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B.Com 3rd Sem. (Hons.) Subject- Moral Values & Language

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SYLLABUS

Class – B.Com 3rd Sem (Hons.)

Subject – Moral Values & Language

(PART-A)

UNIT – I

uSfrd ewY; &

1- f'kdkxks O;k[;ku & Lokeh foosdkuan 2- /keZ vkSj jk"Vªokn & egf"kZ vjfoUn

3- lknxh & egkRek xka/kh 4- Hk; ls eqfDr & ts- d".kewfrZ

5- fpRr tgk¡ Hk; 'kwU; & johUnzukFk Bkdqj

UNIT – II fgUnh Hkk"kk &

1- dNqvk /keZ ¼fuca/k½ & pUnz/kj 'kekZ ^xqysjh* 2- og rksM+rh iRFkj ¼dfork½ & fujkyk

3- liuksa dh mM+ku ¼izsjd fuca/k & ,-ih-ts- vCnqy dyke 4- phQ dh nkor ¼dgkuh½ & Hkh"e lgkuh

5- o.kZ&foU;kl ¼O;kdj.kijd½ & fo'oukFk izlkn feJ

UNIT – III fgUnh Hkk"kk &

1- vkfnoklh /kjksgj ¼fuca/k½ & MkW- ';kekpj.k nqcs 2- ukjhRo dk vfHk'kki ¼fuca/k½ & egknsoh oekZ

3- czãk.M dh jpuk ¼oSKkfud ys[k½ & t;ar fo".kq ukyhZdj 4- izeq[k oSKkfud vkfo"dkj ¼ladfyr½

5- laf/k vkSj lekl ¼ladfyr½

(PART-B) UNIT – IV

English Language – 1. Tree: Tina Morris 2. Night of the scorpion : Nisssim Ezekiel 3. What is Science? : George Orwell 4. On the Rule of the Road: A.G. Gardiner

UNIT – V English Language – Comprehension of Unseen Passages, Paragraph Writing, Report-writing, short essay on a given topic. Correspondence skills (Formal & Informal Letters and Application) Basic Language Skills: Tenses, prepositions, determiners, verbs & articles.



;wfuV&1 1- 11 flrEcj 1893 dks vesfjdk ds f”vf/kos”ku esa iwjs fo”o ds /keZ izfrfuf/k mifLFkr gq,A fgUnw /keZ dk izfrfuf/kRo Lokeh foosdkuanth us fd;kA

vius O;k[;ku esa lcls igys Lokehth us lEcks/ku fd;k ^^vesfjdkoklh HkkbZ;ksa vkSj cguksa**A buds bl

HkkoukRed lEcks/ku dk vesfjdk turk ij xgjk izHkko iM+kA vius O;k[;ku esa loZizFke mUgksaus fgUnw /keZ

ds lHkh ererkUrjksa dh vksj ls /kU;okn nsrs gq, vius fgUnw gksus ij xoZ trk;k] mUgksaus dgk fd eSa ml

fgUnw /keZ dk vuq;k;h gksus ij xoZ eglwl djrk gw¡ ftlus iwjs fo”dk ikB i<+k;kA mUgksaus dgk dh eq>s vfHkeku gS vius ns”k ij ftlus fo”

vius O;k[;ku esa Lokeh foosdkuanth us Hkkjrh; laLd`fr ,oa /keZ dh egRrk crkrs gq, fgUnw /keZ ds ifo=

rk dks O;Dr fd;kA mUgksaus

gB/kfeZrk] /kekZU/krk ,oa lkEiznkf;d fo}s"k dh Hkkouk dks lEiw.kZ fo”o ds fy, ?kkrd crk;k] D;ksafd ;gh

?k`f.kr izo`fÙk;k¡ ;qxksa&;qxksa ls bl lqUnj i`Foh dks jDr ls Hkjrh jgrh gSA vxj ;s ,slh u gksxh rks] ekuo

lekt bruk nkuoh o vekuoh; u gksrkA vius O;k[;ku esa mUgksaus ekuo tkfr ds dY;k.k ds fy, vkilh

tkuk pkfg,A mUgksaus mnkgj.k fn;k dh ;fn cht Hkwfe esa cks fn;k x;k vkSj feV~Vh ok;q vkSj ty mlds

vklikl j[k fn;s x;s] rks D;k cht fdlh ,d dk gks tk,xk ;k mlh ds vuqlkj c<+sxkA ,slk ugha gS

cht rks vius o`f) ds fu;e ls gh c<+sxkA ,slk gh /keZ ds laca/k eas gSA izR;sd /keZ dk viuk lkj gS] viuk

vUr esa esjs rd gh igq¡prs gSA foosdkuan th us ;g fo”okl trk;k fd ,d le; ,slk vk,xk tc izR;sd

/keZ dh irkdk ij ;g fy[kk gksxk fd lgk;rk djks] yM+ks er] ij Hkko fouk”erHksn vkSj dygA var esa Lokehth us eap ls /kU;okn fn;k mu yksxksa dks ftUgksaus vius /keZ ds ckjs esa

crk;kA ml egku~ O;fDr dks /kU;okn ftlds fnekx esa loZizFke bl /keZ lEesyu dk [;ky vk;k] mUgs

lkSgknZ ds okrkoj.k esa bls lqukA

1- lf{kfIr;k¡& - gjnso ckgjh

us bls vaxzsth ds ,sczhos”

” qDr gksrs gS(

laf{kfIr dgykrs gSA

mnk- jk- i- fu-& jkT; ifjogu fuxe

jk- lq-

;w- th- lh- ;wfuoflZVh xzkaV deh”ku ,e- ih- e/;izns”k Lakf{kIr ds :i& 1- ekSf[kd 2- fyf[kr



1- ;g vius vki esa iw.kZ gksrh gS

2-

3-

4- blesa le; dh cpr gksrh gSA

5- blesa eq[k esa lq[k gksrk gSA

1-2 /keZ vkSj jk"Vªokn ¼egf"kZ vjfoUn½ Lkkjka'k– egf"kZ vjfoUn ds vuqlkj v/;kRe gh jk"Vªokn gS] os jk"Vªokn dks ,d fopkj ekurs Fks vkSj /keZ dks

vkLFkkA egf"kZ vjfoUn fgUnw /keZ dks lukru /keZ ekurs FksA lukru /keZ fo'oO;kih /keZ gSaA ;g /keZ fofo/k

/keksZa dks vius vUnj lekfgr dj ysrk gS] vr% tks /keZ loZ/keZ dks lekfgr djs] ogha lukru /keZ gSaA

lukru /keZ dk fo'ks"krk,¡& 1. lukru /keZ loZ/keZ dk lEeku djrk gSa rFkk ;g /keZ bZ'oj dks gekjs fudV gksus dk vkHkkl

djokrk gSaA

2. lukru /keZ ekuo vkSj bZ'oj ds chp ek/;e dk dk;Z djrk gSA blds }kjk ekuo bZ'oj dks çkIr

dj ldrk gSA

3. lukru /keZ lR; ij vk/kkfjr gS] lR; dks igpkuus dk lk/ku lukru /keZ gSaA

4. ;g /keZ oSKkfud vfo"dkjksa ,oa n'kZu'kkL= dk iwokZHkkl djrk gSaA

5. Lkalkfjd thou dks bZ'oj dh yhyk crykrs gq, gesa dSls viuk thou thuk gSa] mldk lRekxZ

crykrk gSA

6. lukru /keZ ekuo eu esa vkLFkk tkxzr djrk gS fd Hkxoku loZFkk loZO;kih gSaA

7. lukru /keZ thou dk y{; fu/kkZfjr djrk gSA

8. lukru /keZ gj d.k esa fo|eku rRo dk lR; crykrk gSaA

9. lalkj esa bZ'ojh; 'kfDr ds gksus dk cks/k djokrk gS

1-3 Lkknxh ¼eksgunkl djepUnz xk¡/kh½ Lkkjka'k– Lkknxh fucU/k egkRek xk¡/kh dh vkRedFkk ‘lR; ds ç;ksx^ dk va'k gSA xk¡/khth lknxh ikB ds

