruments used in sacrificial procession.66

depicting funerary altar excessively adorned with fruit garlands and herbs which

indicates Augustus prosperity and peace on public memorials. Garlands are

attached to animal‟s head. In centre engraved an eagle bird of Jupitar while at

corners are carved swan birds of Apollo. Representation of these birds on altar is

acquainted with Augustan memorials. 1

66 Michael Gagarin & Elaine Fantham, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Vol. 1

(New York: Oxford University Press, 2010): 81,83,149.

Figure 9 Roman stone sculpture from prompt Julio-Claudia era (14 CE-68 CE),

Garlands were extensively used for decorating commemorative altars, tombs and

roof supporting columns, For example wall decoration with laurel and fruit

garlands (suspended from bull‟s and ox‟s skulls) on the altar of Ara Pacis in Rome

that venerates prosperity acquired by Augustus to Rome (first ruler of Rome).

Objects of devotion affiliated with Dionysus (god of wine) were usually dangled

from garlands.67

lower relief depicting skeleton putting garland over his head with one hand and

holding cup of tea with other. The upper side of altar contains ashes and below is a

carved garland upon which is placed gorgon‟s head with horses on both sides. 68

Garland- a Symbolic Feature of Greek and Roman Gods

Daphne

According to Greek mythology, laurel plant whose leaves turned into garlands

were specified with embodiment of Apollo. A certain locus of this plant was

67 Nancy L.Thompson, Roman Art: A Resource for Educators (New York: The Metropolitan

Museum of Art, 2007): 177.

68

https://no.pinterest.com/pin/199354720981273575/, Retrieved: 12.03.2016.

Figure 10 Marble funerary altar of young child from Rome (ca 2nd CE). The

https://no.pinterest.com/pin/199354720981273575/

typically related with Daphne (daughter of peneus a river god). Apollo loves

Daphne, but she disallowed him and requested to Peneus (her father) to save her

upon which she was converted into laurel tree. 69

Daphne is transforming into laurel by god (shown with halo). 70

Apollo

In Greek legends, Apollo was considered god of music, poetry, knowledge and art.

Laurel tree is signified with Apollo as in Greek folklore, laurel signified victory in

war. For Romans, laurel denoted knowledge and glory, Therefore considering

laurel‟s association with Apollo and its significance, both Greeks and Roman had

woven garlands with laurel leaves and presented to victorious and exemplary

people at different occasions to symbolize their honor, wisdom, triumph and

bravery. Similarly they garlanded scholars, poets, debaters and artists with crowns

of laurel as a sign of blessing upon them from gods. Caesars in Rome crowned

themselves with laurel wreaths to rejoice victory after wars and invasions.71

69 Jacob. E. Safra, Encyclopedia of World Religions (Chicago: Britannica Encyclopedia, INC., 2008):

262.

70

http://www.theoi.com/Gallery/Z5.1.html, Retrieved: 11.03.2016.

71

Roberta Wilson, Aromatherapy: Essential oils for Vibrant Health and Beauty (New York, Penguin

Putnam INC., 2002): 85.

Figure 11 Mosaic figure from imperial Roman times (ca 2nd CE- ca 3rd CE

http://www.theoi.com/Gallery/Z5.1.html

Depicting Apollo seated on chair, holding libation bowl in one hand and playing

musical instrument with other hand. He is crowned with laurel garland and attended

by a crow on his left side. 72

Hyperborean

According to Greek legends, Hyperborean was a legendary group of people who

revered Apollo and Artemas. Those people had lifespan of one thousand years and

if anyone wanted to cut this long period, they simply covered their bodies with

garlands and jumped from high crags into the sea. 73

Consus

Consus was an ancient Roman deity of vegetation and stowage. Nature of Consus

was intangible. His festival consualia was celebrated during months of August and

72

http://www.theoi.com/Gallery/K5.2.html, Retrieved: 22.03.2016.

73

Jacob. E. Safra, Encyclopedia of World Religions (Chicago: Britannica Encyclopedia, INC.,2008):

483.

Figure 12 Athenian attic red figure dates back to 470 BCE

http://www.theoi.com/Gallery/K5.2.html

December. Throughout the festival, people gave relaxation to all horses and mules

from labor and were decked with garlands. 74

Consus was thought as protector of underground seeds. He was symbolized by

grains or seeds. On his commemoration, he was honored with offerings of

garlands, corn seeds and flowers.75

Nike

Nike was the central Greek deity of victory and fortune. She was principally valued

during hours of war, Olympic games and art. Throughout all those fields, she

indicates success. In ancient Greek art, Nike is depicted with wings and her

position signifies her forceful and transient character. Later on during archaic

period, she is depicted in vase paintings as messenger comparable to the Greek

goddess Iris. In art from 5th

century BCE, Nike is represented as armed with

weaponaries, showering sacred drinks over altars and bequeathing competitors and

soldiers with garlands. 76

Painting depicting Nike (goddess of victory) bestowing champion in olympics with

garland.77

74 Ibid (2008): 262.

75

http://www.thewhitegoddess.co.uk/divinity_of_the_day/roman/consus.asp, Retrieved:

01.03.2016.

76

Michael Gagarin and Elaine Fantham, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome,

Vol.1 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010): 63.

77

http://ritabay.com/2012/07/, Retrieved: 28.03.2016.

Figure 13 Greek vase

http://www.thewhitegoddess.co.uk/divinity_of_the_day/roman/consus.asp

http://ritabay.com/2012/07/

Aphrodite

Aphrodite was the Greek goddess of sensual love, charm, pleasure and fertility. She

was a daughter of zeus and sister of Apollo. According to Greek mythology,

Aphrodite is acknowledged by diverse titles, characters and myths. Although she

was regarded as divine source of temptation and desires. She was also worshipped

at highlands and seaport settlements where people made sacrifice of dove, sparrow,

geese and swans to her. Aphrodite is recognized by various features, i.e. ornaments,

garlands of flowers, scents and mirrors. 78

But the dominant feature which specified Aphrodite was myrtle (blessed plant

symbolized with love). Both Greeks and Romans adore myrtle as a divine symbol

of affection and eternal life.79

Myrtle garlands were dedicated to Aphrodite‟s temple. Its smell was deemed to

indicate attendance of goddess. Myrtle wreaths were also practiced in marriage

ceremonies as a ritual act where married couple was crowned with garland woven

with myrtle leaves.80

78 Monica S. Cyrino, Aphrodite (New York: Routledge Publishers, 2010): 03.

79

https://ferrebeekeeper.wordpress.com/tag/greek/, Retrieved: 28.03.2016.

80

Jeremy Tanner, The Invention of Art History in Ancient Greece: Religion, Society and Artistic

Rationalization (United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2006): 48.

Figure 14 Greek vase painting from late 5th BCE

https://ferrebeekeeper.wordpress.com/tag/greek/

Depicting Aphrodite riding on swan. She is flanked by two winged gods of love

(erotes) holding myrtle garlands. 81

Jewellery

Classical jewellery can be described with both Hellenic and Archaic themes mainly

influenced by artistic features of Asia Minor and Persia. After Persian conflicts, art

of making jewellery in Greek implemented simple techniques which before were

more figurative and gritty. Most popular among jewellery items in Greek and

Rome were gold wreaths which were made in shape of fruits, branches of olives,

ivy, myrtle, oak and laurel plant. Such gold garlands were worn in religious

ceremonies, funeral practices, social gatherings, and were honored as an award of

excellence, In addition wreaths were buried in graves along with body as a symbol

of honor and success in the struggle of life. Two samples of such gold wreaths

(dates back to late 4th

BCE) were found in tomb II at Vergina. 82

81

https://ferrebeekeeper.wordpress.com/tag/greek/, Retrieved: 28.03.2016.

82 Nigel Wilson, Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece (New York: Routledge Publishers, 2006): 396.

Figure 15 Greek gold olive wreath (4th century BCE) found at Vergina. 1


Discovered from the burial site of Lacrasta tomb. The gold is twisted in such a

manner to form flowers, scrolls and twigs. Colored glass was used in making flowers

and berries. Such kinds of headdresses were especially worn by women for decorative

purpose in Macedonia.83

Decorated with leaves adjacent to fruits and twigs of acanthus and laurel. Such gold

wreaths are known from funerals in Macedonia, Italy and Asia minor. Similarly gold

circlets of oak, laurel and myrtle were awarded to athletes and musicians as a sign of

honor were dedicated to tombs and holy sanctuaries.84

83 https://ferrebeekeeper.wordpress.com/tag/greek/, Retrieved: 14.03.2016.

84https://nordonart.wordpress.com/2012/03/26/serious-bling-antiquities-at-christies-in-london/,


Figure 16 Greek Gold wreath (3rd century BCE)

Figure 17 Gold wreath of myrtle from Greek (3rd-2nd century BCE).


https://nordonart.wordpress.com/2012/03/26/serious-bling-antiquities-at-christies-in-london/

Caduceus or Kerykeion

In Greek and Roman literature, Caduceus was an embodiment of harmony and

purity and symbolic feature of Greek‟s messenger Hermes and Roman‟s god

mercury (who carried it all the time to symbolize peace in his hand). Caduceus was

actually a V shaped staff of olive plant whose ends were loaded with garlands.

Later on those garlands took a shape of snakes tangled with their heads in opposite

directions. Latter caduceus became a mark of pro-claimers and representatives

indicative of their purity and sacredness. 85

85 Jacob. E Safra, Encyclopedia of World Religions (Britannica Encyclopedia, INC., 2008): 174.

Figure 19 Caduceus of Hermes which indicates two phases of Hermes’s attributes, i.e. descending stage

Figure 18 Roman gold commemorative garland dated to 1st-2nd century CE.

(Hermes role as a messenger of gods) and ascending stage (transmuting man from

one life to another).86

Depicting Hermes carrying caduceus and crowned with garland.1

Usage of Garland in Greek and Roman art

Art acted as a mirror of society for Greeks through which message of life was

conveyed in aesthetic manner. Mythological narratives, gods, heroes and immortals

were portrayed on pottery, paintings, sculptures, engravings, and other artifacts

prepared with gold, silver, ivory and glass. The purpose of those images was to

bring awareness about religious beliefs and to guide people so that they can build

association with the cult figure. 87

There is a close relationship between art and religion in Greek culture as those

sculptures were believed to enhance the connection between gods and men.

Dexterous artist in Greek applied aspects of naturalism (real depiction of life) and

realism (social awareness) to form a link between this world and divine

omniscience.88

86 https://no.pinterest.com/pin/556264991450444083/, Retrieved: 28.03.2016.

87

Tyler Jo Smith, A Companion to Greek Art (USA: John Wiley & Sons, Vol.1, 2012): 23.

88

Albert C. Moore, Iconography of Religion (London: SCM Press Ltd., 1977): 83.

Figure 20 Classical paestan red figure dated to 360-340 century BCE


Greek art has protected two thousand years which embrace assorted cultures and

legislative systems. It is basically based on anthropomorphic representation of gods

and heroes according to Greek mythology. Though Greek art was not just as art of

painting and sculptures, but it has played an important role in Greek way of life,

For example showing reverence to gods, venerating the deceased, representing

public self-respect and successes. Gods and goddesses were symbolized with

specific attributes. Similarly mythical scenes were used to recognize particular

divinities, For example there are twelve principle deities in Greek religion among

them Zeus (ruler of gods) is the leading one. The sacred symbols for Zeus were oak

tree and ox. Similarly for Apollo (god of music, poetry and art), owl and olive tree

were sacred, Hence all female and male gods were associated with various symbol

through which they could be recognized. 89

Throughout the classical age, inner walls of temples and other sanctuaries were

planned in such a manner as to develop wisdom of quality related with cult image.

Sculptures were molded with gold, ivory and marble to provide radiance (attribute

of gods). Although images of gods were not only acknowledged by their unusual

attractiveness, but aroma of incense burner, fragrances and floral garlands

(dedicated to temples) were regarded as a key source for the intervention between

gods and human beings. These items were used in temples to attract gods and

created a sweet-scented air which was an indication of god‟s presence.90

Garlands were devoted in sacred sanctuaries to welcome believers as they reached

the cult figure. As a result unseen powers of divine beings catch human senses and

suggested their experience towards religious practices which in turn make them

mentally and physically approachable.91

In Classical Athens, honouring worthy with dignitary portrayals (engraved with

garlands) was a common practice. Such gratification was honored to individuals

89 Marina Belozerskaya & Kenneth Lapatin, Ancient Greece: Art, Architechture and History (Los

Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2004): 6,17.

90

Jeremy Tanner, The invention of Art History in Ancient Greece: Religion, Society and Artistic

Rationalization (United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2006): 47.

91

Ibid (2006): 48.

for their social services. Such images were engraved with an epigraphical frame to

make them a monumental civic practice of everlasting impression. Adorer‟s name,

the honored and event of the ditinction were carved along with garlands in

chronological order. Popular examples include portraits of Chabrias (general of

Athens in 4th

century BCE) and Lykourgos (famous logographer in 4th

century

BCE) whose circlets were engraved as honorific depictions.92

Roman art did not developed in isolation rather it absorbed external influences

from Etruscan in north and Italy in south (which was occupied by the Greeks at

that time). Etruscan‟s artistic elements and ritual symbolism greatly influenced

Roman culture. This was due to Etruscans that Romans subjected to several

features of Greek ideals. 93

Roman art embraced a time span from 5th

century BCE

until 3rd

century CE in which it incorporated a wide range of materials including

marble, gems, gold, silver, mosaic, pottery, paintings, terracotta, bronze and

sculpture. The art is greatly influenced by Greek‟s artistic themes as Romans

revised their traditional standards and culture. Main theme of Roman art was to

generate a notion of an intellectual support saturated in cultural values through the

depiction of mythological episodes, narratives from the lives of heroes and

landscapes. Roman art enclosed both public and private lives which include

depiction of remarkable triumphs of the emperors, appreciation of worthy

individuals (in fields like games and poetry), war and military life, cult images,

tomb decorations, funerary altars and sacrophagi. 94

Earliest Roman art was an-iconic although anthropomorphic image formation get

introduced right after Greek conquest in southern Italy. Skillful artists implemented

Greek‟s artistic features of portraying gods. They integrated Greek and other

foreign deities in their religion. Such acceptance for other religions lead Romans

92 Ibid (2006): 122.

93

Nancy L.Thompson, Roman art:A Resource for Educators (New York: Metropolitan Museum of

Art, 2007): 18.

94www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/beginners-guide-

rome/a/introduction-to-ancient-roman-art, Retrieved: 29.03.2016.

http://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/beginners-guide-rome/a/introduction-to-ancient-roman-art


towards Roman-Celtic dieties, idols in sanctuaries, religious groups of Asia minor

and eastern world. 95

Among the decorative elements in art, garlands form a typical ornamental portion

in Roman paintings, sculptures and sacrophagi. This motif was widely used in

decoration of temple walls, sarcophagi, funerary altars as well as interior of houses

and administrative buildings. Garlands were carved with fruits and vegetables

entwined with leaves and herbs like a ribbon. These garlands were sometimes

carried by erotic figures or fastened with animal skulls. 96

Roman artists carved friezes in their temples similar to that of used in Greek.