fu;ferrk] lnkpkj ,oa lR; tSlh Hkkoukvksa dk lk{kh jgk gSA egkRek xka/kh dk ;g QylQk jgk gS] fd

tgk¡ rd laHko gks lds euq"; dks vius nSfud thou ds lHkh O;fDrxr dk;Z Lo;a djuk pkfg, vkSj

nwljksa dks Hkh bl fo"k; esa çsfjr djuk pkfg,A egkRek xk¡/kh ds thou ds vusd ,sls laLej.kksa dks bl

fucU/k fuEukfdar ?kVukvksa ds ek/;e ls vfHkO;Dr fd;k x;k gSA

?kVuk Øekad & 1. /kksch dk [kpZ ?kVkus ds mn~ns'; ls os cktkj ls diM+s /kksus dk lkeku vkSj /kqykbZ

dyk ij ,d iqLrd i<+dj diM+s /kksus dk dk;Z Lo;a djrs gSa vkSj viuh iRuh dks Hkh fl[kkrs gSaA bl u;s

dk;Z dks djus ls mUgsa vkuUn dh vuqHkwfr gksrh gSA

?kVuk Øekad – 2. ,d ckj tksgkUlcxZ esa xks[kys ,d cM+s Hkk"k.k esa Lo- egknso xksfoan jkukMs dh

çlknLo:i nh xbZ pknj dks iguuk pkgrs Fks] ysfdu pknj ij f'kdu gksus vkSj /kksch dh O;oLFkk uk gksus



ls os ugha igu ik jgs Fks rc xk¡/khth us çkFkZuk dh fd os Lo;a bl ij bL=h dj nsxsa ysfdu xks[kysth dks

Mj Fkk fd os pknj ij nkx rks ugh yxk nsaxsA

?kVuk Øekad –3. ,d ckj fçVksfj;k esa ,d vaxzst gTtke }kjk muds cky dkVus ls lkQ bUdkj dj

mudk vieku fd;kA xk¡/khth us ml oDr Hkh ;gha lkspk fd – ^^ml gTtke dk dksbZ nks"k ugha gS og

dkys peM+hokyksa ds cky dkVus yxs rks mldh jksth ekjh tk,A Hkkjr esa Hkh vNwrksa ds cky mPp o.kZ ds

fgUnqvksa dks gTtkeksa dks dkVus ugha nsrs gSaA

1-4 Hk; ls eqfDr ¼ts- Ñ".k ewfrZ½ ;g fucU/k ys[kd ts- Ñ".kewfrZ }kjk fy[kk x;k gSA bl fucU/k esa ys[kd us O;fDr dh vknrksa ds lEcU/k esa

çdk'k Mkyrs gq, mlds thou esa mRiUu gksus okys Hk; dks fo'ysf"kr fd;k gSA

ys[kd us vknr ds lEcU/k esa vius fopkj j[krs gSa& vknrksa dks lekIr fd;k tk ldrk gS] vknrksa ls

NqVdkjk ikus ds fy, çk;% nks /kkj.kk,¡ dk;Z djrh gSa&

1- igyh vknrksa dk çfrjks/k djukA

2- nwljh mls le>dj mlds dkj.kksa dks tkuus ds ckn mls lekIr djukA

fdUrq euq"; çfrjks/k djus ls nwljh vknr dks cuk ysrk gS ,d dks NksM+dj nwljksa dh vknr esa fy;k gks

tkrk gSA tSls dksbZ euq"; ;fn rEckdw dk lsou djrk gks rks og bl vknr dks NksM+us esa lkSaQ lqikjh

[kkus dh vknr dks idM+ ysxkA

ys[kd Hk; dks Hkh ,d vknr ds :i esa crkrs gSaA ftlls NqVdkjk mls çfrjks/k ds }kjk ugha cfYd mlds

dkj.kkas dks tkudkj ik;k tk ldrk gSA blds fy, euq"; dks vfrfjDr ÅtkZ dh vko';drk eglwl djrs

gSaA ftlls ÅtkZ vkidh vknrksa dk lkeuk dj ldsA

ys[kd Hk; ds çdkj crkrs gq, mu ij vius fopkj j[krs gSa& Hk; nks çdkj dk gksrk gS] 'kjhfjd Hk; vkSj

ekufld Hk; ¼;k euksoSKkfud Hk;½ ftl Hk; esa dkj.k Kkr gks] mls Kkr Hk; dgk tk ldk gS fdUrq

vKkr Hk; gekjs eu dh xgjh ijrksa esa Nqis gq, jgrs gSaA Kkr Hk; dh vis{kk vKkr Hk; dks le>uk

vR;Ur dfBu gSA ;g vKkr Hk; gekjs eu dh xgjkb;ksa esa fn, gksrs gSa] ftUgsa mn~?kfVr djuk mldh

ijrksa dks [kksyuk lEHko ugha gksrkA

ys[kd efLr"d dh iw.kZ foJkafr ds fy, liuksa dk u vkuk vPNk ekurs gSa] ftlls euq"; iw.kZ foJkafr çkIr

dj ldrk gSA

1-5 fpÙk tgk¡ Hk; 'kwU; ¼johUnzukFk Bkdqj½ Lkkjka'k– ;g dfork ukscy iqjLdkj ls lEekfur egku ys[kd johUnzukFk Bkdqj dh Ñfr ^xhrktafy ls

vorfjr gSA ;g dfork loZçFke ckaXyk Hkk"kk esa jfpr dh xbZ Fkh rRi'pkr~ mldk fgUnh Hkk"kk esa

:ikUrj.k fd;k x;kA çLrqr dfork esa dfo ijefirk ijes'oj ls çkFkZuk djrs gq, Hkkjrokfl;ksa dks

LorU=rk çkfIr ds fy, tkxzr djrs gq, dgr gS fd gs ijefirk ijes'oj! tgk¡ eu efLr"d esa dksbZ Hk;

ugha gks] tgk¡ Kku dh dksbZ lhek ugha gSaA tgk¡ lnSo 'kh'k Å¡pkbZ dh vksj mBrs gSaA tgk¡ olqU/kjk x`g – çkphj ¼nhokj½ ls foHkkftr ugha gksrhA tgk¡ loZ= eu dh xgjkb;ksa ls lR; opu fu>Zj ¼cguk½ gksrs gSaA

tgk¡ Åij mBus ds fy;s ¼mRFkku gsrq½ vusd gkFk mBrs gSaA tgk¡ pkjksa fn'kkvksa esa lndeZ dh /kkjk cgrh

gSA tgk¡ gtkjksa ftUnfx;ksa dks thou dk mn~ns'; feyrk gSA tgk¡ uhp vkpj.k ekuo rks D;k çÑfr esa Hkh

ugha ik;k tkrk gS] tgk¡ pkjksa vksj lnSo vkuUn O;kIr jgrk gSA ,sls esjs LoxZ tSls ejs Hkkjr dks LorU=rk

dk eU= nksA loZ= ns'kokfl;ksa dks LorU=rk çkfIr ds fy, tkxzr dj nksA



;wfuV&2 2-1 dNqvk /keZ ¼pUnz/kj 'kekZ ^xqysjh^½ Lkkjka'k– pUnz/kj 'kekZ xqysjhth ds dNqvk /keZ fucU/k ds ek/;e ls fuf'pr :i ls fgUnqLrkuh lH;rk vkSj