Friezes were engraved with decorative motifs, e.g sequence of garlands carried by

cupids or hanged from bucrania (ram or bull‟s skull). Such decorated garlands can

be widely observed on temple walls, honorific portraits, funerary altars, sacrphagi,

jewellery and pottery, For example the temple walls of Portunus (120 BCE) were

decorated with flower and fruit garlands (tied to animal skulls) and carried by

young boys. Similarly the holy sanctuary of Vesta (1st century BCE) is decorated

with ornaments, libation bowls and garlands attached to ox‟s skull. Likewise the

inner walls of funerary altar of Augustus were decorated with garlands supported

by ox‟s skulls celebrating peacetime brought by Augustus in Rome. 97

Representation of Garland in Antique Art (Greece and Rome)

95 Albert C. Moore, Iconography of Religion (London: SCM Press Ltd., 1977): 95.

96

Nancy L.Thompson, Roman art:A Resource for Educators ( New York: Metropolitan Museum of

Art, 2007): 124.

97

Michael Gagarin & Elaine Fantham, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Vol.1

(New York: Oxford University Press, 2010): 177, 256.

Showing cupid holding garland of fruits and flowers adjacent to disastrous faces.98

Representing cupids bearing garlands of oak leaves. The space between the garlands

is filled by the Medusa‟s heads and in the centre there is a blank tablet for writing.

Displayed in the met museum, Acc. no. 70.1.99

Fig.23: Interior wall of Roman altar Ara Pacis Augustae (13 century BCE),

portraying acanthus garland with fruits. The initials of garland are tied to bucrania

or animal skulls. 100

98

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/354799276865180207/, Retrieved: 12.03.2016.

99 http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/images/h5/h5_90.12a,b.jpg, Retrieved: 12.03.2016.

Figure 21 Roman sarcophagus frieze from Rome dated 130-40 CE

Figure 22 Marble sarcophagus from Rome (200-225 CE),

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/354799276865180207/

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/images/h5/h5_90.12a,b.jpg

Adorned with heavy garlands surrounding the figures representing the Greek legend

of Theseus and Ariadne. 101

The chamber is decorated with naked boys holding heavy garlands (displaying real

drapes of leaves and fruits) which shows reverence to the dead. Displayed in

Walter art gallery, Acc. no 23.29.102

100 http://web.mit.edu/course/21/21h.402/www/arapacis/inside.html, Retireved: 19.03.2016.

101 http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/images/h5/h5_90.12a,b.jpg, Retrieved: 12.03.2106

Figure 23 Roman sarcophagi (130-150 CE)

Figure 24 Depicting burial chamber in Licinian tomb from Rome dated 150-180 CE

http://web.mit.edu/course/21/21h.402/www/arapacis/inside.html


Representing cupids bearing garlands of oak leaves. The space between the garlands

is filled by the Medusa‟s heads and in the centre there is a blank tablet for writing.

Displayed in the met museum, Acc. no. 70.1.1

Displayed in Museo Nazionale Romano, Inv.441.103

102

http://www.learn.columbia.edu/treasuresofheaven/relics/Garland-Sarcophagus.php, Retrieved:

13.03.2016.

103 http://www.jstor.org/stable/20169132?seq=6#page_scan_tab_contents, Retrieved: 13.03.2016.

Figure 25 Marble sarcophagus from Rome (200-225 CE),

Figure 26 Garland sarcophagus from Licenian tomb (76-138 CE)

http://www.learn.columbia.edu/treasuresofheaven/relics/Garland-Sarcophagus.php

http://www.jstor.org/stable/20169132?seq=6#page_scan_tab_contents

Depicting erotic figures holding up garland of fruits along with a large gorgon‟s head

(signifying a Greek magical necklace). 104

From Roman civilization, representing naked genius holding neighboring garlands

indicating seasonal changes, i.e. starting from right side, displaying flowers indicating

spring, corn (summer), fruits (autumn), and olives (winter). These garlands have

104

http://www.gettyimages.no/detail/photo/naked-genius-holding-up-garland-and-large-high-res-

stock-photography/479643287, Retrieved: 13.03.2016.

Figure 27 Relief from Roman burial chamber at monumental cemetery Pisa, Italy (120-125 CE),

Figure 28 Marble sarcophagi (mid 2nd CE)

http://www.gettyimages.no/detail/photo/naked-genius-holding-up-garland-and-large-high-res-%20%20%20stock-photography/479643287

http://www.gettyimages.no/detail/photo/naked-genius-holding-up-garland-and-large-high-res-%20%20%20stock-photography/479643287

surrounded legendary episodes from life of Romulus and Remus (founders of Rome),

who seems caught by wolf. Acc. no 11.7 displayed in Michael C. Carlos Museum of

Emory University. 105

105 http://carlos.emory.edu/COLLECTION/CLASSIC/classic06.html, Retrieved: 13.03.2016.

Figure 29 Roman garland sarcophagus (140-170 century CE). 1

Figure 30 Detail of Hephaistos’s (Greek deity of craftsman) return to the Olympus.

http://carlos.emory.edu/COLLECTION/CLASSIC/classic06.html

He is depicted wearing garland, riding on donkey with holding sledgehammer and

pincers in his hands. The image is painted over red attic figure in Greek dated to 430-

420 BCE. It is displayed in Toledo museum of art. 106

All of them (performers) are represented wearing wreaths, which indicate ritualistic

importance of music.107

106 http://www.theoi.com/Gallery/K7.1.html, Retrieved: 22.03.2016.

107www.gettyimages.no/detail/illustration/vase-with-cultic-scene-with-musicians-by-nikias-painter-

stock-graphic,Retrieved: 22.03.2016.

Figure 31 Red attic figure Pot depicting ritualistic act by musicians in ancient Greek civilization (4th century

BCE).

Figure 32 Roman mosaic (2nd century CE) depicting women wearing laurel garland on her shoulder

and floral circlet on head. 1


http://www.gettyimages.no/detail/illustration/vase-with-cultic-scene-with-musicians-by-nikias-painter-stock-graphic


Depicting naked child with garland round his\her belly. He\she is crawling with

his\her right hand struggling to catch something. It is said that the child is trying to get

his\her chorus (a gift presented to them in festival of Cohen held in February). 108

Greek society was male dominated in which women were not allowed to participate in

public life. They were limited to attend holy festivals and get together at home. 109

108 http://edgarlowen.com/greek-red-figure-pottery.shtml, Retrieved: 20.03.2016.

Figure 33 Greek oil jars from 5th century BCE

Figure 34 Classical vase painting depicting Greek women’s gathering who all are crowned with garlands.

http://edgarlowen.com/greek-red-figure-pottery.shtml

Depicting Roman god accepting wreath from Nike and a festoon from a hawk. 110

109http://uncouthreflections.com/2014/03/30/a-day-in-the-life-of-an-ancient-athenian-citizen/,


110

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/526780487639770107/, Retrieved: 31.03.2016.

Figure 35 Roman Caesar Augustus (27 century BCE-14 century CE) Crowned with laurel garland. 1

Figure 36 Roman carnelian intaglio (100 century CE)

http://uncouthreflections.com/2014/03/30/a-day-in-the-life-of-an-ancient-athenian-citizen/


Figure 38 Glass ware bowl from Rome (late 1st century BCE), decorated with garlands attached to white

thread. 1

Figure 37 Roman sarcophagus at Ara Pacis depicting frieze carved with garlands supported by cow’s head.

Depicting Dionysus‟s panther (hops in the air) adorned with garland.111

From sarcophagi. It represents Eros bearing a huge leafy garland. 112

111


112


Figure 39 Roman stucco plate (early imperial, 2nd half of 1st century CE)

Figure 40 Roman marble relief section (late 2nd-3rd century CE)



Depicting emperor in soldierly costume carrying garland in his hand. 113

Depicting naked boys holding garland of fruits and flowers. 114

113 https://no.pinterest.com/pin/413979390720121676/, Retrieved: 02.04.2016.

114


Figure 41 Roman marble relief (300 century CE)

Figure 42 Roman wine cup (50-25 century BCE)



Chapter 3

Evidence of Garland Depiction in Gandhara

Introduction

The Buddhist of Gandhara region has given great status to garland bearer

considering them as a cult object. These garland bearers were depicted with the

stupas and relic casket in Buddhist community. Large panels of garlands were

signifying the ritual act. The most famous motif is the Putto and garland that

have been discovered from religious sites in the world. Different archaeological

sites have been excavated in Europe and Asia Minor. In the beginning of

Christian era, we find the popularity of these decorative motifs in Buddhist art

of Gandhara. Later, it was incorporated in Hindu festivals in which huge ropy

garlands were used. The Gandharan type of garland is found in shape of Putti

with fleshy characteristic; sometimes it is depicted with bracelet, necklaces and

ear-pendants.115

The Gandharan relief of Putti in the Missouri Museum in Colombia is believed

as Mediterranean tool of decoration which was transferred to Asia by Alexander

in his campaign. The putti and garland got great status in Buddhists community

for decorating shrines. This motif finds it origin in Greco-Roman art.116

Before the arrival of Kushan to Gandhara region the Greek art was well well-

known in Bactria. Later on Kushans imitated this tool in their art. The Kushans

were good in art and they brought and introduced putto and garlands in

Gandhara region. These motifs have been discovered in two Kushans sites in

Bactria: Khalchyn, and Surkh Kotal. It was located to the Oxus River which

joins Bactria with Gandhara region. Another example of this motif is found

115 Abdur Rahman, “Garland Bearer Relief from Shrine C at Butkara III Swat, Lahore Museum

Bulletin, 1 (Lahore: Lahore Museum, 1995): 5.

116 Carol Altman, Bromberg, The Putto and Garland in Asia, Bulletin of the Asia Institute,

Vol.2 (1988):67.

from the site of Shortorak some 4 km north of Begram which is the residence of

Kanishka. These forms of motifs are considered as the Greco-Roman world of

art.

We find the use of Putto and garland motifs in Gandhara and it was very

common throughout the region. One can find these motifs in Buddhists sites in

Gandhara region. The most famous sites are, Butkara III, Chatpat, Shah-Ji-Ki-

Dheri and Kunala Monastery at Taxila. The Gandharan nature motifs has also

been found at Miran.117

There are different forms of garlands discovered from various stupas in

Gandhara region some of them will be discussed in this study such as;

Butkara III

The Buddhist site of Butkara III is located in Swat valley, and it was first

discovered by Abdur Rahman. Later excavation was conducted under the

supervision of Rahman in 1982 to 1985 at Butkara site. The site consists of

Monastery and stupa that is divided by a small Narey Khwar (Stream). The

stupa has been divided into two portions a covered area to the north, and

courtyard comprised to south-east. There are cells in the covered area and each

cell has façade, and entrance constructed with diaper masonry. These cells have

stupas in the courtyard area. On the basis of stratigraphic analysis of structural

remains and the use of masonry, the site has been divided into four phases. The

phase 1 is assigned to Pre-Soter Megas and from phase II coins of Soter Megas

have been collected. In phase III coins of Vasudeva has reported. While the last

phase did not yield a single evidence of coins and labelled as post-Vasudeva

period.

The garland bearers reported from Butkara III are divided into four categories

on the basis of their style and representation. In Group 1, floral garland is

carried by amorini (naked figures) on their shoulders upon which birds are

117 Abdur Rahman, Garland Bearer Relief from Shrine C at Butkara III Swat, Lahore Museum

Bulletin, 1 (Lahore: Lahore Museum, 1995): 6-7.

sitting. Group 2 consists of a garland is depicted supported by amorini. While in

the loops of garlands are shown winged figures. Moreover, the upper portion of

the panel is decorated with lion‟s head. Garlands of group 3 are mixture of

garlands in group 1 and 2 but well sophisticated than group 2. Here winged

cupid figures are indicated seated in the loops of garland. The last and 4th

group

represents putto carrying garland and human figure holding something in his

hand.118

Consequently, four phases of Butkara site are described as follows;.

Group 1 (Pre Soter Megas)

There are 14 wells preserved panels illustrating the putto and garland in Shrine

C at Butkara III which can be dated to the reign of Kanishka 1 (king of Kushan

dynasty). Kanishka 1 was greatly influenced by the Buddhist dogma. Under his

rule, panels on the drum of stupa were decorated with garland motif. The panels

were equal in size of about 35 cm in height. Only one panel size is 22 cm.

Garlands carried by naked figures are thick and large in their character The putti

show holding tassel and in another image, putto looks behind instead holding

tuft. The gesture of putti in relief has shown carrying garland, moving to left

hand side that displays the Putti movement around stupa. The garlands are

decorated with cordon having moving ends. The other decorative patterns are

dot and band patterns, meeting lanceolate leaves, olive branches, pipal leaves,

and rosettes.

In other relief putti has been shown as a lively character and the fleshy bodies

were decorated with necklaces, bracelets, and anklets. There are reliefs that

show they held in their hands, a bird, bunch of flowers, palm branch, tail of a

bird, musical instrument, and a bowl. The most attractive relief is long tailed

parrots seated on an inverted lotus flower.119

118M. Farooq, Swati, Garland Bearer Reliefs from Butkara III Swat, A Research Bulletin of

National Heritage Foundation Peshawar, 1 (1997): 115-116.

119 Abdur Rahman, Garland Bearer Relief from Shrine C at Butkara III Swat, Lahore Museum

Bulletin, 1 (Lahore: Lahore Museum, 1995): 7-8.

Group 2 (Soter Megas Era)

The second group consists of a relief of panel showing garland bearers with

representations of lion‟s head from right to left. The heads are separated by

honey suckle and rosette. Another relief depicting two putti carrying laurel

garlands on their shoulder. The two cupids and a winged figure in the trough

might be deva, or putti looking forward. The winged figure sits on lotus flower

wearing loose garment. There are wreaths, clusters of flower and grapes hang

from the manger of garland. The lion and a winged figure on lotus are

considered as the Greek element in Gandharan art. There is close similarity

between the head of lion from Butkara I and Butkara III. This motif from

Butkara I is dated to the end of 1st century BCE.

Figure 43 Schist panel depicting cupids holding huge floral garland.

Figure 44 stone relief panel representing garland

Heavily loaded with foliage and bunches of grapes upon which flying figure is seated

with hands clasping in adoration. The garland is supported by amorini on both sides.1


There has been discovered relief from the Stupa No. 1, which depicts the cupid

winged figure inclined forward. The figure carries a branch in his right hand and

keeps left hand on hip. The hips of figure touch the left end of garland, and

there is cord below his heels. This twisted cord has been held by putti to left in

his left hand. The putti and cupid figure are nude in the panel and it is belied

that there is resemblance in terms of decoration with the group 1 garland

relief.120


There are two examples of relief fragments discovered from the Stupa No.10,

which shows the fourth group of garland bearers. There is no bird and winged

figure depicted in the trough of garland, but we find a female figure with loose

garments and ear pendants. She holds in her right hand an object which might

be bunch of flowers. A putto is presented in relief lifting the garland on his right

shoulder. He wears bracelets, necklaces, anklets, and ear pendants. In second

example, a female figure is depicted from the trough of garland wearing tunic,

120 Ibid(1997): 119

Figure 45 Relief of stupa showing flying figure and cupid with garland.

ear rings and has round haircut. The figure has pointed hair dress and bow or

harp in her right hand. The putti figure is unclothed, but he wears bracelet and

necklace. He has object in his right hand and it could be a stick.121

.

121

Ibid (1997): 120

Figure 46 Depicting cupid holding massive garland of foliage and twigs in the loops of which

is depicted a female figure holding fruits in her hand

Figure 47 Broken piece from sculpture of garland bearer at stupa relief.

Chatpat

Chatpat is the name of small village located on Dir and Chakdara road. The

Chatpat Buddhist site is located to the edge of Khwar and its height is not more

than 55 feet. From this corner one can see the Swat River and the greenery

around site. The site was changed to cultivated fields by the natives and the

stones of stupa were used for construction. The architectural and sculpture

remains were scattered on the slop of site. The excavation team under the

leadership of Ahmed Hassan Dani laid five trenches at the site where less

disturbance has been observed. During course of excavation the team unearthed

the stupas. They observed three main periods at Chatpat site.

The occupation of site begins with paved floor in front of stupas. Pottery

collected from the site belongs to Scytho-Parthian and early Kushan period. The

Kharoshti inscription confirms that it was inhabited in the late 1st century A.D.

From period II they have reported five votive stupas in one direction, but it was

difficult to assign chronology to these discovered materials. There is stupa

exposed in this period which was quiet similar to Damkot and Andhan Dheri

stupas. On the basis of comparative study of stupa with above archaeological

sites is dated to 4th

century A.D.122

Garland Bearers

There are several examples of garland bearer depiction from votive stupa No.2,

at Chatpat site. One can observe a balanced pattern in the decoration of

garlands. The garland bearers are dresses in long robe and divided into two

groups. The figures in the first group face each other having similar dress. In

second group the figures are looking at each other having fruits in their hands.

There are two birds sitting on the garland and two winged figures stand between

them. The winged figure holding a garland and the second one holding water

skin on the shoulder and cup in hand. 123

122 Ahmad Hassan, Dani, Excavation at Chatpat, Ancient Pakistan, Vol.4 (1968-69):65-67.

123

Ibid (1968-69): 88-89.

Shah-Ji-ki Dheri

The site of Shah-Ji-ki Dheri is located at Lahore gate of Peshawar. It was

documented by Alexander Cunningham from Chines text sources. At this site,

Kanishka (Kushan king) erected great stupa. Later excavations have been

conducted by C.A Crompton in 1875 and detected that there is no such remain

of stupa at the site. Later on H. Hargreaves and David Brainerd Spooner carried

out excavation from 1908 to 1911. The excavations have given fruitful results

and a stupa was discovered that confirmed the Chines pilgrim‟s description. The

discovery was the Kanishka relic casket from the site which is decorated with

garland bearers.124

The garland bearer and the figure of putti can be found throughout Gandhara

region. It has great value in the Buddhists community and such type of garland

bearer has found on Kanishka relic casket. There is royal person depicted in a

loose garment and behind this figure is garland holding by undressed garland

bearers. There is young figure on the casket that picks thorn from his foot. This

gesture was very common in the Gandhara region.

124Hans, Loeschner, The Stupa of Kushan Emperor Kanishka the great, with Comments on Azes

Era and Kushan Chronology (USA: Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations University

of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, 2012): 4-5.

Figure 48 Garland bearers from Chatpat

Kunala Stupa

The Kunala stupa is located in Taxila valley. The Chinese pilgrim described it

in his traveling accounts. The stupa was erected by the great Mauryan king

Ashoka to commemorate the birth of his son Kunala. Chinese pilgrim Hsuan

Tsang has described the stupa reaching to 100 feet in height and is located to the

north and south of Taxila city. According to him, blind people visited the stupa

and their sights were restored. The stupa was built on huge rectangular base that

stretches 65 feet from east to west and 100 feet to the north and south.

Correspondingly monastery is located to the west of stupa. It is in semi ashlar

style. The height of monastery is 13 feet to 14 feet comprises of two courts. The

large court is located to its south while the smaller one lies to its north. John

Marshall has assigned this stupa to 3rd

or 4th

century CE.125

There are two types of garland bearers reported from relief panels of Kunala

Stupa, for example a decorated panel representing garland carried by undressed

figures. There garlands are depicted winged bust and birds nibbling grapes. One

can see the angel with garland and winged figure behind this huge garland.

125 John Marshall, A Guide to Taxila (Calcutta: Superintendent Printing, 1918): 59-64.

Figure 49 illustration of relic casket donated by king Kanishka at Shah-Ji-Ki-Dheri. The

casket is decorated with depictions of garland bearers.1

Figure 50 Panel relief representing garland of fruits carried by cherubs.

Celestial figures are depicted standing behind the garland. On the right side, children

are playing with the bunch on grapes whereas on the other side, birds are depicted

pecking grapes.126

Other fragment indicates three putti holding a garland of foliage. There

depicted a putti holding mug in his left hand and deva in the pose of adoration.

There are cluster of grapes hang from garland and in the loops are depicted

parrots.

Figure 51 Panel depicting putti holding garland.127

126 Patricia Eichenbaum, Karetzky, The Image of the Winged Celestial and Its Travels Along

the Silk Road, Sino Platonic Papers, 225 (2012):17.

127 Carol Altman, Bromberg, The Putto and Garland In Asia, Bulletin of the Asia Institute,

Jamal Garhi

The site of Jamal Garhi is located in district Mardan Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa,

Pakistan. The Buddhist remains covered the top of hill some 500 feet high from

earth surface. The style of building and many other features are similar to

Takht-i- Bahi site located some 8 kilometers from it. It was first discovered by

Cunningham in 1852. He unearthed head of Buddha and a large stupa was

surrounded by chapels. It is believed that it was Buddhist Monastery from 1st

century CE to 5th

century CE.128

Garland Bearers at the site of Jamal Garhi

The amorini with anklet is always depicted on the stupa walls of Jamal Garhi.

Here the garland is taken by amorini on his right shoulder and holding bracelet

in his left hand. There is a winged figure holding vessels in both hands, and

amorini in motion to his left carrying garland on shoulder. The hand of cupid is

revealed holding an object and the winged figure plays the flute.

Garlands excavated at this site are categorized into two types, i.e. a garland

designed with leaf patterns while other consist of warped decorations and

rolling reliefs between plain groups.

Another panel shows that an amorini with bracelets supporting garland on his

shoulder He is accompanied by winged figure to his right side. The flying figure

displayed resting on the garland and holding cup in his hand. An amorini

wearing bracelet and necklace is depicted standing behind the garland and two

winged figures one is beating drum with his left hand while other is playing

128

Alexander,Cunningham, Report for the Year 1872-73, Vol.5 (Calcutta: Calcutta

superintendent printing, 1875): 46-47.

flute. In other panel depiction, a cupid is standing behind the garland and

waving his right hand and his left arm rests on his knee.129

129

A, Zwalf, A Catalogue of Gandhara Stone Sculptures in British Museum (London: The

British Museum Press, 2, 1996): 15.

Figure 53 garland bearer.

Figure 52 garland bearer from Jamal Garhi

Chapter 4

Ritual use of Garlands in Gandhara Buddhism

Buddhism was initiated in Gandhara like other religions, Hinduism, Christianity, and

Islam. Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. His followers viewed him as an

awakened personality who gave the transcendent way of life. Buddhist practices are

divided into three main disciplines, i.e. Hinayana (small vehicle), Mahayana (great

vehicle), and Vajrayana (diamond vehicle). These disciplines have diverse beliefs and

practices.130

Buddhism can be defined as an “atheistic” religion in which we do not find an idea of

ultimate god. Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. He was a religious teacher who

attained nirvana (enlightenment) after undertaking several years of meditation.

Buddhists believe that through his spiritual teachings, they can get freedom from the

cycle of birth and rebirth and all sufferings. Some Buddhist traditions consider

Buddha as god and worship him.131

Buddhist Ritual Practices

Rituals were an important part in Buddhist way of life from the time of Buddha. The

purpose of performing rituals were to reinforce people‟s association with the dharma

(cosmic law) and to bring thoughtful awareness of objectives, admiration and realistic

aspects associated with the dharma. There are numbers of ritual practices in

Buddhism which involve going for religious mission, paying honor to the Buddha.

They admire Buddhist educators with flowers, fruits, incense, lamps, garland,

practicing charity, performing religious ceremonies, recitation of prayers and chants at

stupa, funeral practices, wedding ceremonies, commencements and dedications. Such

rituals were strongly endorsed to make connection with what is sacred, to offer

130

http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/tree-enlightenment.pdf, Retrieved:12.06.2016.

131 Faith and Philosophy of Buddhism (Delhi: V.S. Bhaskar, Kalpaz Publications, 2004): 63.

http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/tree-enlightenment.pdf

blessings, to make a commitment, to pay homage, to identify initiation of something,

to enable tolerance and settlement and to collect wisdom and knowledge.132

Historical Background for the Usage of Garland in Gandhara

Gandhara region is regarded as a melting point of diverse religions because, it has

been exposed to foreign invasions from prehistoric times. The region was first

inhabited by Dravadians and then Aryans in 2nd

century BCE. Literary evidence

indicates the ritualistic use of aromatics and flowers for self maintenance and

decoration. Sanskrit book Manasollasa mentions the ingredients of fragrant body oils

made by mixing of different flower extracts, e.g jasmine with sesam oil, cardamon,

saffron or clove. Fragrances were very common in Indian culture as they use them in

different forms such as making garlands and perfumes for performing rituals and for

beautification. Classical text Mahabharata held that the highest goddess showed

herself as fragrance of earth. In Hindu society garlands or rasamala were used both

for religious and secular purposes. Sacred text Ramayana refers to the use of garlands

as women‟s adornment (specially made of lotus and jasmine flowers) while men wore

garlands particularly in the bedroom. Correspondingly garlands were presented to

honor guests and used as a gift during betrothal ceremony as well as exchanged

between bride and groom at marriage ceremony, Thus there was spiritual, sensual and

many aspects of using flowers along with their ritualistic use.133

Ritualistic acts in

Hinduism has great stimulus over Buddhist customs. Although these acts were mostly

associated with paying reverence and devotion to Buddha. Among them the donation

of perfumes, garlands, music and dance are likely implemented. Garlands and aromas

are regarded as universal offerings to Buddha which show an important role to the

cult. Similarly laymen wear perfumes and garlands to feature the sovereignty to

Buddha. Such offerings are regarded as an excellent object of devotion that brings

harmony and contentment among people while giving respect to stupa.134

Offerings

132

http://www.insightmeditationcenter.org/books-articles/articles/rituals-in-buddhism/, Retrieved:

25.04.2016.

133 Fragrance and Wellbeing: Plant Aromatics and Their Influence on The Psyche (London: Jennifer

Peace Rhind, Singing Dragon Publishers, 2014): 109-110.

134 Kevin Trainor , Relics, Ritual and Representation in Buddhism (UK: Cmbridge University Press,

199): 161-171.

http://www.insightmeditationcenter.org/books-articles/articles/rituals-in-buddhism/

of flowers, garlands, perfumes and candles have a symbolic meaning in Buddhist

practice. Flower signifies transience, fundamental practices of the dharma (religion),

lights indicate the wisdom of Buddha and perfumes represent the scent of pure life of

people who follow Buddha‟s teachings. Similarly there was also secular aspect of

using garlands which signified indulgence and attraction. This might be the reason

that monks were not allowed to wear garlands, perfumes and to cut living flowers

until they are not freely given. They believed that good spirits resided in flowers.

Although in religious text Dhammapada, garlands are regarded as a true donation

given to celestial beings. In present day Buddhist‟s religious setting, floral garlands

play a significant role in daily life experiences representing the divinity within people.

The most common floral garlands are highly scented for example hurricane (spider)

lilies, jasmine, plumeria (frangipani flower) and roses.135

It is mentioned in text Mahavastu the ritual acts one should perform at stupa. It

includes cleaning of stupa, playing of sacred music, chants recitation, stupa

pilgrimage, donations of garlands, offering of food stuffs, silk festoons, gem‟s

necklace, sheaths (to cover stupa) and canopies (mhv 2:489). There are numbers of

references in Buddhist texts about liturgical actst in which reverence to stupa with

garlands is an important ritual as it is stated in Mahavastu that person should offer

floral garland as donation to stupa (2:493 [2:331]) and they should honor the stupa

with garlands and flowers. (2:492-93 [2:331]). Similarly in other verse it is indicated

that one can also make silk or floral wreath as an offering to stupa (2:495 [2:331]).136

Another text Mahasamghikas states that when a person performs those conventional

acts will get abundance, harmony and liberation from samsara (cycle of birth-rebirth).

Buddhist believe that when ritual hymns are narrated, the celestial beings gather to

hear the recitation, earth trembles, the celestial music commences and floral garlands

begin to shower from heavens. (1:81-82 [1:57]).137

135

Fragrance and Wellbeing: Plant Aromatics and Their Influence on The Psyche (London: Jennifer

Peace Rhind, Singing Dragon Publishers, 2014): 110.

136 Reginald A. Ray, Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist Values and Orientations (New

York: Oxford University Pres, 1994): 335.

137 Ibid (1994): 143-335.

Buddhism flourished in Gandhara region during 3rd

century BCE and continued to

grow. By the end of 1st century CE, it recognized native support and benefication.

Buddhist monasteries were established adjacent to the stupa (enclosing relics of

buddha). Such holy sanctuaries acted as a spirited center for pilgrimages which later

on attracted offerings and dana (charity). Some of the earliest examples are spiral

bands attached to the 64drum of stupa to support garlands or flowers.138

Function and Meaning of Garlands in Buddhist Rituals

It is mentioned in splended sutra (sub genre of Mahayana sutra), the ritual worship of

sacred books. The book claims that honoring it will make a believer to gather a

cosmic accumulation of divine excellence. In this collection principles of ritual

worship and practices are explained. For example;

Fasting Rules (astangopavasa)

Buddhists fast for eight days during which both laymen and laywomen have to follow

five fasting rules, i.e prevention from killing animals, lying, and other wicked doings.

Though on the eight and fifteenth day of each fortnight, laypeople are expected to

restrict themselves from three things that they usually practice in daily routine for

instance;

1. Do not wear garlands, ornaments and scents as well as not to participate in

music and singing.

2. Stop eating in the afternoon

3. Avoid sleeping on wide and high bed. (10, 128).139

On the eighth day of fasting, devotees honor Buddha‟s relics. They are expected to

begin worship by making primary offerings to stupa which include fragrances,

flowers, incense, garlands and ointments. After that, they offer white colored foods,

i.e rice cooked in milk or mixed with yogurt to four orientations of stupa. Later on, on

the fifteenth day, a pious magician performs a dignified ritual of venerating stupa with

floral garlands, aromas, lights and white foods. After that, he adores the Buddha

138

www.metmuseum.org\toah\hd\gand\hd-gand.htm, Retrieved:25.04.2016.

139 Richard S.Cohen, The Splended Vision: Reading A Buddhist Sutra (New York: Columbia

University Press, 2012):10-128.