laLÑfr dks u;s fopkj.kh; vk;ke çnku fd, gSA ,d fopkjkRed fucU/k gSA xqysjhth us ;g Li"V :i ls

le>kus dk ç;kl fd;k gS fd e;kZnk vkSj lhek esa jgdj la;ksftr :i ls dk;Z djrs gq, ekuoh; ewY;ksa

dk laj{k.k djuk uSfrdrk] leUo;rk] lkSgknzZ tSls xq.kksa dks loZO;kih cukuk gekjk deZ gksuk pkfg,]

ysfdu bldk vk'k; ;g dnkfi ugha gS fd ge vU;k; vkSj vR;kpkj dks lgu djrs tk;] D;ksafd tc

rd ge dNqvk /keZ R;kx dj vU;k; ds fo:) vkokt ugha mBk;saxs rc rd ,d LoPN o lekt dh

dYiuk djuk fujFkZd gSA

dNqvk /keZ dh foLr`r O;k[;k djrs gq, xqysjhth us Li"V fd;k gS fd fgUnw lH;rk dNqvk /keZ dk ikyu

cgqr rYyhurk ds lkFk djrh gSA ftl çdkj dNqvk fo"ke o foijhr ifjfLFkfr;ksa vkSj la?k"kksZa esa viuk

flj fNik ysrk gS rFkk viuh ykSg leku ihB dks viuh <ky cukdj leL;k ls cp fudyus dh dksf'k'k

djrk gS] Bhd oSlk gh lekt ds dfri; yksx djus yxs gSaA os fdlh leL;k dk lek/kku djus dh vis{kk

mlls cp fudyus dk ekxZ fudkyrs jgrs gSaA ys[kd us euq"; dh Hkh: çofÙk tSls lR; dk lkFk uk nsuk]

vU;k; ds fo:) vkokt uk mBkuk] vuqfpr fLFkfr;ksa esa fcuk fojkss/kkHkkl ds lek;ksftr gks tkuk vkfn ij

dM+k çgkj djrs gq, ;g lans'k fn;k gS fd vius Lofoosd ls dke ysaA fdlh ds dgus ij 'kDdj dk

lsou cUn dj nsuk] dq,¡ ij iknjh }kjk ;g dg fn, tkus ij fd ^eSaus blesa rqEgkjk vHk{; Mky fn;k gS^

fcuk lksps le>s ty Qsad nsus dh vis{kk eqEcbZ tkdj i'pkrki djukA ;g lHkh ÑR; euq"; dh voLFk

ekufld fLFkfr dk fp= çLrqr djrs gSA

2-2 og rksM+rh iRFkj ¼lw;ZdkUr f=ikBh ^fujkyk^½ Lkkjka'k– ;g ,d çxfroknh dfork gSA egkdfo lw;ZdkUr f=ikBh ^fujkyk^ }kjk jfpr ;g dfork ,d

ekfeZd ,oa ân;Li'khZ dfork gSA dfork esa dfo us ,d uo;qorh et+nwj dk o.kZu fd;k gSaA dfo dgrs gSa

fd bykgkckn ds iFk ij ,d uo;qorh dks iRFkj rksM+rs ns[kk tgk¡ ij u rks dksbZ Nk;knkj isM+ Fkk] uk gh

dgha cSBdj og iy Hkj foJke dj lds u dksbZ vkSj vkJ; FkkA fpyfpykrh /kwi esa ';ke o.kZ dh ;g

efgyk gkFk esa cM+k Hkkjh gFkkSMs+ ls ckj&ckj iRFkjksa ij çgkj dj mUgsa rksM+ jgh gS] ogha lkeus isM+

vÍkfydk,¡] c¡xys gSa] tgk¡ yksx ,'kksvkjke esa jgrs gSaA dfo dg jgs gS fd tSls&tSls /kwi vius pje ij

igqp¡ jgh gS] xehZ c<+rh tk jgh gSA lw;Z Hkh rerek jgk gSA 'kjhj dks >qylkus okyh yw ¼xeZ gok½ py

jgh gSA Hkh"k.k xehZ esa /kjk :bZ ds leku ty jgh gSA pkjksa vksj /kwy dh fpUxkfj;k¡ QSy jgh gSa] fQj Hkh

og ;qorh iRFkj rksM+rh tk jgh gSA

tc oks efgyk dfo dks viuh vksj n;k dh nf"V ls fugkjrs gq, ns[krh gS rks lglk mldh utj lkeus

dh vksj [kM+s fo'kky Hkou dh vksj mBrh gS] ml Hkou ds fuekZ.k esa mlus viuk [kwu ilhuk cgk;k Fkk]

ysfdu vkt ml Hkou dh Nk;k esa nks iy Hkh vkjke djus dk vf/kdkj ugha gSaA ,d vksj rks Hkou esa ,d

,slk oxZ Hkh gS tks bl efgyk et+nwj ds ;ksxnku dks Hkwydj lq[ke; thou O;rhr dj jgk gSA ;g

vuqHko tSls gh ml efgyk dks gksrk gS oSls gh og vkgr gks tkrh gSA viuh orZeku ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds lkFk

le>kSrk djrh gqbZ og efgyk et+nwj fQj vius dk;Z esa yhu ;g lksprh gS fd ;gh mldk HkkX; gS] ;gh

mldh fu;fr gSA ekuks og ,slk dg jgh gks ^eS rksM+rh iRFkj^ D;ksafd ;gh thou gSA



2-3 liuksa dh mM+ku & ,-ih-ts- vCnqydyke 15 vDVwcj 1931 dks rfeyukMw izkar ds jkes”oje~ uked LFkku ij tUes MkW- dyke ,d fuEu e/;eoxhZ;

ifjokj ls laca/k j[krs FksA bathfu;fjax dh ijh{kk mRrh.kZ dj lu~ 1958 esa ,jkuksfVdy oSKkfud

bathfu;fjax esa fo” ”k u tkrs

gq, ns”k esa gh oSKkfud lsok,¡ nhA MkW- vkj o/kZjktu ds funsZ”ku esa lqij lksfud VkjxsV ,;j Øk¶V cukus

dk dk;Z vkjEHk fd;kA bl {ks= esa mUgksaus vusd uohu rduhdksa dks [kkstkA blds ckn gksoj Øk¶V dks

fMtkbu djus dk dk;Z mUgsa lkSaik x;kA MkW- dyke lu~ 1962 ls 1983 ds chp bljksa esa vusd inksa ij

dk;Zjr~ jgsA muds dq”ky ekxZn”kZu esa 1980 esa jksfg.kh mixzg NksM+k x;kA vkius 1988 esa i`Foh] 1990 esa ukx ,oa vkdk'k 1998 esa f='kwy uked iz{ksikL= fodflr fd,A blfy, vkidks felkby esu ds uke

ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA lu~ 1998 ess iks[kj.k esa vusd ijek.kq foLQksV vkids funsZ”ku esa fd, x, rFkk 18

tqykbZ lu~ 2002 esa vkidh fof” miyfC/k;ksa ds dkj.k fo”pquk x;kA vki lu~ 1890 eas in~e Hkw"k.k ls vyad`r fd, x, ,oa 25 uoEcj] lu~ 1997 dks Hkkjr jRu tSlh xfjeke; mikf/k ls Hkh vyad`r gq,A

/kjrh ls tqM+dj LoxZ dk LoIu ns[kus okys dfo dykdkj] fopkjd lnk lQy gksrs gSA fo'o us ns'k]

tkfr /keZ vkfn dh ladh.kZ lhekvksa ls Åij mBdj mudk Lokxr fd;k gSA mUgsa ljkgk Hkh gSA gekjs ns'k

esa Hkh LoIun'khZ foHkwfr;ksa dh deh ugha jgh gS] ftUgksaus vius 'kqHk LoIu lkdkj dj vf[ky fo'o dks

izHkkfor fd;k gSA H - ,-ih-ts- vCnqy dyke Hkh vk/kqfud Hkkjr dh ,slh gh LoIun'khZ

foHkwfr gSA mUgksaus liuksa dks lkdkj fd;k gSA cgqr ls lk/ku lEiUu yksx ftu dk;kasZ dks ugha dj ikrs

mUgsa lkekU; ls yxus okys yksx viuh yxu] v/;olk;] vkRefo'okl vkSj lw>cw> ls iw.kZ dj fn[kkrs gSA

- dyke ds lanHkZ esa Hkh ;g rF; iw.kZ:is.k lR; fl) gksrk gSA ,d lkekU; ifjokj

vlQyrkvksa dks <¡dus ds fy, lqfo/kkvksa vkSj lk/kuksa dh deh dk jksuk jksrs gS] mUgsa ,slh viwoZ lQyrkvksa

ls f'k{kk xzg.k djuk pkfg,A ,sls gh yksxksa dks fo'o us Hkh ljkgk gSA

2-4 phQ dh nkor ¼Hkh"e lkguh½ Lkkjka'k– çfl) miU;kldkj Hkh"e lkguh }kjk jfpr ^phQ dh nkor^ ,d ,slh dgkuh gS ftlesa ,d ek¡

us vius csVs ds fy, thoui;ZUr la?k"kZ vkSj cfynku fn;k] mldk Hkfo"; laokjus ds fy, viuk loZLo

lefiZr dj fn;k] fdUrq LokFkhZ larku us mlds bl cfynku dk migkl djrs gq, mls dsoy inksUufr

çkIr djus dk ,d lk/ku ek= eku fy;kA

bl dgkuh esa 'kkeukFk xjhc ,oa vR;Ur NksVh ikfjokfjd i"BHkwfe ls fudyk ,d ,slk O;fDr gS] ftlds

firk dk nsgkUr gks pqdk gS] ek¡ us cM+h fodV ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa mls vius xgus cspdj i<+k;k&fy[kk;k gSA

vc ,d fons'kh dEiuh esa vf/kdkjh gSA 'kkeukFk us inksUufr ds ykyp esa vius phQ dks çlUu djus ds

mn~ns'; ls vius ?kj ij nkor ij cqyk;k gSA nkor esa ik'pkR; lH;rk ds vk/kkj ij 'kjkc] ek¡l] eNyh]

rFkk fofo/k çdkj ds O;atuksa dh O;oLFkk dh xbZ gSA 'kkeukFk dh iRuh us Hkh ?kj dks cgqr ltk;k gSA

'kkeukFk vkSj mudh iRuh dks cw<+h ek¡ cks> ds leku ut+j vk jgh gS D;ksafd os vius vki dks i<+s&fy[ks

lqlaLÑr vkSj ek¡ dks vlH; le>rs FksA mUgsa Mj Fkk fd dgha ek¡ dqN ,slk u dj ns ftlls dh phQ

ukjkt+ gks tk,A mudh iRuh vkSj os nksuksa ugha pkgrs Fks fd phQ dh n`f"V mu ij iM+s vkSj uk gh ;g

pkgrs Fks fd ek¡ lks tk, D;ksafd os [kjkZVsa ysrh FkhA ek¡ dks dqlhZ ij cSBus dks dgk vkSj vxj phQ dqN

loky djs rks Bhd <ax ls mÙkj nsus dks dgkA 'kke dks ikVhZ esa nkor gqbZA igys 'kjkc dk nkSj pyk] fQj

[kkuk [kkus ds fy, cSBd ls ckgj fudysA cjkensa esa ek¡ dqlhZ ij gh [kjkZVsa ys jgh FkhA 'kkeukFk dks Øks/k



vk jgk Fkk ysfdu /khjs ls ek¡ dks txk;k vkSj dksBjh esa tkdj lksus dks dgkA phQ us eqLdjkdj ^ueLrs^

dgk vkSj ek¡ ds çfr vknj Hkko çdV fd,A phQ us ek¡ ls yksdxhr xkus dks dgkA ek¡ us yksdxhr

lquk;kA phQ ds lkFk lHkh esgeku çlUu gksdj rkfy;k¡ ctkus yxsA phQ us iatkch nLrdkjh ds fo"k; esa

tkuuk pkgkA rc ek¡ us vius gkFk dh cukbZ Qqydkjh fn[kkbZ rc phQ cgqr [kq'k gq, vkSj vius fy,

Qqydjh cukus ds fy, dg x,A 'kkeukFk eu gh eu [kq'k Fkk] mldh nkor lQy gqbZ phQ ds tkus ds

i'pkr~ ek¡ dksBjh esa cgqr jksbZ A 'kkeukFk [kq'khiwoZd ek¡ ls feyus x;k tgk¡ ek¡ us mlls gfj}kj tkus dh

bPNk crkbZA bl ij 'kkeukFk us dgk & rqe pyh tkvksxh rks phQ ds fy, Qqydkjh dkSu cuk,xk\ esjh

rjDdh Hkh ugha gksxhA csVs rjDdh dh ckr lqudj ek¡ Qqydkjh cukus ds fy, lger gks xbZ vkSj csVs ds

Hkfo"; dh mTToy dkeuk djus yxhA

2-5 o.kZ foU;kl ¼O;kdj.kijd½ & MkW- fo'oukFk çlkn feJ Hkkjrh; lafo/kku esa fgUnh la?k dh jktHkk"kk ds :i esa Lohdkj dh xbZ gSA lkFk gh vU; jkT;ksa dh

jkT;Hkk"kk ds :i esa Hkh ;g çfrf"Bd gSA fgUnh esa fyfi] orZuh o mPpkj.k ds Lo:i esa ,d :irk

ykus ds fy, o.kZ foU;kl fd;k x;kA O;kdjf.kd n`f"V ls Hkk"kk dks lqO;ofLFkr cukus o Hkk"kkbZ esa

o.kZ foU;kl dh jpuk dj fy;k x;kA lu~ 1966 esa f'k{kk ea=ky; us ekuo nsouxjh o.kZ ekyk

çdkf'kr dj fgUnh o.kZ foU;kl esa ,d :irk ykus dk ç;kl fd;kA

çk;% ns[kk x;k gS fd fgUnh fy[krs le; yksx nsouxjh o.kZekyk esa ç;qDr o.kksZa] ek=kvksa esa ,d

fuf'pr fn'kk i)fr dk fuokZg ugha djrsA o.kZ foU;kl fgUnh Hkk"kk esa ,d:irk ykus o Hkkjrh;

Hkk"kkvksa dks vf/k fudV ykus esa lnSo ç;Ru'khy jgk gSA

vuqLokj dk fyfi fpUg Loj ds Åij yxk;h tkus okyh fcanh gSA la;qDr O;atu dh jpuk esa tc

dksbZ ukflD; O;atu çFke lnL; ds :i esa vkrk gS] rks ml ukflD; O;atu ¼M~Û] ´] .k] u~] e~½ ds

fy, fu/kkZfjr fyfi dks u fy[kdj ml lqa;Dr O;atu ds iwoZ vk;s Loj ¼vFkok Loj;qDr O;atu½ ds

Åij fcanh j[k nsrs gSaA ;g iwoZ ds o.kZ ij j[kh xbZ fcanh vkxs ds O;atu esas la;qDr gksdj vk;h

ukflD; /ofu dks vfHkO;Dr djrh gSA

bl çdkj fgUnh ds vuqLokj O;atu xqPN esa vkus okyh ukflD; O;atu /ofu;ksa dk lwpd gS vkSj