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gand/hd-gand.htm

image with one hundered and eight jasmine flowers upon which he has already

uttered chants separately. He feels himself filled with adoration, sympathy and

understanding for all existing creature.140

Besides the ritual of fasting, there are several religious practices in which garlands

have been as an article for honoring and reverence in diverse ways. Some of them are

discussed as under;

Celebration of Mahaparinirvana (the great enlightenment)

It is held in Mahaparinibhana sutra the final enlightenment (Mahaparinirvana)

attained by Buddha at the kingdom of Kusinara . After the death of Buddha, the Mala

kings has celebrated his Mahaparinirvana for seven days. They showed veneration

and respect by offering him garlands, ointments, ceremonial chants, dance and music,

However they had their awnings decorated with flower garlands for one week after

Buddha‟s death.141

Cremation of Buddha

When Buddha died, the Mala kings at Kusinara has cremated his body. After that,

they venerated Buddha‟s relics in assembly hall by lubricating the floor of great hall

with four types of natural aromas and then bedecked the ground with five different

kinds of ornamental florets specifically white mustard, grass, fragmented rice, puffed

rice kernels and jasmine flowers. Similarly white colored shelter was made through

which garlands of flowers and ornaments were suspending along with varied

fragrances surrounding all curtains from the public hall up to the ritual mansion.142

Division of Buddha’s Relics

On seventh day after Buddha‟s death, his body was cremated by kings at Kusinara.

They divided the relics into eight shares and built stupas on each. Each stupa had two

140

Ibid (2012): 128.

141 History of Indian Theatre, Vol.1 (Dehli: M.L Varadpande, Abhinav Pblications, 1987): 129.

142 Stephen C. Berkwitz, The History of The Buddha Relic Shrine (New York: Oxford University Press,

2007): 120.

balconies, three barriers and entrance with two fold linter and were decorated with

floral garlands. Similarly public symposium was arranged by the Mala kings so that

all people can participate in the ceremony and show their devotion to Buddha with

offerings and ceremonial hymns. It is believed that on that day the mythical beings

(kinnaras) were giving veneration to stupas with offering of flower garlands.143

Veneration of Stupa

According to Buddhist philosophy Bodhi (enlightenment) is the great awakening

which helps get rid of continuous cycle of birth and rebirth samsara and leads towards

the final step that is nirvana (enlightenment). Nirvana is the final perfection for the

followers of Buddhism which they can achieve only by resisting themselves from

worldly desires. When Buddha attained enlightenment he decided to preach ways to

get liberation from all sufferings that causes samsara (birth-rebirth) for all individual

souls. In this lecture he summarized all his experiences during his meditation in terms

of four noble truths and eight fold paths and gave advice to follow the middle path

and stay away from two extremes of self-mortification and extreme desires.144

Although with the passage of time, people‟s motivation towards the objective of

nirvana was getting slow until Asoka familiarized the stupa culture. The

establishment of stupa was the beginning towards the vision of practice for improving

the social order. Atmosphere was created in which followers could reorganize their

lives according to their religious teachings. Stupa beginning along with monastery

system was implied which was then developed to high-level during 1st and 2

nd century

CE. Stupa veneration became a common ritual practice as devotees from distant areas

visit them and honor Buddha by reciting chants, circumambulation of stupa, offering

of food, ornaments, perfumes, and garlands. Such donations were presented to attain

successful life and happiness. The ritual of adoring stupa is still practiced in Buddhist

world.145

143

History of Indian Theatre, Vol.1 (Dehli: M.L Varadpande, Abhinav Pblications, 1987): 130.

144 Kevin Trainor, Buddhism (London: Duncan Baired Publishers, 1996): 36.

145 Rafi-Us-Samad, The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat

Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valley (New York: Algora Publishing, 2011): 129.

In Gandhara, two types of monasteries Sangharamas were established distinctively,

i.e. one for the accomplishment of daily religious activities and other for the dedicated

events. Although the simplest and easy category of monastic organization was located

in the city perimeters where people were confined for time as they could give only an

hour or just recite chants or prayers at the sanctuaries sited in the monastery or could

offer floral garlands at the stupa.146

Stupa adoration is clearly depicted in art as well. For example, at stupa of Sanchi,

number of reliefs depicts devotees and celestial beings paying respect to the Buddha

by doing circumambulation around the stupa holding musical instruments, flags and

floral garlands.147

It is mentioned in Buddhist traditional text Lotus sutra that how Buddha instructed his

disciple to preserve his relics in the form of stupa and its elaboration with flowers,

scents and garlands. Buddha‟s commands about the erection of stupa are thoroughly

held in 11th

chapter of Lotus sutra as;

After his rising, the stupa . . . stood in the sky sparkling. . . decorated

with five thousand successive terraces of flowers, adorned with many

thousands of arches, embellished by thousands of banners and

triumphal streamers, hand with thousands of jewel-garlands . . . and

emitting the scent of Xanthochymus and sandal, which scent filled the

whole world . . . let my stupa here, this stupa of my proper bodily

form, arise wherever in any Buddha-field in the ten directions of space,

in all worlds . . . the lotus of the true law is being preached by some

lord Buddha or another. Lotus sutra XI

After the death of Buddha (4th

century BCE), his stupa became a divine motivation

for his followers. His relics were then divided among eight Buddhist kingdoms upon

which stupas were erected. Later on in 3rd

century BCE, Asoka scattered the relics and

built eighty-four thousand stupas in all over India to which followers from all over the

world could come for pilgrimage. Similarly, they venerated stupa with honorific

donations such as jewels, coins, garlands, perfumes and food as well as ritual acts in

146

Ibid (2011): 106.

147Albert C Moore, Iconography of Religion (London: SCM, Press, Ltd, 1977): 143.

terms of chants, prayers and music. They believe that such ceremonial acts assign life

to stupa. The ritual of paying honor to stupa with such items is still practice in present

day Buddhist traditions to recognize Buddha‟s teachings as a dynamic worldwide

dharma (religion).148

Moreover, it is also mentioned in the Mahayanic text Mahaparinibbana-suttanta that

Buddha teaches his followers that how they should enfold his body in casket and how

to incinerate his body? He further explains in detail that stupa should be established

over his relics and devotees should worship him with floral garlands, perfumes, foods,

banners, ointment and canopies.149

Footprints of Buddha

Another object of worship is footprints of Buddha which according to Buddhists

signifies Buddha‟s presence. Likewise, in Hinduism, Vishnu‟s presence is indicated

by his foot prints. Therefore, this ancient idea is being adopted in Buddhist culture,

Hence Buddha‟s footprints are venerated in temples along with the stupa. A majority

of Buddhists nations affirms to have original footprints of Buddha, duplicates of

which are respected in religious sanctuaries. Example of footprints on reliefs at

Sanchi (2nd

century BCE) are decorated and honored with palm leaves and

garlands.150

Ketumala (Buddha’s crown)

Chliders stated in his book “Dictionary of Sinhales Pali” about the wreath or

ketumala. Ketumala is a pali and Sanskrit word. ketu means symbol and mala means

garland. Thus it is a symbol of garland. It is regarded as a crest of the Buddha that is

148

Robert Elinor, Buddha and Christ: Images of Wholeness (New York: Weatherhill Inc., 2000): 129-

130.

149 Takeuchi Yoshinori et al, Buddhist Spirituality: Indian, Southeast Asian, Tibetan and Early

Chinese, Edited (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1995): 142.

150 Albert C Moore, Iconography of Religion (London: SCM, Press, Ltd, 1977): 144.

equivalent to the halo of Christ. Buddhists reflect it as an aura of radiant light from

Buddha.151

Similarly, they also symbolize deed of Buddha as garlands of flowers. For example,

Avatamsaka Sutra (garland sutra) is a famous Mahayanic text that discusses the

wisdom and enlightenment of Buddha. The text said that the actions of Buddha and

the subsequent merits bloom like floral garlands. The text further contains the

discourse about Buddha‟s enlightenment that Bodhisattvas (who were intended to be

enlightened) and celestial beings has joined this discourse to know the path of

wisdom.152

Similarly, Dook mala or garlands laced with white flowers are often offered to

Buddha‟s statue. White flowers represent Buddha‟s teaching while also indicates the

temporariness of life when they become old.153

Dana (charity)

There is given eight things appropriate for donations to monks and nuns in Buddhist

traditional text Anguttara nikaya (4:239). These offerings include water, food, clothes,

conveyance, fragrant balms, lamps, garlands and worships.154

It is said in sacred text Avolokita sutra (mv 2:489 [jns.2:329]), that everyone should

worship Buddha when he is alive and when he has passed away. People should adore

and respect him with perfumes, flowers, aromatic balms, garlands, flowers, vehicles,

music, chants, drinks, foods and clothes. Sanctified person and stupa are regarded as

two main scopes for the experience of enlightenment. The pious person symbolize

151

Reginal Le May, A Concise History of Buddhist art in Siam, (UK: Cambridge University Press,

1938): 114.

152 Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions (USA: Encyclopedia Britannica, INC. 2006): 99.

153 http://www.thaiworldview.com/bouddha/ceremo15.htm, Retrieved:08.06.2016.

154Damien Keown & Charles S. Prebish, Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Edited (Abingdon: Routledge

Publishers, 2010).

http://www.thaiworldview.com/bouddha/ceremo15.htm

existing human expression while stupa act as an embodiment after the saint has

died.155

Buddha’s Birth at Lumbini Garden

Lumbini is considered one of the famous Buddhist site to visit. It is regarded as a

sacred place since it is believed to be birthplace of Buddha. Before that, Lumbini was

regarded as sanctified birthing coppice because of the tree goddess who supported

delivery. Later on it was then revered as Mayadevi’s orchard who used to visit that

grove to venerate tree deity and appeal to her blessings for benign childbirth. The

queen Maya (Buddha‟s mother) had also practiced a ritual of giving birth at Lumbini

like other women of her tribe. Her husband accepted her plan and decorated the

woodland with beautiful carpets, flags and bedecked the ground with ornaments and

flower garlands. It is said that the king‟s purpose of decorating grove was to indicate

noble birth or to give reverence to the tree divinities.156

It is held in Mahayanic text the conversation between Sudhana and

Sutejomandelaratisri (the woodland goddess) of Lumbini where Buddha was born. In

this conversation Sutejomandelaratisri explained that she chose Lumbini because she

already knew that queen Maya would give birth to Buddha there. Before his birth, she

created a beautiful environment and transformed the grove into a plane land adorned

with precious gems and festooned trees with floral garlands and ornaments.157

Buddha’s Enlightenment

After seven years of meditation, Buddha finally reached to his goal of attaining

eternal wisdom and salvation. During this process, he got rid of needs, ignorance and

birth-rebirth process. After becoming an enlightened one, Buddha gave his first

lecture to his followers about causing of samsara (birth- rebirth), and salvation to get

rid of this process. In garland sutra (Mahayanic text), his actions are regarded as

prospering garlands of flowers. According to one interpretation, when Buddha finally

155

Reginald A. Ray, Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist Values and Orientations (New

York: Oxford University Press, 1994): 348.

156 Miranda Shaw, Buddhist Goddesses of India (New York: Princeton University Press, 2006): 56.

157 Ibid (2006): 57.

stepped towards the nirvana (enlightenment), he was attended through celestial

musicians, birds, nymphs and snakes. Similarly the divine beings showered flowers,

scents and other gifts which occupied the ten thousand planets with pleasant

fragrances, music and garlands.158

Garland as a Key Adornment of Bodhisattvas

According to Buddhist ritual texts, floral garlands (Huaman) were used by

Bodhisattva as a spiritual adornment along with other seals, depictions, incantations

and amulets. Specifically garlands were used by Buddhists as a majestic emblem that

they wore on their body as a decoration.159

Buddhist Amuletic Practices or Pratisara

Tradition of wearing amulets or talisman objects was common in Buddhist cultures to

protect oneself from evil eyes and bad events. Most basically wreaths or garlands

were worn around the neck, wrist, arms or around waist. These objects were also used

for smearing or to bandage wounds.160

From prehistoric time objects and events are regarded as good or bad omens which

could bring fortune or bad luck. The fortunate signs of protection included dedication,

serving Brahmans (upper caste in Hinduism) and monks with food, music, humming

birds and floral garlands. There is a specific text named as Mahamangala sutta that is

recited to protect from misfortune and disasters. The text deals with about thirty eight

hopeful symbols or sanctifications, i.e. honoring the wise, avoid sitting with foolish,

respecting parents and appreciating wife and children, good conducts, patience and

self limitation from bad habits.161

158

Robert Elinor, Buddha and Christ: Images of Wholeness (New York: Weatherhill Inc. 2000): 48.

159 Paul Copp, The Body Incantatory: Spells and Ritual Imagination in Medieval Chinese Buddhism,

(New York: Columbia University Press, 2004): 47.

160 Ibid (2004): 61-63.

161 David J. Kalupahana, Buddhist Thought and Ritual (Dehli: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2001):

128.

Buddhist Samadhi

According to Buddhist philosophy, spiritual state of awareness or samadhi is very

important to achieve anticipated freedom and independence from sufferings and

samsara (birth-rebirth cycle). This extraterrestrial spiritual element is identified with a

floral garland samadhi which has adorned the cosmos. Such samadhi flower garland

is an emblem of the universe created by the redemptive powers of limitless Buddhas

and Bodhisattvas.162

Veneration of Vajrasana (Buddha’s seat)

Vajrasana is known as the meditation throne of Buddha. He did seven years of

meditation while seated on it under the Bodhi tree. During earliest Buddhist times, it

has also functioned as an altar upon which offering were made such as flowers,

perfumes and garlands. Even in present days Buddhist rituals, the throne is now

supported by indefinite base. Only those devotees who were honored to enter the yard

were allowed to give donations of flowers and banners. Such offering denotes

reverence and honor to Buddha and his way of life. In art, Bodhi tree is always shown

adorned with garlands and meditation pew covered with flowers.163

Although sacramental conduct of paying respect to Buddha and Bodhi tree varies

depending upon the extent of people‟s religious passion or sincerity. For instance an

intensive way of veneration include salute, chants recitation and three times

circumambulation or parikrama of temple, Bodhi tree and throne. After that offerings

of flowers (mostly include jasmine, marigold and hibiscus), lamps, perfumes, balms

and garlands are made to show honor and reverence to Buddha.164

It is mentioned in Kalingabodhijataka the acts of devotion to Bodhgaya which

include;

162

Takeuchi Yoshinori, et al, Buddhist Spirituality: Indian, Southeast Asian, Tibetan and Early

Chinese, Edited (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1995): 363-364.

163 Albertina Nugteren, Belief, Bounty and Beauty: Rituals Around Sacred Trees in India (Leiden: Brill

Academic Publishers, 2005): 194-195.

164 Ibid (2005): 204.

1. Hanging of garlands, banners and ribbons.

2. Offering of filled vases called as Punnaghata.

3. Playing of sacred music and dances.

4. Erection of walls, base, and entrances.

5. Scattering of sand around the tree‟s locality with sand.

Now the Bodhi tree is completely surrounded by walls and metalwork gates. Branches

are supported by metal spikes while mostly branches are heavily loaded with

garlands, flags and flowers made up of silk cloth donated by the devotees.165

Patipujika (Husband honourer)

In Buddhist legends, a deity Malabhari (garland bearer) was husband of patipujika

who was born in Tavatimsa heaven (world of thirty three deities). The narrative

commenced when Malabhari entered the tavatimsa heaven attended by hundreds of

spiritual elves. Some fairies sat on the trees and showers flowers over him while

others gathered those flowers fell on the ground and covered Malabhari. Among

those fairies one sat on a tree got a new beginning that she received from the recall

of her former existences. She was patipujika who wished to reborn with Malabhari as

his wife. For that purpose she made offerings of garlands, fragrances and flowers,

Therefore she is known as husband honourer. To get her wish gratified, Malabhari

served food and water to the monks, offered charities, listened to the sermons.

Similarly she had fifty six talents of kindness. She died of sudden sickness and finally

reborn with her husband.166

Death of a Deity

According to Buddhist tradition, when any forthcoming death of a deity occurred,

there were five major indications which identified his approaching death such as;

1. Their garlands wane.

2. They starts sweating heavily.

165

Ibid (2005): 204-226.

166Eugene Watson Burlingame, A Treasury of Buddhist Stories: From the Dhammapada Commentary

(Kandy: Buddhist Publication Soceity, 1996): 42.

3. Their cloths become muddy.

4. Their glow and hapiness disappear.

5. They become uncomfortable.167

Buddhist Worshipping Rituals

Both relics and images was regarded as a strong indications for the presence of

Buddha even after his death. It is mentioned in 30th

chapter of Mahavamsa (mhv) that

remnants of Buddha are essentially equal to his active existence. Relics veneration

was considered an act of merit and their presence played a vital role to the religious

rituals and the attitude of excellence making that joined it . Buddhist sacred text Vaka

Jataka stated a thorough conversation between king Bimbisara and Buddha. During

this discussion king requested Buddha to grant him a ringlet of hairs or nails before

his death so that he can place them in the temple at his royal mansion and pay

reverence with flowers, perfumes and garlands. The Jataka tells king‟s request to

Buddha as; Thus I shall retain something that is part of you and each day I shall

decorate the temple (caitya) with fresh garlands and I shall burn rare incense.168

After Buddha‟s departure his body was placed for seven days by Mala kings. They

took his body as an object of worship and commemoration. During that period

between death and cremation, followers from all regions came and paid reverence to

his body with floral garlands, oil lamps, food, flower, balms, banners, incense, sacred

music, dance and ritual hymns. All such activities continued to occur for seven days .

On the eighth day Buddha‟s body was cremated and his relics were enshrined. Later

on after two hundered years king Asoka re-erect the relics and distributed Buddha‟s

relics and established eighty four thousand stupas for pilgrimage and worship. Asoka

biographically repeats Buddha‟s parting which links to his enlightenment and

confirms his wisdom and compassion.169

167

Ibid (1996): 14.

168 Donald K. Swearer, Becoming the Buddha: The Ritual of Image Consecration in Thailand (New

Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2004) :23-24.

169John S. Strong, Relics of The Buddha (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2004): 110-130.

Thus it is quite clear that approximately all important aspects present in modern day

Buddhist rituals had established by the time when Buddhism was emerged in 5th

century BCE. Diverse symbols and offerings were made as an object of veneration to

Buddha during his lifetime and after his birth. Ceremonies and rituals are an integral

part of the living Buddhist tradition. In the same way charities and offerings of

candles, garlands, perfumes, flowers, banners and foods are some countenance of

appreciation of the Buddha as a divine teacher.170

170

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/kariyawasam/wheel402.html, Retrieved: 12.06.2016.

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/kariyawasam/wheel402.html

Chapter 5

Symbolism of Garland in Gandhara art

The Buddhist movement in Gandhara provided an active bond between Greco-

Roman legacy and contemporary age, However after extended period of decay

between 5th

century CE and 11th

century CE, Buddhism lost its influence and

fade away from its native land, Though foreign invasions and trade contacts led

to a greater change in socio-political, religious and cultural aspects of Gandhara

and so as art.171

Gandhara art was developed to assist Buddhist faith and to educate people, who

were illiterate. Core ambition behind Gandhara art was to narrate Buddha life

story and episodes from his previous lives. Iconographic depictions of Buddhist

legends were the driving force for the devotees. Images of Buddha and

Bodhisattvas were expressively enforced to carry messages about dharma

(religion). For example, symbols, posture, hand gestures, hairstyles, ornaments

and dresses. All these items articulated features and distinction of Buddha and

his companions. Gandhara art reached at its peak during the Kushan period

between 2nd

and 3rd

century CE which brought both financial and religious

affluence to the region. During this period a group of deities outside the Vedic

practices emerged as central figures in Indian convictions, literary works and

iconography.172

Role of Native Artistries in the Development of Gandhara Art

In the expansion of artistic convention of Gandhara, artistic contributions from

Greek, Roman, Persian and south Asian art played an important role that

brought great advancements in its art. New designs, symbols and divine

attributes were added to give an aesthetic sense in Gandhara art. Such adoption

171 Rafi-Us-Samad, The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat,

Peshawar, Kabul Valley and Indus Valleys (New York: Algora Publishing, 2011): 24.

172

Ibid (2011): 113-116.

of imaginative techniques by Gandharan artists from external confluence

brought a radical change in Gadhara art.173

The combination of Greek and Roman art with native Indian customs directed

towards the rise of distinguished Buddhist art and symbolism. The classical

stimulus represented as an incentive for key deviations in Buddhist doctrine as

well. For example the most important change was the anthropomorphic

representation of Buddha to which people show reverence and adoration. Before

that various symbols were used to identify him. Buddha image was shaped in

the model of Greek god Apollo. Another substantial modification adopted by

Gandharan artists from Hellenistic art was the depiction of Buddha life story.

Correspondingly the Greek and Roman mythological figures and symbols are

widely copied in Gandharan reliefs such as Corinthian pillars, acanthus leaves,

globules and cylinders, dentils, plant, extended stems and branches, foliage,

erotes, graphics, triton, garlands, and sea titans. Besides India Gandhara school

of art has also motivated other Buddhist schools of art in China, Rome and

Central Asian countries. Trade networks between them led to the development

of Gandhara art.174

173 Ibid (2011): 169.

174

Anthony Grafton, Glenn W. Most & Salvatore Settis, The Classical Tradition, Edited

(London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010): 385.

Figure 54 Corianthan capital (2nd century CE) excavated from the site of Jamalgarhi depicting haloed Buddha seated on lotus throne.

Number of motifs have been adopted by artists from Greco-Roman stimulation. Such

as drinking scenes, graphics, cupid bearing garlands, Hellenistic garments, laurel

garland, vines and mythical scenes.175

Moreover Greek symposium and wedding scenes on Gandharan toilet trays

were excavated from Indus Greek section at Taxila and Sirkap. These trays are

divided into two parts upper part of which is signifying a man sitting on divan

while lower part portrays a woman holding a floral garland.176

Greek‟s building styles were effectively practiced in the erection of sacred structures

in Gandhara. During the reign of Alexander in 4th

century CE, Greek artists played an

active role in its art and culture. Specifically during the Hellenistic rule in this region,

Greek artists and designers were widely hired to enhance the religious constructions

175 Y. Krishan, The Buddha Image:Its Origin and Developme (New Dehli: Munshiram

Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1996): 31.

176

Rafi-Us-Samad, The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat,

Peshawar, Kabul Valley and Indus Valley (New York: Algora Publishing, 2011): 170.

Figure 55 Greek toilet tray from Gandhara portraying symposium scene. A woman is offering garland to a man while other women is standing beside him offering something.

of the region. Later on during Kushan period, funds were offered for widespread

building of holy memorials.177

Devotional worships in Hinduism had great influence over Buddhism and

Jainism, For example in earliest Buddhist text, Buddha ordered his disciples to

venerate his relics after his death with rituals similar to that practiced in

Hinduism.178

177Rafi-Us-Samad, The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat,

Peshawar, Kabul Valley and Indus Valley (New York: Algora Publishing, 2011): 111.

178

Pratapaditya Pal, Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C- A.D. 700, Vol. 1 (London & Los Angeles:

London & Los Angeles County Museum of Art and University of California Press, 1986): 21.

Figure 56 Schist stone sculpture from Gandhara (2nd-4th century CE) depicting Mahaparinirvana (death of Buddha). devotees are illustrated mourning on his death while one devotee is depicted holding garland of foliage.

The gifts of flowers and music, food and drinks on putti and garland in

Gandharan reliefs are mentioned in Buddhist text Lotus sutra as garlands of

flowers are the recurrent donations for Buddha. Flowers were gathered from

garden trees in the vicinity of stupa. They include mango plant, jambosa tree,

ginger flowers and lotus flowers. Artificial garlands made of crushed gilt and

silver, metal and cloth were also offered. It is compiled in sutra as;

. . . ornamented with banners, sounding to the noise of bells; it is this

that is rendered to the stupa, containing my relics, honors of various

kinds, in their offerings of flowers, incense, perfumes, garlands,

unguents, fragrant powders, clothing, parasols, drapery, standards,

human and divine banners, in making resound . . . the agreeable noise

that is sweet of instruments of all kinds.179

179

https://www.academia.edu/22447757/The_Putto_and_Garland_in_Asia?auto=download,


Figure 57 Schist stone sculpture (2nd-3rd century CE) portraying haloed Buddha centered in the middle of Brahma and Indra requesting Buddha to preach after he (Buddha) attained enlightenment. Behind him are depicted spiritual figures and garlands hanging from Bo

https://www.academia.edu/22447757/The_Putto_and_Garland_in_Asia?auto=download

Figure 59 Grey schist stone sculpture (3rd-4th century CE) of devotee holding offering of

flowers.1

Figure 58 Schist stone relief from Swat valley dated to 2nd century CE depicting Buddha previous life as Dipankara Buddha. Monks are offering flowers while others are standing in the pose of adoration.

Hindu text Vishnudharmottara indicates iconographic features of Hindu gods and

goddesses. For example the ornaments and clothes of Vishnu have very precise

symbolic meaning. His dress embodies avidya or incomprehension, the jewellery or

kaustabha indicates his wisdom, and his huge vanamala floral garland symbolize his

hold over the world, Moreover in Hindu mythology lotus signifies the world and

pearls represents water and cosmos. Those symbolic features got assorted in Buddhist

cultures as artists started making images of Buddha with such divine

characteristics.180

Bedecked Stupas in Gandhara:

Buddhism flourished in Gandhara in the beginning of 3rd

century BCE and soon it

acknowledged native support. Generally a Buddhist organization contained monastery

and stupa containing relics. These holy erections assisted the native people and were

dynamic establishments for pilgrimage. With the passage of time they involved

contributions that acquired the system of sculptures and images. Buddhist initial

180

Pratapaditya Pal, Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C- A.D. 700, Vol. 1 (London & Los Angeles:

London & Los Angeles County Museum of Art and University of California Press, 1986): 42.

Figure 60 Schist stone sculpture (dated to 4th-5th century CE) of a devotee holding bunch of flowers in his left hand and right hand is in anxiety relieving gesture.

artworks include volutes with supports which were affixed to the stupa‟s drum to hold

prayerful floral garlands.181

The most primitive monuments from Buddhist setting in Gandhara are donated

decorated stupas dates to 1st century CE. Stupas were mostly decorated with garlands

of flowers. Volutes were attached to the stupa‟s drum to hold cords of flowers.

Similalrly garland bearers are often depicted along with the drum of stupa. Examples

of garland bearers have been excavated from Sirkap carrying an engraving indicating

that only the garland carrier himself had been rewarded for by the giver. Presence of

those inscriptions suggest that stupas in Gandhara were ornamented through

contributions from numerous donors.182

181

www.metmuseum.org\toah\hd\gand\hd-gand.htm, Retrieved:12.06.2016.

182 Kurt A. Behrendt, The Art of Gandhara in The Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York:

Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2007): 26.

Figure 61 Schist relief panel of stupa (2nd-3rd century CE) depicting garland carried by two celestial figures and two birds with outstreched wings.


Figure 62 Garland bearers illustrated on various relief panels on the Drum of stupas dated to 2nd-3rd century CE.

During 4th

and 5th

century CE, there seems a potential change in the doctrinal

character of Buddhism. A relief panel attached to the main body of stupa found

at the village of Muhammad Nari reveals a relief panel in which Buddha is

embodied seated in the centre with hand gesture in chakramudra (meditation

pose) flanked by two Bodhisattvas holding floral garlands. In a line underneath

are portrayed six previous Buddhas. Two of them are Sakyamuni Buddha and

Meitreya and the remaining four are slightly shorter depicting patrons who

donated the sculpture. The purpose of donating such relief along with donor‟s

image indicates that followers expected to be born again into sukhavati (pure

land) where Amitabha Buddha (central deity in Mahayana Buddhism) would to

explain them the dharma (religion) and path that directed towards

enlightenment. Moreover in this panel some fragments from Buddha life story

are also depicted i.e. portrayal of his preparation to leave his palace and his

withdrawal to pursue illumination.183

Depiction of Putti and Garland on Gandharan Panels

Garland bearers are most commonly found figures in Gandhara art carrying

holiness. Ladislav Stanco says in his book “Greek gods in the east: Hellenistic

Iconographic Schemes in Central Asia” that garland carriers in Gandhara is

basically derived from Greek culture instead of Roman. The theme initially

became visible in Greek art and was adopted by Romans. It became popular in

2nd

century CE and became noticeable on stone coffin produced in Asia Minor

which were traded to Rome. It was from Asia Minor that this idea grew in

eastern world. Garland holder in Greek have frequent floral garlands while

Roman garlands are repeatedly separated with foliage and fruits. Although both

Greek and Roman characteristic garlands are common in Gandhara art.184

183

Kurt A. Behrendt, The Art of Gandhara in The Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York:

Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2007): 67-68.

184 Ladislav Stanco, Greek Gods in The East: Hellenistic Iconographic Schemes in Central Asia

(Prague: Karolinum Press, 2011): 116.

These cupids holding garlands direct towards the earliest Buddhist practice of

garlanding stupas established by king Asoka (300-232 BCE). Asoka practiced his

conviction by establishing commemorative memorials. He employed artists from

Persia who brought with them their artistic elements which they implemented into the

decoration of stupas, e.g. lion figures, lotus flower and cupids holding garlands,

Secondly with the Greek king Alexander‟s invasion during 326 BCE in the region

brought an immense change in its artistic nature.185

During the Kushan regime, emperors assisted Buddhist community. Later on king

Kanishka and Havishka minted coins bearing images of Buddha. They build Buddhist

religious sanctuaries and employed craftsman and, architects and artists for the

decoration and renovation of Buddhist structures, Furthermore Kanishka himself

donated a bronze casket (excavated from Sheikhan Dheri site in Peshawar) depicting

Buddha image with script and garland carriers. Symbolism of garlands in Gandhara

were adopted by Kushan to decorate stupa. Later on during 1st century CE, stone

garlands were also added to enhance the beauty of stupa and to honor Buddha.

185

http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp225_winged_celestial_silk_road.pdf, Retrieved: 03.08.2016.