;g ftl o.kZ ij vafdr fd;k tkrk gS mlds vkxs vk;s Lora= o.kZ ds ukflD; O;atu /ofu;qDr

la;qDr O;atu gksus dh lwpuk nsrk gSA

laLÑr ds dqN ,sls 'kCn fgUnh esa ;Fkkor~ vk x;s gSa] ftuds lanHkZ esa Åij foosfpr fl)kar ykxw

ugha gksrk] cfYd laLÑr esa çpfyr ekU;rk gh ykxw gksxh&Lo;a],oa] vga ¼,oe~] Lo;e~½A

fgUnh ds vuqlkj ik¡pksa ukflD; O;atu /ofu;ksa ds fy, ç;qDr gksrk gSA

¼M~Û½ daxu ¼dM~Ûxu½

¼´½ papy ¼ ½

¼&½ ¼.k~½ eqaMu ¼eq.Mu½

¼u~½ panu ¼pUnu½

¼e~½ daiu ¼dEiu½



vuqLokj fdlh Hkh fHkUu oxZ ds O;atu ds lkFk ugha vkrkA tgk¡ ,d oxZ ds ukflD; O;atu dk

nwljs oxZ ds fujuqukfld vFkok ukflD; O;atu ds lkFk la;ksx gksrk gS ogk¡ v/kZ ukflD; O;atu dk

gh ç;ksx gksrk gS] vuqLokj fpUg dk ughaaA vuqLokj fpUg dk ç;ksx djus ij xyrh gks tk,xh vkSj

vuqLokj dk mPpkj.k lac) ukflD; O;atu dh Hkk¡fr u gksdj vkxs vkus okys O;atu ds oxhZ;

ukflD; O;atu dh Hkk¡fr gksxk&

tUe ¼u~ $ e½ d.o ¼.k~ $ o½

fuEu ¼e~ $ u½ vUo; ¼u~ $ o½

dU;k ¼u~ $ ;k½ dUgS;k ¼,~ $ g½

lkSE; ¼e~ $ ;½ lkfUuf/k ¼u~ $ u½

vr% tgk¡ ukflD; O;atu fdlh vU; oxZ ds fujuqukfld vFkok ukflD; O;atu ds lkFk vkrk gS

ogk¡ u rks vuqLokj dk mPpkj.k djuk pkfg,] u gh vuqLokj ds fyfi fpUg fcanh dk ç;ksx djuk

pkfg,A



;wfuV&3 3-1 vkfnoklh /kjksgj ¼fuca/k½ & MkW-';kekpj.k nqcs Hkkjrh; laLÑfr vkSj çkphu lHk;rk dk tc Hkkjr esa vk;ksZa ds lkFk vkxeu gqvkA rc vkfnokfl;ksa vkSj

vU; tkfr;ksa dk foy; gqvkA ,d uohu lekt dk fuekZ.k gqvk rc dqN vkfnoklh çtkfr;ksa us vius

ewY;ksa ,oa lH;rk dks thfor j[kkA

vkfnokfl;ksa dks tutkfr dgk tkrk gSA tutkfr og lewg gS tks çkphu lH;rk ds çfrekuksa ¼ewY;ksa½ ls

tqM+k gksrk gSA MkW- etqenkj ds vuqlk& ^tutkfr ifjokj ;k ifjokjksa ds lewg dk ladyu gSA ftldk

viuk ,d lkekU; uke gksrk gS] ftlds lnL; ,d fuf'pr Hkw&Hkkx esa jgrs gSa] lkekU; Hkk"kk cksyrs gSa vkSj

fookg O;olk; ;k m|ksxkssa ds fo"k; esa dqN fu"ks/kksa dk iyu djrs gSaA

tutkrh; lekt dh Hkkjr esa ,d i`Fkd igpku gSA budh vusd lkaLÑfrd ijEijk,¡ gSaA [kku&iku]

jhfr&fjokt] thou 'kSyh] ifjos'k] fookg i)fr] jgu&lgu fHkUu gSA /khjs&/khjs budh ijEijkvksa esa cnyko

vko'; vk jgk gS] fdUrq vkt Hkh budh lkaLÑfrd igpku cjdjkj gSA

fo'ks"krk,¡&

1- gLrdkS'ky 2- la;qDr ifjokj ç.kkyh

3- ukjh dk lEeku 4- LokyEcu

5- cqtqxksZ dk lEeku 6- lkeatL; dh Hkkouk

Hkkjrh; tutkrh; leL;k,¡

1- iyk;u 2- ca/kqvk etwnjh

3- fgald tkuojkas ds geys 4- csxkjh

5- :X.rk 6- foLFkkiu dk ladV

7- _.kxzLrrk 8- vf'k{kk

9- 'kks"k.kxzLrr

3-2 ukjhRo dk vfHk'kki ¼fuca/k½& egknsoh oekZ lkjka'k % tc ijekRek dh d`ik ls l`f"V dk l`tu gqvkA rd Lo;a ijekRek us ukjh dks v/kkZafxuh dh

laKk nsdj czák.M esa ukjhRo ds egRo dks n'kkZ;k ysfdu nqHkkZX;o'k 'kuS% 'kuS% dks nqcZy ekudj bl lekt

us dHkh çrkM+ukvksa ds :i esa dHkh vR;kpkj ds :i esa rks dHkh cykRdkjh tSls f?kukSus ÑR; ds :i esa

mlds vfLrRo ij dqBkjk?kkr fd;kA egknsoh oekZ }kjk jfpr bl ys[k esa tgk¡ ,d vksj ukjh dh çkphu ls

orZeku rd dh dj.k] n;uh; vkSj vlguh; LFkfr dk ekfeZd fp=.k çLrqr fd;k gS ogha nwljh vksj

lekt esa fo/kok ukjh] ukjh vigj.k] ukjh LorU=rk rFk iq:"k ç/kku lekt dk ukjh ds çfr tks

udkjkRed n`f"Vdks.k gS] ml ij Hkh viuh ys[kuh pykus dk ç;kl fd;k x;k gSA

¼1½ egknsoh oekZ us ^ukjhRo dk vfHk'kki^ ds ek/;e ls mldh eqfDr dk ekxZ dks lqy>kus dk ç;kl

djrs gq, dgk gS fd ;fn ;s :f<oknh lekt viuh fuEu ekufldrk ls ijs mBdj efgyk dY;k.k

ds çfr viuk mÙkjnkf;Ro iw.kZ djs rks ukjh dh yxHkx çR;sd leL;k dk lek/kku 'kh?kzrk ls

laHko gSA dsoy vko';drk gS mldh osnku ;FkkFkZ vuqHko djus dh vkSj ,d ,sls nsO;kih

vkUnksyu dh] tks bl fn'kk esa ç;Ru'khy lkfcr gksA



¼2½ çLrqr fuca/k esa ysf[kdk ds vuqlkj ^L=h u Lora=;e vgZfr^ vFkkZr~ ukjh dgha Hkh Lora= ugha gSA

fookg ds iwoZ ukjh vius firk ,oa Hkkb;ksa ds fu;a=.k esa jgrh gS vkSj fookg ds i'pkr~ vius ifr