Figure 63 Schist stone sculpture of garland bearer with a winged celestial from Gandhara 1st century CE.

http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp225_winged_celestial_silk_road.pdf

Similarly naked (sometimes clothed) cupid figures are also depicted holding huge

garlands. This idea might be inherited from Rome or Asia minor where sarcophagi

were designed on large scale.186

186

Ladislav Stanco, Greek Gods in The East: Hellenistic Iconographic Schemes in Central Asia

(Prague: Karolinum Press, 2011): 244.

Figure 64 Schist stone garland bearer from Kushan era 3rd century CE.

Figure 65 Naked figures bearing garland dated to 2nd-3rd century CE.

The flying figures in Greek art got absorbed in Gandhara art as putti bearing garlands.

According to Greek mythology they are mentioned as symbol of affection and

success, Moreover in Hindu texts Vedas, these figures are termed as apsaras

(attractive mystical women) and devas (heavenly beings). In Buddhist Mahayanic text

Lotus sutra, they are incorporated along with other deities. Among those are devas

(divine beings), nagas (huge snakes) , asuras (spiritual beings) , yakshas (nature

spirits), gandharavas (heavenly musicians) , garudas (mythical birds), kinnaras (half

horse and half human beings) and mahoragas (giant snakes).187

187

http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp225_winged_celestial_silk_road.pdf, Retrieved: 03.08.2016.

Figure 66 Garland drapery supported by putties dated to Kushan era 1st.2nd century CE.


In Gandhara, figurative panels were used as decoration around the narrative scenes. It

includes decorative elements such as ornamental designs, acanthus leaves, foliage,

huge garlands of fruits and flowers and cupids holding garlands, Thus the narrative

monuments have been shaped as a confirmation of distinct conviction.188

Carol Almton Bromberg states in his article “The putto and garland in Asia” that how

the subject erotes carrying garland from Mediterranean cultures got assorted in Asian

traditions and art? He says that this icon came to Asia along with Hellenistic

invasions, e.g Alexander in Asia and through trade networks between Rome and

India. Thus the icon got more influence in Buddhist context as a decoration of

Buddhist relic stupas. The subject expresses the central theme of Greek and Roman

art where the garlands are heavily loaded with fruits and flowers donated by the

devotees to relics shrines. More often the base of stupas and monasteries were

decorated with putto bearing garland for example stupa base at monastic center at

Hadda located in west of Peshawar. Garlands are also separately painted (without

putti) with black, red and golden color on the walls of stupa. Similarly stupas at

Butkara in Swat is ornamented with tinted stucco wreaths having lotus flowers in the

vacant spaces, However numerous Buddhist stupas are embellished with garlands

188

Kurt A. Behrendt, The Buddhist Architechture of Gandhara (Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2004): 110-

111.

Figure 67 Schist relief depicting female bust holding garland dated to 2nd-3rd century CE.

indicating the passionate acceptance of classical idea of offering floral garlands to the

stupa.189

According to Carol the origin of garlands and putti in Gandhara is purely western as it

first appeared in classical art and continued to be present until the Romans turn out to

be rulers of Mediterranean kingdom. It became a popular motif carved on Roman

189



Figure 68 Gandhara frieze dated to 2nd-3rd century CE depicting putti holding huge foliage garland and male bust in the hollow of garland.

Figure 69 Grey schist stone panel dated to 2nd-3rd century CE depicting cupids holding elaborated garlands of fruits and leaves upon which birds with outstretched wings seated. In the space between garlands there are seated winged celestial figures with hands cla


sarcophagus where the putti was signified with the soul of the dead while garlands

implied the offerings of fruits and flowers to the dead as well as profusion of lifespan

in other world. The idea then traveled from Rome to Gandhara region along with

trade. Though Bactrian Greeks in Gandhara were already established before the

arrival of Romans, Thus it may be possible that Greeks spread the motif in the

region.190

There are hundereds of evidences of garland motif in Gandhara region. For instace in

Kunala monastery at Taxila, a frieze depicting putti holding garlands of fruits and on

another frieze, portraying three naked figures supporting heavy garland of diverse

foliage designs and bunches of grapes upon which parrots are resting, Hence the

presence of putto with garlands on Gandharan stupa reliefs indicates their dedicatory

purpose. They were used as a decoration on Buddhist commemorative tombs. The

birds, fruits and other offerings made to Buddha was an ancient idea of fertility that

interpret Buddhist visual language. The motif now have taken aspects of Indian

Yakshas (spirits of fertility).191

190



191 https://www.academia.edu/22447757/The_Putto_and_Garland_in_Asia?auto=download,


Figure 70 Stone bas relief from Kunala monastery at Taxila representing garland loaded with bunches of grapes is carried by cupids. Winged female busts are depicted in the loop of garland. Below garland on left side are seated birds nibbling grapes and on the rig



Painted garland motifs are variously depicted on the walls of great stupa at Butkara I

in Swat including both vegetal and floral designs, For example a wavy garland

designed with overlying decorations, in the bends of which remote lotus blooms are

observed at the lower chamber of great stupa. Likewise a rectilinear garland is painted

at the base of higher section of the great stupa. These motifs are painted by using

fresco method between 4th

and 7th

century CE.192

192

Ciro Lo Muzio, Indian History and Art: Reflection on The Past, Perspectives For The

Future, Edited (Rome: Sapienza Università Editrice, 2012): 320

Figure 71 Painted wavy garland on Great stupa at Butkara I.

Figure 72 Painted acanthus scroll from great stupa at Butkara I.

Similarly Hellenistic scenes from Parthian period has also been found on earliest

Buddhist site at Andhan Dheri. Various episodes from Greek symposium and

mythology as well as warrior and female choirs images are represented on relief

panels, Moreover stone braces were made to support ceremonial garlands.193

Putti holding garlands have been regarded as sign of plant productiveness in

Hinduism. Garlands made up of vines and fruits are found on most primitive Buddhist

shrines signifying that Buddhist faith is connected to the vegetation on the earth.194

Thus garland is an ancient Indian practice of honoring stupa. Also garland and putti

motif signify fertility and profusion. Presence of naked child figures, traditional

Buddhist offerings or grasping of hands in adoration on Gandharan reliefs are the

reminders that garland bearers and garlands definitely reflect Greek and Roman

design, but the idea is local.195

Although this figurative element is mostly represented on the stone blocks of stupa

along with the symbolic portrayals of Buddha suggesting the significance of the

narrative depicted. It uttered that heavenly beings came down to the earth to witness

that particular event as well as indicating the divine participation. Sometimes they are

depicted showering flowers and playing music indicating mystical happenings

associated with the life events of Buddha, For example celebration of Buddha‟s first

discourse to his followers is depicted on stupa at Butkara Swat, Loriyan Tangai stupa

in Peshawar, stupa at Sikri and Dharmarajika stupa in Taxila.196

193

Rafi-Us-Samad, The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat,

Peshawar, Kabul Valley and Indus Valleys (New York: Algora Publishing, 2011): 165.

194 John M. Rosenfield, The Dynastic Art of The Kushans (Los Angeles: University of California Press,

1967): 262.

195 https://www.academia.edu/22447757/The_Putto_and_Garland_in_Asia?auto=download,


196 http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp225_winged_celestial_silk_road.pdf, Retrieved: 03.08.2016.



Figure 73 Stupa at Loriyan Tangai in Peshawar depicting narratives from the life of Buddha.

Figure 74 Bas relief fragment from Butkara stupa at Swat representative of the symbolic illustration of Buddha’s first Discourse after getting enlightenment. Winged celestial beings are depicted as accompanying figures.

Types of Garlands Carried by Cupid Figures in Gandhara Art

Scholars has examined diversity in the nature of garlands amongst Buddhist reliefs.

The most popular is a relic casket donated by Kanishka at Shah-Ji- ki-Dheri in

Peshawar. The casket bears an engraving of a huge garland supported by cupids.

Within the loops of garland are, certain representation of seated Buddhas along with

solar images. Another example found from Kunala stupa at Taxila having three

figures of putti holding a heavy garland upon which birds are pecking grapes.

Another type of garland having extensive leafy patterns, birds, bunches of grapes and

lotus flower upon which supernatural beings are seated in adoration are observed at

Taxila. Similar symbolic pattern is found on stupa at Peshawar bearing bunch of

fruits, cupids holding pots, flowers and bird with outspread wings pointing towards

the religious donations of flowers and fruits to Buddha.197

197

Abdur Rahman, Garland Bearer Relief From Shrine C at Butkara III Swat Lahore Museum

Bulletin, Vol. 1 (Lahore: Lahore Museum, 1995): 07.

Figure 75 Grey Schist relief fragment from stupa at Butkara I depicting Buddha. The fragment is broken although it might suggest that celestial beings are showering flowers on Buddha.

Figure 76 Kanishka’s bronze casket with image of haloed Buddha flanked by Indra and Brahma. Lower part of casket is engraved with images of puttis holding garland.

Figure 77 Stupa relief panel engraved on grey schist stone dated 2nd-3rd century depicting amorino holding garland of fruits and birds with outstretched wings in the loops of garland.

Jambhala

Jhambala is the Buddhist yaksha (deity) of wealth. In sacred texts he is identified

with having a yellow lotus garland. In art he is depicted as holding a lemon fruit and

jewels. Usually he is depicted having purnaghatas (ceremonial offerings). Jambhala

is associated with having control over wealth on earth.198

Divine beings are widely depicted along with Buddha in art paying respect and

adoration to Buddha with various activities such as dance, music and offerings of

flowers and garlands.

Representation of Bodhisattavas with Garlands

The notion of Bodhisattva was basically an ideal of Mahayana Buddhism. According

to Mahayanic texts, Bodhisattva sacrifice their nirvana (enlightenment) to guide

198

Martin Lerner & Steven Kossak, The Lotus Transcendent: Indian and Southeast Asian Art from The

Samuel Eilenberg Collection (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1991): 185.

Figure 78 Grey schist sculpture (2nd century CE) of divine being holding garland.

people in generously. They represent kindness and knowledge as well as work for the

enlightenment of all beings. They promise not to go in the phase of nirvana until all

people grasp it collectively.199

Garland is commonly associated with Buddha in Gandhara art. Mostly it is carried by

celestial beings as a present to Buddha. Similarly Bodhisattavas (future Buddha) are

often represented accompanying Buddha on both sides and holding garland suggest

that they are offering diadem of garland to honor Buddha. Those garlands have

ribbons in the ends which signify that they are supposed to be bind as a crown. These

floral garlands were intended to crown the active candidates who donated their lives

to accomplish spiritual realization. Correspondingly garland motif might be an idea of

accomplishment and victory of Buddha which may have been derived from Greek

notion of spiritual success.200

199

Romila Thapar, A History of India (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1966).

200 Marijke J. Klokke & Pauline Lunsingh Scheurleer, Ancient Indonesian Sculpture, Edited (Leiden:

KITLV Press, 1994): 15.

Figure 79 Buddha seated on lotus throne with hand gesture in Dharmachakra mudra (preaching pose). He is attended by two Bodhisattvas on both sides while two are standing behind him in adoration pose.

Floral garlands are symbolized with the special declarations of Bodhisattvas when

they enter to the path leading towards wisdom and illumination.201

201

Gene Reeves, The Lotus Sutra: A Contemprory Classic of a Buddhist Classic ( Boston: Wisdom

Publication, 2008): 426.

Figure 80 Terracotta head of Bodhisattva bedecked with garland (dated to 5th century CE).

Figure 81 Terracotta head of Bodhisattva wearing floral garland found at Hadda (Greco-Buddhist site) in Afghanistan (4th-5th century CE).

Most basic Bodhisattva‟s types originated in Gandhara setting are derivative from the

validity of Buddha, either by signifying him as Bodhisattva before his nirvana

(enlightenment), or as Maitreya (descendant of Buddha). Similarly Bodhisattavas also

appeared as sovereign entity of dedication and correspondent of Bodhisattva Meitreya

accompanying Buddha on both sides.202

202

Kurt A. Behrendt, The Art of Gandhara in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York:

Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2007): 20-55.

Figure 82 Stone monument depicting Buddha seated lotus throne accompanied by number of Bodhisattvas. Some are paying homage to Buddha while some are standing in the gesture of adoration. Similarly two Bodhisattvas are crowning the head of Buddha with garland.

On the base of stele are carved putti holding floral garland. Bodhisattavas signified in

this stele are involved in various activities whichever focusing on Buddha or their

individually. Most common actions are admiration, hand gesture in anjali mudra

(sign of reverence) or offerings to Buddha.203

203

https://www.academia.edu/3724261/New_Light_on_and_from_the_Muhammad_Nari_Stele,


Figure 83 Schist stone depicting haloed Buddha seated on lotus throne flanked by Bodhisattvas and heavenly figures. Above the head of Buddha are depicted two celestial figures crowning Buddha with garland.

Figure 84 Schist stele from stupa at Muhammad Nari village protraying flying putti placing garland on head of the Buddha.

https://www.academia.edu/3724261/New_Light_on_and_from_the_Muhammad_Nari_Stele

Two of them are seated in meditation pose while others are holding floral garlands.

Similarly in the lower section are portrayed eight Manushi Buddhas standing with

hand gesture in anjalimudra (sign of blessing).204

Considering the crowns of Bodhisattava (Buddha to be) in Gandhara art, numerous

ideas appear on them suggesting symbolic attributes of specific Bodhisattvas. For

example head of a lion, figure bearing a garland, hand gesture of a figure in

anjalimudra (sign of benediction) and surya (sun god in Hinduism) carrying horse

chariot.205

There are certain depiction of Bodhisattvas carrying offerings of garlands to crown

the Buddha. Such images of garlanding is either depicted as Bodhisattvas are

204


205 Kurt Behrendt & Pia Brancaccio, Gandharan Buddhism: Archaeology, Art and Texts (Vancouver:

UBC Press, 2006): 164.

Figure 85 Schist stone sculpture depicting Amitabha Buddha flanked by four Bodhisattvas. Above him are indicated six Bodhisattvas.


presenting floral garland to Buddha or it is already placed over Buddha‟s head that is

donated by flanked Bodhisattvas. 206

206

Marijke J. Klokke & Pauline Lunsingh Scheurleer, Ancient Indonesian Sculpture, Edited (Leiden:

KITLV Press, 1994): 15.

Figure 86 Grey schist stone fragment excavated from the site of Sahri-Bahlol depicting the jewel tree. A Bodhisattva holds a jewel garland in his hand while the other two seated Buddhisattvas bearing a floral garland which may place on the head of the Buddha.

Figure 87 Schist stone sculpture of Bodhisattva carrying bunches of flowers.

Gandhara art is therefore, a consequence of Buddhist context on behalf of a

stimulating combination of traditional elements. It appears in the form of sculptures

and paintings. Main theme of art was primarily based upon representing life story of

Buddha and his previous lives or Jatakas. The signs associated with Buddha in

Gandhara art articulates features of his liberal (enlightened) character. Under the

patronage of Hinayana (small vehicle) Buddhism, Buddha was represented with

various symbols such as his turban, stupa, footprints, umbrella and bodhi tree. Later

on when Mahayana (large vehicle) Buddhism got flourished, Buddha was represented

anthropomorphically with divine attributes such as halo (radiant circle behind his

head), urna (wisdom eye on his forehead) to identify his personality as an enlightened

being. Gandhara art appears the only living cause to speak of the narrative of cultural

contacts and integration hooked on the life of Gandhara. Despite of captivating

outlandish cultural behaviors, local people of Gandhara retained their originality into

their cultural traditions as Gandhara art describes the entire story.207

Symbols are the indication of ideas and act as a bond between perceptible and non-

perceptible, between perception and thinking and between thinking and experience.