,oa lUrkvuksa ds fu;a=.k esa jgrh gSA pkgs og Lo.kZfiatj dh oafnuh gks pkgs ykSgfiatj dh] ijUrq

cafnuh rks og gS gh vkSj ,slh dh ftlds fudV Lora=rk dk fopkj rd iki dgk tk,xkA

3-3 czãk.M dh jpuk ¼oSKkfud ys[k½ t;Ur fo".kq ukyhZdj iqjkru dky ls ekuo vius pkjksa vkSj QSys cãk.k ds ckjs esa ftKklq jgk gSA czãk.M dgk¡ rd QSyk gS\

mldh mRifÙk dx gqbZ\ mldh jpuk ds fu;e dkSu ls gSa\ czãk.k dk Hkfo"; D;k gS\

,sls ç'uksa ij nk'kZfudksa] dfo;ksa vkfn fopkjoarksa us cgqr dqN fopkj&eaFk fd;k gSA mifu"knksa esa l`f"V ds

ckjs esa dbZ ewyHkwr ç'u iwNs x, gSaA czãk.k dks ,d vaMs dh miek gekjs iqjk.kksa esa nh xbZ & ,slk vaMk

ftlesa lc dqN lekfgr gSA mÙkj ;wjksi dh ukfMZd lH;rk esa ,d fo'kky o{k dh dYiuk dh xbZ ftldh

tM+ksa ls Mkfy;ksa rd lHkh Hkkxksa esa pk¡n] rkjs] tho] ouLifr] vkfn ik;s tkrs gSaA

czãk.k fdruk fo'kky gS bldk vHkko ekuo dks Øe'k% gh feyrk x;kA gtkj lky igys ekuo i`Foh dks

czkãk.k dk dsUnz LFkku ekurk FkkA losjs mn; gksus okys vkSj 'kke dks vLr gksus okys lw;Z ,oa jkr esa rkjksa

dh iwoZ ls if'pe tkus okyh d{kk,¡ ns[k mlus vuqek yxk;k fd lewpk czãk.k i`Foh dk pkjksa vksj

ifjHkze.k djrk gSA

ik¡poh lnh esa vk;ZHkV~V us bl er dk [k.Mu fd;kA vius xzaFk vk;ZHkV~Vh; esa mUgksaus fy[kk%

vuqykse xfrukSZLFk% i';R;pya foyksexa ;n~;r~A vpy

uko esa tkus okys dks rVorhZ fLFkr oLrq,¡ mYVh fn'kk esa tkrh fn[kkbZ nsrh gSa] mlh çdkj ¼viuh /kqjh dh

vksj ifjHkze.k djus okyh½ i`Foh ls ns[kus ij fLFkj rkjs if'pe dh vksj tkrs çrhr gksrs gSaA

vk;ZHkV~V dk ;g fl)kUr lgh Fkk] ij nqHkkZX;o'k misf{kr jgkA lksygoha lnhesa dksifuZdl us ;gh dgk

vkSj ;g Hkh dgk fd lHkh xzgksa lfgr i`Foh lw;Z dh ifjØek djrh gSA

tSls&tSls bl fl)kUr dh lR;rk Li"V gksus yxh] ekuo us ;g vuqeku fd;k fd mldh iFoh dk czãk.k

esa dksbZ [kkl LFkku ughaA fQj mlus lkspk fd ;g rstLoh lw;Z rks czãk.k esa vuwBk gSA mldk fo'okl Fkk

fd lw;Z gekjh vkdk'kxaxk ds dsUnz LFkku esa fLFkr gSA

ysfdu ;g vuqeku Hkh xyr lkfcr gqvkA gesa vkdk'kxaxk ,d /kwlj çdk'koku iV~Vs dh rjg vkdk'k esa

QSyh fn[kkbZ nsrh gSA blesa okLro esa 200 vjc ds djhc rkjs gSaA lw;Z dk muesa dksbZ [kkl LFkku ugha gSA

mlls NksVs&cM+s] /kq/kys ] rstLoh vjcksa rkjs vkdk'kxaxk esa ekStwn gSaA

tc 1608 esa gkWySa< ds p'esa cukus okys gkUl ysi'ksZ us ySal dh nwjchu dk vUos"k.k fd;k rks ;g [kkst

[kxksy n'kZu ds fy, fdruh ykHknk;h gksxh bls tkuk bVyh ds oSKkfud xSyhfyvks usA xSyhfyvks igyk

oSKkfud Fkk tks yEcs oSKkfud fooknksa dks çR;{k ç;ksxksa ls fuiVkus esa eqLrSn FkkA nwjchu ds }kjk mlus

czãk.k ds fujh{k.k djus 'kq: fd;sA



viuh nwjchu ls xSyhfyvksa us dbZ egRoiw.kZ [kkstsa dha] tks rRdkyhu fopkj /kkj.kkvksa dks vk?kkr igq¡pkrh

FkhaA mlus lw;Z ij dkys /kCcs ,oa pk¡n ij xM~<s ns[ks ftuls ,slk çrhr gksrk Fkk fd ;s vkdk'kLFk oLrq,¡

lnks"k gSa----- tcfd ,slh /kkj.k Fkh fd Hkxoku~ us bu oLrqvksa dk vkn'kZ :i esa fuekZ.k fd;k gSA ml le;

dh /kkj.kk Fkh fd xzg rkjs vkfn lc i`Foh dh ifjØek djrs gSa] ij xSyhfyvksa us viuh nwjchu ls pkj

mixzg ns[ks tks xq: xzg dh ifjØek djrs FksA

fVIi.kh & 1- çdk'k o"kZ& çdk'k o"kZ ;g og nwjh gS tks çdk'k fdj.ksa ,d o"kZ esa r; djrh gSaA fdyksehVj ds

iSekus ij ;g nwjh gS djhc ukS gtkj vjc fd-eh-] dsUnz ls fudyk çdk'k ge rd igq¡pus esa rhl

gtkj o"kZ dh vof/k ysrk gSA

2- vkdk'kxaxk& gekjh vkdk'kxaxk Hkh ,d xSysDlh gh gSA jkr esa vkdk'k esa ,d f{kfrt rd fn[kus

okyh pkSM+h pedhyh iÍh ts i`Foh ls unh ds leku vkdk'k esa nhfIreku iÍh ds leku fn[kkbZ

iM+rh gS] vkdk'kxaxk dgykrh gSA vkdk'kxaxk esa yxHkx ,d [kjkc rkjs gSa gekjk lkSj ifjokj

vkdk'kxaxk dk lnL; gSA rkjksa ds e/; esa tks v¡/ksjh iÍh fn[kkbZ nsrh gS] og [kxksyh; /kwy ds

dkj.k gS] tks nwljh ikj ls vkts rkjksa ds çdk'k dks jkd ysrh gSA ;gh dkj.k gS fd lw;ksZn; vkSj

lw;kZLr ds le; lw;Z yky fn[kkbZ nsrk gS] D;ksafd mldh jks'kuh ok;qe.M dh /kwy ls gksdj xqtjrh

gSA ;g lfiZy vkdkj dh xSysDlh gS] ftldk O;kl 1]00]000 çdk'k o"kZ gSA

3- rkjsa& xSlh; nzO; ds m".k o Lo;a nhfIreku czãk.k esa fLFkr [ksxksyh; fi.M gSaA tks çdk'k rFkk

fo|qr pqEcdh; fofdj.k mRiUu djrs gSa] rkjs dgykrs gSaA budh ÅtkZ dk lzksr ukfHkdh; gksrk gSA

xSysDlh dk 98% Hkkx bUgha rkjksa ls cuk gSA Hkkj ds vuqlkj rkjs esa 70% gkbMªkstu] 28% ghfy;e]