Iconographic depiction of Buddha was conceived as a vital aspect to teach illiterate

people.208

With the monastic development in Gandhara, need for religious, ceremonial and

artistic sense of sacred structures arise which led the artists to establish a complex

system which can encompass all these aspects. Hindu prayerful customs played a

significant role in the development of Buddhist devotional practices. Similarly, Greek,

Roman and Persian religious influence also assorted in Buddhist context, Therefore

amalgamation of alien cultures into Buddhist traditions results in the establishment of

new iconographic tradition of honoring Buddha with devotional offerings such as

207

Tauqeer Ahmed Warraich, “Gandhara Art: An Apraisal”, Pakistan Vision Vol.16 No.2 (Lahore:

University of Punjab, 2015): 21-31.

208 Jyotsna Chawla, The Rig Vedic Deities and Their Iconographic Forms (New Delhi: Munshiram

Manoharlal Publishers Private Limited, 1990): 189.

sacred music, dance, ritual chants, incenses, lamps, ointments, perfumes, banners,

food stuff, flowers and garlands.209

209

Joseph M. Kitagawa, The Religious Tradition of Asia: Religion, History and Culture (Abingdon:

Routledge Publishers, 2002): 65.

Conclusion

The study allowed reaching a number of conclusions regarding the symbolism of the

garland as a cultic object in Buddhism and Gandhara art. In various cultures garlands

were key elements for ceremonial and exotic use. It is a significant symbol associated

with integrity, admiration, spirituality, immortality and knowledge in numerous

societies and religions. It also symbolized life and death, temporary attractiveness and

distinction. This study analyzed at once the origin of garland as symbol, its usage and

its representation.

A garland can be defined as a twisting of flowers, fruits and branches in a band that

gets merged at the ends to form a wreath. Garlands appear constantly in relief

sculptures from classical times until the modern age. In classical times, people used to

hang garlands on the main door of holy places signifying unity.

Garlanding used to be a common tradition in ancient Greek and Roman cultures,

wherefrom it spread to later cultures, for instance to Hinduism and Buddhism. From

ancient times, it served as a ceremonial item marking a construction or the high status

of a person. It was subsequently implemented in art as well. Both Greeks and Romans

frequently used garlands to embellish administrative buildings, houses and places of

worship. Roman emperors were crowned with floral garlands that illustrated their

success, power and distinction. In ancient Egypt, floral garlands were placed on

mummies, symbolizing life after death. Later on, during the Middle Ages and

Renaissance, garlands have been extensively used in commemorations and events

such as weddings or the worship of religious figures.

Hence ancient religious faiths have conventionalized countless symbols to connect

their elementary convictions which greatly influenced Buddhist context as well.

Buddhists adopted that pre-Buddhist concept of articulating principles into various

signs. One of the themes of the current study is to trace back the tradition of garlands

in the Greco-Roman world and then follow its confluence with Buddhism.

Garlands played a substantial role in the Greek and Roman way of life. It was used in

events and celebrations such as the May day, Beltane, symposia, adventus (arrival of

royals in their kingdom), marriage ceremonies, panhellenic games, carneia festivals,

commemorations of dead, rituals of animal sacrifice and tomb decoration etc.

Moreover, distinctive floral garlands were specific to the cults of particular gods and

godesses such as Apollo, Consus, Daphne, Aphrodite, and Nike. However art acted in

both cultures as a reflection through which artists could communicate the goal of life

according to aesthetic canons. With naturalism and realism they created an art that

connected people and divine beings. Sacred sculptures were acclaimed with ritual

offerings such as incense, perfumes, flowers and garlands. Roman artists employed

Greek‟s standards of representing gods.

Garlands remained an important decorative element in Roman portraits, monuments

and sacrophagi. It was widely used for ornamenting walls of temple, memorial altars,

pottery, jewellery, heroic sculptures, houses and administrative buildings. Assorted

fruits, vegetables, herbs and foliages were designed in a garland which were mostly

depicted as supported by cupid figures or attached to animal heads. For example the

walls of the temples of Portunus (120 BCE) and Vesta (1st century BCE) were

decorated with various ornaments, libation bowls, floral and fruit garlands (attached

to ox‟s head) or carried by erotic figures. Also the funerary altar of Augustus was

adorned with garlands supported by ox heads to signify the peace that Augustus

brought to Rome. Romans also incorporated Greek deities in their religion.

Roman principles invaded the cultural settings of Asia Minor bringing a significant

change in their art and ethics. The use of decorating sculptures with garlands travelled

between different religions by means of trade, religious missionaries and military

invasions. For example, in Hinduism and Buddhism, garlands became an important

symbol of honor, glory and divinity. Hindu sacred texts such as Manasollasa,

Mahabharata and Ramayana mention the perfumes prepared with different flower

extracts, e.g. jasmine, sesam oil, cardamon, saffron, clove, etc. Moreover, flowers

were used for making garlands for ceremonial and secular purpose. Ceremonial

practices in Hinduism had a great influence over Buddhist rituals, although those acts

were typically related with showing respect and dedication to Buddha. Donation of

fragrances, garlands, music and dance were likely related in Buddhist devotional acts.

Garlands and perfumes played an important role in the cult and were considered as

common offerings to Buddha. They were a key element in performing rituals such as

the veneration of the stupa, amuletic practices, adoration of Buddha‟s relics,

celebration of Mahaparinirvana (enlightenment), fasting rules, crowning of Buddha,

honoring of Buddha‟s footprints, Buddhist dana (charity), etc.

There are hundreds of mentions in Buddhist texts about sacramental acts among

which is the adorning of stupa with floral garlands. It is stated in Mahavastu that a

devotee should donate and adorn the stupa with floral garlands (2:492-493 [2:331]).

The Buddhist text Mahasamghikas states that when a worshipper practices such

conventional act (of honoring the stupa with garlands) will get profusion, peace and

freedom from the samsara (birth-rebirth cycle). Buddhists believe that when

ceremonial chants are sung, heavenly beings assemble to overhear the recital, earth

shakes, holy music begins and floral garlands start to fall down from heavens (1:81-82

[1:57]). Dhammapada, the Lotus sutra and Mahavastu describe garland as a pure gift

given to spiritual beings. In modern day Buddhist context, floral garlands signifies

spirituality. Garlands used in rituals are very fragrant as different types of flowers are

used, for instance spider lilies, jasmine, plumeria or roses.

Buddhism reached Gandhara region in the 5th

century BCE. Soon it established a

strong association with the Greco-Roman elite. But after a long period of decline,

during the 5th

to 11th

century CE, Buddhism lost its strength and disappeared.

However external invasions and trade networks resulted in a significant change in the

socio-political, spiritual and traditional aspects of Gandhara society as well as in its

art.

Gandhara art promoted from the beginning of Buddhist teachings; by narrating

Buddha‟s life and events from his previous births. Symbolic illustrations of Buddhist

legends acted as a stimulus for the devotees. Images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas

communicated dharma (religion). All these objects expressed the distinction of

Buddha and his companions. Greek and Roman mythical figures and symbols were

also extensively adopted in Gandharan reliefs, for example corinthian pillars, acanthus

plant, beads and reels, rolls, dentil frieze, foliages, vines, twigs, erotic figures, cupids

bearing garland, pictures, triton and floral garlands.

The usage and symbolism of garlands in Gandharan art has an intricate history. The

tradition of garland‟s usage originated from ancient Iranian families who used such

floral diadems to represent the concept of land as land was imperative for the

hegemony of people. This motif was initially represented in Greek art which was later

on adopted by Romans. It became a prevalent symbol in the 2nd

century CE and

started to appear on sarcophagi produced in Asia Minor. From Asia Minor they

reached the eastern world, including Gandhara region. However according to

numismatic evidence, Bactrian Greeks were the first to establish their rule in

Gandhara. Therefore it might be possible that initially Greeks spread the motif in the

region.

The heyday of Gandharan art was between the 2nd

and 3rd

century CE (the Kushan

era), which resulted in both economic and spiritual prosperity in the region. During

this period, a group of idols external to the vedic practices appeared as a dominant

figures in Indian faiths, literature and iconography, although garlands belong to vedic

practices of worshipping sacred structures. Putti and garland motifs were carved on

these structures to indicate fertility and abundance. Depictions of cupid figures,

images of Buddhist offerings and holding of hands in adoration on Gandharan reliefs

are proofs that garland carriers and garlands certainly imitated Greek and Roman

design, although the clue is indigenous. Therefore the amalgamation of Greco-Roman

legacy with the local Indian belief system gave rise to a notable Buddhist art.

Garland motifs are widely carved on Gandharan sculptures, reliefs and panels. It is

carved in different forms, to border important events or for the decoration of the stupa

drum and walls of the monastery. There are hundereds of sites in Gandhara where

garland imagery is found carved on stupas and sculptures. These sites include Taxila,

where garland motifs are depicted on the reliefs of Dharmarajika stupa, Sirkap stupa

and Kunala monastery. Moreover, garland bearers are depicted on the Butkara stupa

III situated in Swat region, the Chat Pat monastery located in the lower Dir district,

the Loriyan Tangai stupa and the stupa at Shah ji ki Dheri located in Peshawar. Some

of these garlands are heavily loaded with flowers, fruits and foliage, upon which birds

are sitting nibbling fruits. These huge garlands are supported by naked figures on both

sides. Garlands are either carried by cupid figures accompanying Buddha or they are

placed on the head of Buddha by Bodhisattvas and celestial beings symbolizing his

enlightenment and wisdom. Various sculptures of divine beings are represented

holding flowers and garlands as an offering to Buddha denoting Buddha‟s victory

over temptations (derived from the Greek concept of spiritual success). Vedas call

these figures apsaras (attractive spiritual women) and devas (divine beings). In the

Lotus sutra, they are merged with other deities such as devas (celestial beings), nagas

(giant serpents), asuras (mystical beings), yakshas (nature spirits), gandharavas

(blissful choirs), garudas (mythological birds), kinnaras (man and animal like figures)

and mahoragas (huge snakes).

Gandhara art is then representative of the Buddhist context but also of a cultural

blend. The incorporation of alien cultural elements into the Buddhist traditions

consequently established a new symbolic ritual of honoring Buddha with prayerful

offerings such as sacred music, dance, ceremonial hymns, incense, lights, balms,

perfumes, signs, food, garlands and flowers. Gandhara appears as the only existing

culture documenting these cultural interactions.

Bibliography

Abdur Rahman, “Garland Bearer Relief From Shrine C at Butkara III Swat,” Lahore

Museum Bulletin, 1 (Lahore: Lahore Museum, 1995): 5-8

A. Ray, Reginald, Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist Values and

Orientations, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994): 43, 335, 348

Behrendt, Kurt A. & Pia Brancaccio, Gandharan Buddhism: Archaeology, Art and

Texts, (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2006): 164

Behrendt, Kurt A., The Art of Gandhara in The Metropolitan Museum of Art (New

York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2007): 20, 26-55, 67-68, 110-111

Berkwitz, Stephen C., The History of The Buddha Relic Shrine, (New York: Oxford

University Press, 2007): 120

Belozerskaya, Marina & Kenneth Lapatin, Ancient Greece: Art, Architechture and

History (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2004): 6,17

Bhaskar, V.S., Faith and Philosophy of Buddhism, (Delhi: Kalpaz Publications, 2004):

63

Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions, (USA: Encyclopedia Britannica, INC.

2006): 99

Burlingame, Eugene Watson, A Treasury of Buddhist Stories: From the Dhammapada

Commentary, (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Soceity, 1996): 14, 42

Bromberg, Carol Altman, “The Putto and Garland In Asia,” Bulletin of the Asia

Institute, Vol.2 (1988): 67, 74-75

Bulliet, Richard, The Earth and Its People: A Global History, 6th

edition (Stamford:

Cengage Learning, 2014): 127

Berkwitz, Stephan C., et al., Buddhist manuscript cultures, (Abingdon: Routledge,

2009): 163,167-168

Boisselier, Jean, The Image of the Buddha (Chicago: Serindia Publication Inc., 1978):

59

Chakraverty, Anjan, Sacred Buddhist Paintings, (New Delhi: Lustree Press Private

Ltd., 1998): 25

Chawla, Jyotsna, The Rig Vedic Deities and Their Iconographic Forms (New Delhi:

Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Private Limited, 1990): 189

Cirlot, Juan Eduardo, A Dictionary of Symbols, 2nd

edition, (Mineola, New York:

Dover Publications Inc., 1971): 115

Ciro Lo Muzio, Indian History and Art: Reflection on The Past, Perspectives For The

Future, Edited (Rome: Sapienza Università Editrice, 2012): 320,330-331

Copp, Paul, The Body Incantatory: Spells and Ritual Imagination in Medieval

Chinese Buddhism, (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004): 47, 61-63

Cunningham, Alexander, Report for the Year 1872-73, Vol.5 (Calcutta: Calcutta

superintendent printing, 1875): 46-47

Cyrino, Monica S., Aphrodite ( New York: Routledge Publishers, 2010): 03

Dani, Ahmed Hassan, History of Pakistan Through Ages, (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel

Publishers, 2008): 12, 87-88, 120-121

Dani, Ahmad Hassan, “excavation at Chatpat,” Ancient Pakistan, Vol.4 (1968-

69):65-67

Dar, Saif-ur-Rahman, “A Fresh Study of Four Unique Temples at Takshasila

(Taxila),” Journal of Central Asia, 3/1 (1980): 91-96

Elinor, Robert, Buddha and Christ: Images of Wholeness, (New York: Weatherhill

Inc. 2000): 48, 129-130

Garland, Robert, Daily Life of Ancient Greeks, 2nd

Edition (London: Green Wood

Press, 2009): 146

Ghani-Ur-Rahman, “The Battle for Enlightenment: Buddha Success Against the

Temptation and Assaults by Mara in Gandhara Art,” Journal of Asian Civilization,

32/1 (2007): 60

Gombrich, Richard, et al., Buddhism, (London: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1984): 105

Gupta, Sunil, Early Sculptural Art in the Indian Coastlands: A Study in Cultural

Transmission and Syncretism (300 BCE-CE 500), (New Delhi: D K Print world,

2008): 49

Grimassi, Raven, Spirit of the Witch: Religion and Spiriuality in Contemprory

Witchcraft (USA: Llewellyn worldwide st.paul Publishers, 2003): 39-41

Gagarin, Michael & Elaine Fantham, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and

Rome, 1 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010): 63, 81, 83, 123, 149, 177, 256,

366-367

Grafton, Anthony, Glenn W. Most & Salvatore Settis, The Classical Tradition, Edited

(London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010): 385

Hanif, Waqar, Gandhara Culture: Cultural Caravan of Pakistan (Islamabad: Best

Books Publishers, 2005): 57

Hunter, Norah T., The Art of Floral Design, 2nd

edition (New York: Delmar

Publications, 2008): 4-5

Keown, Damien & Charles S. Prebish, Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Edited (Abingdon:

Routledge Publishers, 2010)

Khan, Muhammad Ishtiaq, “Buddhism in Gandhara: Some Thoughts,”Journal of

Asian Civilization, 21/2(1998): 53-57, 61

Khan, Muhammad Nasim, “Epigraphy in Pakistan,” The Glory that was Pakistan, 50

Years of Archaeological Research in Pakistan, Department of Archaeology,

University of Peshawar and National Heritage of Pakistan (1998): 165-166

Kitagawa, Joseph M., The Religious Tradition of Asia: Religion, History and Culture

(Abingdon: Routledge Publishers, 2002): 65

Klokke, Marijke J. & Pauline Lunsingh Scheurleer, Ancient Indonesian Sculpture,

Edited (Leiden: KITLV Press, 1994): 15

Krishan, Y., The Buddha Image, Its Origin and Development, (New Delhi:

Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1996):13-14, 20, 31

Kalupahana, David J., Buddhist Thought and Ritual, (Dehli: Motilal Banarsidass

Publishers, 2001): 128

Karetzky, Patricia Eichenbaum, “The Image of the Winged Celestial and Its Travels

along the Silk Road,” Sino Platonic Papers, 225 (2012):17

Lanzi, Fernando & Gioia Lanzi, Saints and Their Symbols: Recognizing Saints in Art

and in Popuar Images, Translated by Matthew J.O. Connell (Italy: Liturgical Press,

2004): 25-26

Lee, Mireille M., Body, Dress and Identity in ancient Greece, (New York: Cambridge


Le May, Reginal, A Concise History of Buddhist art in Siam, (UK: Cambridge


Lerner, Martin & Steven Kossak, The Lotus Transcendent: Indian and Southeast

Asian Art from The Samuel Eilenberg Collection (New York: The Metropolitan

Museum of Art, 1991): 185

Luczanits, Christian, “Buddhism in a Cosmopolitan Environment: The Art of

Gandhara” Orientations, Vol. 39 No.7 (2008): 44

Loeschner, Hans, et al, The stupa of Kushan Emperor Kanishka the great, with

comments on Azes Era and Kushan Chronology (USA: Department of East Asian

Languages and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, 2012): 4-5.

Marshall, John, A Guide to Taxila (Calcutta: Superintendent Printing, 1918): 59-64.

Moulton, Carroll, Ritual and Sacrifice in Ancient Greece and Rome: An Encyclopedia

for Students, Vol. 3 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1998): 178-180

Mikalson, John D., Ancient Greek Religion, 2nd

edition (United Kingdom: Wiley-

Blackwell Publishers, 2010): 127

Moore, Albert C., Iconography of Religion (London: SCM Press Ltd., 1977): 83, 95,

143-144

Mughal, A.M, “Gandhara Art the Pride of Pakistan,” Journal of Asian Civilization,

30/2 (2007): 17-22

Nugteren, Albertina, Belief, Bounty and Beauty: Rituals Around Sacred Trees in

India, (Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, Leiden, 2005): 194-195, 204, 226

Pal, Pratapaditya, Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C- A.D. 700, 1 (London & Los

Angeles: London & Los Angeles County Museum of Art and University of California

Press, 1986): 21, 42

Roy, Christian, Traditionl Festivals: A Multicultural Encyclopedia,1 (California:

ABC-CLIO Inc., 2005): 281

Reeves, Gene, The Lotus Sutra: A Contemprory Classic of a Buddhist Classic (

Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2008): 426

Rafi-Us-Samad, The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the

Swat, Peshawar, Kabul Valley and Indus Valleys (New York: Algora Publishing,

2011): 24,106, 111, 113-116, 129, 165, 169-170

Rhind, Jennifer Peace, Fragrance and Wellbeing: Plant Aromatics and Their

Influence on The Psyche, (London: Singing Dragon Publishers, 2014): 109-110

Robert, Helene E., Encyclopedia of Comparative Iconography: Themes Depicted in

Works of Art, (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1998): 919

Rogić, Dragana et al., “Wreath Its Use and Meaning in Ancient Visual Culture,

Religion and Tolerance,” Journal of the Centre for Empirical Researches on Religion,

10/18 (2012): 342-343

Rosenfield, John M., The Dynastic Art of The Kushans (Los Angeles: University of

California Press, 1967): 262

Saeed-ur-Rahman, “Introduction to Gandhara,” Journal of Central Asia, 13/1 (1990):

47-49

S.Cohen, Richard, The Splended Vision: Reading A Buddhist Sutra, (New York:

Columbia University Press, 2012):10-128

Sharma, R.C., Buddhism and Gandhara Art, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press,

1989): 4-5

Sardar, Badshah & Saleem-Ul-Haq, “Gandhara: A Buddhist School of Art,” Journal

of Central Asia, 20/1 (1997): 23

Shaw, Miranda, Buddhist Goddesses of India, (New York: Princeton University Press,

2006): 56-57

Sterlin, Henry, The Cultural History of India, 2nd ed., (London: Wiley Black Well

Publishers,1983): 16

Smith, William, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities, (London: John

Murray, 1857): 1029-1030

Smith, Tyler Jo, A Companion to Greek Art, 1 (USA: John Wiley & Sons, 2012): 23

Safra, Jacob. E., Encyclopedia of World Religions (Chicago: Britannica

Encyclopedia, INC., 2008): 174, 184, 262, 483

Stanco, Ladislav, Greek Gods in The East: Hellenistic Iconographic Schemes in

Central Asia (Prague: Karolinum Press, 2011): 116, 244

Strong, John S., Relics of The Buddha, (New Jersey: Princeton University Press,

2004): 110-130

Swati, M. Farooq , “Garland bearer reliefs from Butkara III Swat,” A Research

Bulletin of National Heritage Foundation Peshawar, 1 (1997): 118-119

Swearer, Donald K., Becoming the Buddha: The Ritual of Image Consecration in

Thailand, (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2004) :23-24

Tanveer, Tahira & Amanullah, “Historical Development of the Buddhist Art of

Gandhara: A Stylistic Analysis”, Journal of Central Asia, 27/1 (2004): 29

Tanner, Jeremy, The Invention of Art History in Ancient Greece: Religion, Society and

Artistic Rationalization (United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2006): 47-48,

122

Thapar, Romila, A History of India (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1966)

Thompson, Nancy L., Roman Art: A Resource for Educators (New York: The

Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2007): 18, 124, 177

Trainor, Kevin, Relics, Ritual and Representation in Buddhism, (UK: Cambridge

university press, 1997): 161,171

Trainor, Kevin, Buddhism, (London: Duncan Baired Publishers, 1996): 36

Varadpande, M.L., History of Indian Theatre,1, (Dehli: Abhinav Pblications, 1987):

129-130

Warraich, Tauqeer Ahmed, “Gandhara Art: An Apraisal”, Pakistan Vision Vol.16

No.2 (Lahore: University of Punjab, 2015): 21-31

Wilkins, John & Robin Nadeau, A Companion to Food in The Ancient World (United

Kingdom: John Wiley and Sons, 2015): 234, 235,171

Wilson, Roberta, Aromatherapy: Essential oils for Vibrant Health and Beauty (New

York: Penguin Putnam INC., 2002): 85, 91, 98

Wilson, Nigel, Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece, (New York: Routledge Publishers,

2006): 188, 396

Yoshinori, Takeuchi, et al, Buddhist Spirituality: Indian, Southeast Asian, Tibetan

and Early Chinese, Edited (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1995):

142, 363-364

Zwalf, W., A Catalogue of Gandhara Stone Sculptures in British Museum, (London,

The British Museum Press, 1, (1996): 15

Internet References

www.Britannica.com/art/garland-floral-decoration

www.growerdirect.com/aBrief\History\on\the\art\of\Flower\Arrangement

https://www.academia.edu/3724261/New_Light_on_and_from_the_Muhammad_Nari

_Stele\


https://www.academia.edu/3724261/New_Light_on_and_from_the_Muhammad_Nari

_Stele




https://www.academia.edu/25319826/The_Origin_of_the_Buddha_Image_Gandhara_

and_Colonialism_vs._Mathura_and_Anti-colonialism

http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/sculptures-statues-figures/a-gray-schist-stupa-

relief-with-garland-5593950-details.aspx

http://collections.lacma.org/node/229287

https://jampasmandala.wordpress.com/2012/11/

https://www.academia.edu/22447757/The_Putto_and_Garland_in_Asia?auto=downlo

ad

https://www.the-saleroom.com/en-us/auction-catalogues/timeline-auctions-

limited/catalogue-id-srtime10014/lot-b272a17b-8670-418f-8257-a431009da8b6

http://www.britannica.com/art/garland-floral-decoration

http://www.growerdirect.com/aBrief/History/on/the/art/of/Flower/Arrangement

https://www.academia.edu/3724261/New_Light_on_and_from_the_Muhammad_Nari_Stele/

https://www.academia.edu/3724261/New_Light_on_and_from_the_Muhammad_Nari_Stele/







https://www.academia.edu/25319826/The_Origin_of_the_Buddha_Image_Gandhara_and_Colonialism_vs._Mathura_and_Anti-colonialism

https://www.academia.edu/25319826/The_Origin_of_the_Buddha_Image_Gandhara_and_Colonialism_vs._Mathura_and_Anti-colonialism

http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/sculptures-statues-figures/a-gray-schist-stupa-relief-with-garland-5593950-details.aspx


http://collections.lacma.org/node/229287

https://jampasmandala.wordpress.com/2012/11/



https://www.the-saleroom.com/en-us/auction-catalogues/timeline-auctions-limited/catalogue-id-srtime10014/lot-b272a17b-8670-418f-8257-a431009da8b6

https://www.the-saleroom.com/en-us/auction-catalogues/timeline-auctions-limited/catalogue-id-srtime10014/lot-b272a17b-8670-418f-8257-a431009da8b6



http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/s/largeimage59076.html

https://no.pinterest.com/pin/389772542728443999

http://www.dcancientart.com/proddetail.asp?prod=AS113#sthash.uUfFDEro.dpbs

https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/museums/delhi/earlynb.html

http://www.inst.at/trans/16Nr/05_1/sengupta16.htm

http://www.bonhams.com/auctions/20997/lot/54

https://ferrebeekeeper.wordpress.com/tag/greek




https://nordonart.wordpress.com/2012/03/26/serious-bling-antiquities-at-christies-in-

london




http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1987.142.213


www.metmuseum.org\toah\hd\gand\hd-gand.htm

http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/sculptures-statues-figures/a-gray-schist-stupa-

relief-with-garland-5593950-details.aspx

https://chandrashekharasandprints.wordpress.com/2012/02/15/garland-bearers-of-the-

buddha



http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/49809\



http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/s/largeimage59076.html


http://www.dcancientart.com/proddetail.asp?prod=AS113#sthash.uUfFDEro.dpbs

https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/museums/delhi/earlynb.html

http://www.inst.at/trans/16Nr/05_1/sengupta16.htm

http://www.bonhams.com/auctions/20997/lot/54





https://nordonart.wordpress.com/2012/03/26/serious-bling-antiquities-at-christies-in-london

https://nordonart.wordpress.com/2012/03/26/serious-bling-antiquities-at-christies-in-london




http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1987.142.213





https://chandrashekharasandprints.wordpress.com/2012/02/15/garland-bearers-of-the-buddha

https://chandrashekharasandprints.wordpress.com/2012/02/15/garland-bearers-of-the-buddha



http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/49809/

https://himalayanbuddhistart.wordpress.com/category/all/gandhara-culture/page/2/









http://www.gettyimages.no/detail/photo/naked-genius-holding-up-garland-and-large-

high-res-stock-photography/479643287




www.gettyimages.no/detail/illustration/vase-with-cultic-scene-with-musicians-by-

nikias-painter-stock-graphic

http://wpedia.goo.ne.jp/enwiki/Wreath_(attire)


http://uncouthreflections.com/2014/03/30/a-day-in-the-life-of-an-ancient-athenian-

citizen/

https://houseappeal.wordpress.com/2012/07/30/an-olympic-emblem-the-glory-of-the-

laurel-leaf

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/526780487639770107














http://www.gettyimages.no/detail/photo/naked-genius-holding-up-garland-and-large-high-res-stock-photography/479643287

http://www.gettyimages.no/detail/photo/naked-genius-holding-up-garland-and-large-high-res-stock-photography/479643287






http://wpedia.goo.ne.jp/enwiki/Wreath_(attire)




https://houseappeal.wordpress.com/2012/07/30/an-olympic-emblem-the-glory-of-the-laurel-leaf

https://houseappeal.wordpress.com/2012/07/30/an-olympic-emblem-the-glory-of-the-laurel-leaf

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/526780487639770107









www.metmuseum.org\toah\hd\gand\hd-gand.htm


http://erenow.com/ancient/the-greeks-in-asia/7.html

https://www.academia.edu/3579147/Gandharan_Toilet-

Trays_Some_Reflections_on_Chronology

www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/beginners-guide-

rome/a/introduction-to-ancient-roman-art

http://www2.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk/projects/iarc/culturewithoutcontext/issue3/Ghandar

a.gif

www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/king-kaniska-conquest-administration-

and-culture

https://global.britannica.com/art/garland-floral-decoration

www.Bibletools.org\garland-as-symbol.htm

www.littleindiadirectory.com\ulimate Guide-to-Indian-Flower-Garlands\




http://www.olympic.org/museum/explore/press/photo-library

http://cas.umt.edu/english/joyce/notes/010020ancientgreek.htm


https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/25.78.29/









http://erenow.com/ancient/the-greeks-in-asia/7.html

https://www.academia.edu/3579147/Gandharan_Toilet-Trays_Some_Reflections_on_Chronology

https://www.academia.edu/3579147/Gandharan_Toilet-Trays_Some_Reflections_on_Chronology



http://www2.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk/projects/iarc/culturewithoutcontext/issue3/Ghandara.gif

http://www2.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk/projects/iarc/culturewithoutcontext/issue3/Ghandara.gif



https://global.britannica.com/art/garland-floral-decoration

http://www.bibletools.org/garland-as-symbol.htm

http://www.littleindiadirectory.com/ulimate%20Guide-to-Indian-Flower-Garlands/




http://www.olympic.org/museum/explore/press/photo-library

http://cas.umt.edu/english/joyce/notes/010020ancientgreek.htm


https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/25.78.29/






www.matk.gr\en\collections\south-east-asian-art-

colection\thematicunits\theArtofGandhara

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Symposium_BM_E68_croped.jpg




http://www.matk.gr/en/collections/south-east-asian-art-colection/thematicunits/theArtofGandhara

http://www.matk.gr/en/collections/south-east-asian-art-colection/thematicunits/theArtofGandhara

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Symposium_BM_E68_croped.jpg

Symbolism of Garland as a Cult Object in Gandhara Art · Garland Bearers ... Figure 34 Classical...

Documents

Transcript of Symbolism of Garland as a Cult Object in Gandhara Art · Garland Bearers ... Figure 34 Classical...