1-5% dkcZu&ukbVªkstu&fuvkWu vkSj 0-5% vk;ju xzqi ds Hkkjh rRo gksrs gSaA lw;Z Hkh ,d rkjk gS]

tks i`Foh ds lcls fudV gSA çR;sd rkjk viuh Lo;a dh ped ls pedrk gS] tcfd xzg ,oa

punzek vkfn lw;Z dh jks'kuh ikdj pedrs gSaA vf/kdka'kr% rkjs lw;Z ls dbZ xquk cM+s gSa] ij

vR;f/kd nwjh ds dkj.k NksVs utj vkrs gSaA

3-4 izeq[k oSKkfud vkfo"dkj vkSj gekjk thou ekuo us viuh fodkl ;k=k esa izd`fr dh 'kfDr;ksa dk ,oa mi;ksx lnk ls gh foKku ,oa izkS|ksfxdh ds

oSKkfu

sa ns[kk tk ldrk gSA

1- vkx dk vkfo"dkj &

[kkstk gksxkA taxy esa yxh Hk;adj vkx esa tys i'kqvksa dks ns[kdj Hkkstu idkuk lh[kkA fu%lansg

vkx dh [kkst ekuo lH;rk dk ,d egRoiw.kZ ,oa izHkko”kkyh dne FkkA

2- 'kwU; ,oa n'keyo dk vkfo"dkj &

-iw- ^vkpk;Z fiaxys* us ^Nan&'kkL=*

esa fd;k gSA fdlh Hkh la[;k dks 'kwU; }kjk Hkkx nsus dh n

oha lnh ds izfl) egkure~ xf.krK ^HkkLdjkpk;Z* us fd;k FkkA

3- ckbflfdy dk vkfo"dkj &

ckbflfdy vkt loZlqyHk vkSj de ewY;oku lk/ku gSA lu~ 1839 esa baXyS.M ds ^ddZ iSfVªd



eSdfeyu* us bl nks lkbZfdy esa ifg, esa nksuksa vksj ik;nku yxk fn,A egRoiw.kZ lq/kkj v;kjyS.M

ds ^tku ck;M Muyi* us fd;kA mUgksaus nksuksa ifg;ksa esa jcM+ ds Vk;j ,oa gok Hkjs V~;wc yxkus dh

O;oLFkk dhA Hkkjr esa vkokxeu dk ;g egRoiw.kZ lk/ku gSA

4- jsyxkM+h dk vkfo"dkj & Hkki ds batu }kjk xkM+h pykus dk igyk iz;ksx lu~ 1769 esa Qzkal ds

,d bathfu;j fudksyl tkstQ dxukV us fd;k FkkA nwljk iz;ksx baXyS.M ds ^fofy;e eMZd* us

fd;kA lu~ 1808 esa iVfj;ksa ij Hkki ls pyus okyh jsyxkfM+;ksa dk lQy iz;ksx ^fjpMZ VªsfofFkd us

^tktZ LVhQsalu* Fks] mUgksaus 1814 esa ,slh

jsyxkM+h dk fuekZ.k fd;k tks dks;yk ykndj 6-5 fd-eh- izfr ?kaVs dh pky ls py ldrh FkhA

mUgksaus Hkki ds batu esa vusd lq/kkj fd,A ^tktZ* us viuh izFke jsyxkM+h dk izn'kZu 27 flracj]

1825 esa fd;kA

5- eqnz.k&;a= dk vkfo"dkj & teZu oSKkfud ^tkWu xqVuoxZ*

6- fo|qr dk vkfo"dkj & vesfjdh oSKkfud ^csatkfeu Ýasdfyu* us lu~ 1852 esa fo|qr dk

7- VsyhQksu vFkok nwjHkk"k dk vkfo"dkj & ^vysDtsaMj xzkge csy* tud dgk tkrk gSaA

8- Vsyhfotu dk vkfo"dkj & tku cs;MZ dks

izkIr gqvkA mUgksaus lu~ 1925 esa Vsyhfotu dk ,d ekWMy rS;kj fd;k vkSj og Vsyhfotu }kjk

fp= izsf

9- dEI;wVj dk vkfo"dkj & dEi;qVj vk/kqfud ;qx dk uohure peRdkj gSA pkYlZ cscst us 1821

esa bldh ladYiuk cuk;h rFkk 1833 esa bl ;a= dk fuekZ.k gqvkA ^izksQslj gkoMZ ,Qhu* us 1943

esa ekdZ&1 uke ds oS|qr ;kaf=dh; dEI;wVj dk fuekZ.k fd;kA lu~ 1939 esa vesfjdk ds ^tku oh-

,VuklkWQ* us bysDVªkWfud fMftVy dEI;wVj dk igyk ekWMy rS;kj fd;kA vr% 1950 esa

bysDVªkWfud dEI;wVj cuk okYo vkSj iap fd, gq, dkMksaZ dh txg vc ekbdzksizkslslj fpi us us

fy;kA

10- jsfM;ks dk vkfo"dkj & fcuk rkj dh lgk;rk ls lUns'k Hkstus dh fof/k csrkj ¼ok;jysl½ lUns'k

vFkok jsfM;ks lUns'k dgrs gsA jsfM;ksa dk vkfo"dkj ekjdksuh us fd;kA 3-5 laf/k vkSj lekl& laf/k vkSj lekl nksuksa esa nks inksa esa esy fn[kkbZ iM+rk gS] ijarq nksuksa esa Li"V varj gSA

laf/k esa nks fudVLFk o.kksZ dk esy gksrk gS vkSj lekl esa nks ;k vf/kd inksa dkA

laf/k esa o.kksZa ds esy ds dkj.k /ofu esa Hkh ifjorZu gksrk gS] lekl esa ,slk ugha gksrkA

lekl esa nks inks ads chp ds izR;;] ijlxZ] ;kstd vkfn dk yksi gksrk gS] laf/k esa ughaA

lekl dh izfØ;k laiUu gksus ds ckn cus inksa esa laf/k gks ldrh gSA tSls &

lekl laf/k ft+yk/kh'k ft+ys dk v/kh'k ¼ftyk$vf/k$bZ'k½

egkRek egku gS tks vkRek ¼egk$vkRek½

lekl ds izdkj 1- }U} lekl& }U} dk vFkZ gS & tksM+k] ;qXeA }U} esa nksuksa gh in iz/kku gksrs gSaA inks ads chp ls

vkSj] rFkk] ,oa ;k] vFkok esa ls fdlh ;kstd dks gVkdj mudk ;qXe cuk;k tkrk gSA tSls &



leLr in foxzg lq[k&nq[k lq[k vkSj nq[k

:i;k&iSlk :i;k vkSj iSlk

myVk&lh/kk myVk vkSj lh/kk

gkFkh&?kksM+s gkFkh vkSj ?kksM+s

jke&y{e.k jke vkSj y{e.k

ty&ok;q ty vkSj ok;q

osn&iqjk.k osn vkSj iqjk.k

/kekZ/keZ /kekZ ;k /keZ

gkj&thr gkj ;k thr

nks&pkj nks ;k pkj

FkksM+k&cgqr FkksM+k vFkok cgqr

gkfu&ykHk gkfu vFkok ykHk

2- rRiq:"k lekl& rRiq:"k lekl esa mRrj in iz/kku gksrk gS vkS nksuksa inks ds chp ls foHkfDr fpg~u

¼ijlxZ½ dks yksi gksrk gS ¼us dks NksM+dj½ tSls&

leLr in foxzg gLrfyf[kr gkFk ls fyf[kr

/kughu /ku ls ghu

jksxxzLr jksx ls xzLr

jkg[kpZ jkg ds fy, [kpZ

ns'kHkfDr ns'k ds fy, HkfDr

;qn~/kHkwfe ;qn~/k ds fy, Hkwfe

izlaxkuqdwy izlax ds vuqdwy

jkeHkDr jke dk HkDr

ijk/khu ij ds v/khu

LokLF;j{kk LokLF; dh j{kk

x`gLokeh x`g dk Lokeh

Okuokl ou esa okl

vkichrh vki ij chrh

?kqM+lokj ?kksM+s ij lokj

xzkeokl xkze esa okl

Ekkyxksnke eky ds fy, xksnke

xaxkty xaxk dk ty

ty/kkjk ty dh /kkjk

fljnnZ flj esa nnZ

HkkjrjRu Hkkjr dk jRu

Pkk;iRrh Pkk; dh iRrh



ouokl ou esa okl

3- deZ/kkj; lekl& deZ/kkj; lekl ogk¡ gksrk gS] tgk¡&

iwoZ fo'ks"k.k gks vkSj mRrjin fo'ks";] tSls&uhyxk;] jDrdey nksuksa inksa esa ,d mies; vkSj nwljk mieku] tSls&/ku”;ke] iq:"kflag

leLr in foxzg uhy xk; uhy gS tks xk;

deyu;u dey ds leku u;u

uhykcaj uhyk gS tks vacj

va/kfo'okl va/kk gS tks fo'okl

egknso egku gS tks nso

uhyxxu uhyk gS tks xxu

4- f}xq lekl& f}xq lekl esa iwoZin la[;kokph fo”ks"k.k gksrk gS vkSj leLr in lewg dk cks/k djkrk

gSA tSls&

leLr in foxzg f=Hkqou rhu Hkqouksa dk lewg

lIrf"kZ Lkkr _f"k;ksa dk lewg

pkSjkgk pkj jkgksa dk lewg

lrlbZ lkr lkS dk lewg

nksigjh nks igjksa dk lewg

uoxzg ukS xzgksa dk lewg

f=os.kh rhu osf.k;ksa dk lewg

f=Qyk rhu Qyksa dk lekgkj

lIrkg lkr fnuksa dk lewg

ckjknjh ckjg njksa ¼njoktksa½ dk

lewg

5- vO;;hHkko lekl& vO;;hHkko lekl esa iwoZin vO;; gksrk gS vkSj leLr in Hkh vO;; gks tkrk gSA

tSls &

leLr in foxzg ;Fkkle; le; ds vuqlkj

HkjisV isV Hkj

xyhxyh izR;sd xyh esa

fuLlansg fcuk lansg ds

vkthou thou Hkj

vktUe tUe Hkj

euekuk eu ds vuqlkj

?kM+h&?kM+h izR;sd ?kM+h



6- cgqczhfg lekl & bl lekl esa nksuksa gh inksa dk egRo ugha gksrk gS fdlh rhljs in dh egRrk gksrh

gSA nwljs 'kCnksa esa] iwjk leLr in fdlh vU; in ds fy, :<+ gksrk gSA tSls& n'kkuu = n'k$vkuu

jko.k

;gk¡ u rks iwoZin n”k ¼nl½ dk vFkZ nl gS] u mRrjin vkuu ¼eq[k½ dkA nksuksa in feydj jko.k ds fy,

:<+ gks x, gSaA blh izdkj &

leLr in foxzg f=u;u rhu gS u;u ftlds vFkkZr~ ¼f'ko½

prqjkuu Pkkj gSa vkuu ¼eq¡g½ ftlds vFkkZr

¼czg~ek½

egkohj egku gS tks ohj vFkkZr ¼guqeku½

yacksnj yack gS mnj ftldk vFkkZr ¼x.ks'k½

uhydaB uhyk gS daB ftldk vFkkZr ¼f'ko½

pØ/kj pØ dks /kkj.k djs tks vFkkZr ¼fo".kq½

?ku ds leku ';ke gS tks vFkkZr

¼d`".k½

prqHkqZt pkj Hkqtk,¡ gSa ftldh vFkkZr ¼fo".kq½

in~ekluk in~e ¼dey½ vklu gS ftldk vFkkZr

¼ljLorh½

xksiky xk;ksa dks ikyus okyk vFkkZr ¼d`".k½



UNIT-IV 1. Tree: Tina Morris

2. Night of the scorpion: Nisssim Ezekiel

Night of the Scorpion SUMMARY

- By Nissim Ezekiel The poet of ‘Night of the Scorpion’ is Nissim Ezekiel who narrates this poem by remembering his

childhood when his mother was bitten by a scorpion. He says that the continuous rain for ten hours had

driven the scorpion into the house, where it crawled beneath a sack of rice. In the dark room, when his

mother entered, the scorpion parted the poison into her toe in fraction of seconds and probably went

out again.

The peasants of the village collected in their house in large numbers like the swarms of flies and buzzed

God’s name about hundred times, praying to stop the movements of the scorpion, as they believed that

with every movement of the scorpion, the poison would move in the mother’s blood. So, with the

candles and lanterns, they even searched their house to paralyze the evil scorpion. But he was not

found.

The shadows they formed on the wall, too appeared a scorpion to the poet. The villagers prayed that

the scorpion stops and the sins of mother’s previous birth gets washed away that night or her

sufferings might decrease the misfortunes of her next birth. They said this way the sums of evil might

get balanced in this unreal world. They called the world unreal as everything in this world is temporary

and births and deaths keep occurring in a cycle.

They even prayed to god that the poison purifies her flesh. They sat around the mother groaning in

pain. There was peace o understanding on each face as they felt that she had approached her end. The

condition was becoming very messy as more neighbours were entering the house with more candles

and lanterns, the insects were also increasing and the rain too continued.

The poet’s father being a sceptic and rationalist person tried powders, mixtures and herbs to cure the

mother. However, he also tried prayers and blessings as it was a very problematic situation He poured

some paraffin upon the bitten toe and burnt it. The priest was also performing his rites to tame the

poison. Finally, after twenty hours, the sting was lost. The mother, after getting cured, thanked god

that the scorpion picked her and spared her children.



3. What is Science? : George Orwell

WHAT IS SCIENCE? SUMMARY BY: George Orwell George Orwell’s “What is Science?” is addressed as a rebuttal to a statement by a “Mr. J. Stewart Cook”. Cook believes that all people should be “scientifically educated” and scientist being “brought out of their isolation” to participate in politics and economics . Orwell begins to agree with this statement, however he immediately goes into the main focus of his essay: “What defines science.” Orwell points out that Cook does not define science, and that science in the public’s mind is simply things like chemistry. He points out that this is not the case, and that science encompasses many subjects. No one looks at a poet and says “He is a scientist”. Orwell continues to poke at what describes a scientist by prescribing a test: “withstanding nationalism”. He states sciences are supposed to be international, and should not have borders. Yet we see scientists keeping to their governments. Orwell uses Navi Germany as an example, showing how German scientists created and researched only for Germany. Orwell moves on to point out that a “scientific education” shouldn’t sacrifice historical education and literacy. Furthermore, Orwell states that a “scientific education” should provide methods of solving problems, not just facts or single-minded thinking. First off, this is quite the interesting read since I have read Orwell’s 1984. I would have never known Orwell had held such opinions on these types of matters. Orwell’s thoughts on what a scientific education is and what science means is interesting. I have never thought what science meant, and his description of what the public believes it is is what I always imagined when I thought of science. This spiked my attention to continue reading. As I did, I agreed with many of his points. A scientific education should mean that we should learn how to take on problems in a scientific manner. By “Scientific manner”, I mean we need to learn how to be able to solve problems, not only know solid facts on how to. An old proverb everyone knows, shortened, goes like this: “…teach a man to fish, and he will eat for a lifetime”. If we teach people how to solve problems, how to think for themselves we would have a much more educated general public. That’s not to say our general public isn’t smart, but we hear stories of people doing things that goes against common sense. Orwell argues that although science is highly valued in society, it should not be “piling up a lot of facts”. Science should be the collective thought process of reasoning, and should coexist harmoniously with literature and art in a person’s educational diet. Orwell goes on to contrast the praise and glory given of “true” scientists (“physicist”, “biologist”) with other “irrelevant” occupations (“poet”, “lawyer”). Orwell goes on to warn of the dangers of neglecting subjects other than science, as he believes in order to be “cultured” it is essential to study literature and arts in order to form morals. This warning comes in the form of a Nazi reference: of the scientists who become nationalistic slaves to the Nazi regime, and of physicists scrambling to unlock the secrets of atomic bomb destruction. Orwell further intensifies his persuasion through the use of diction. He first questions science, reveals the vices of an un-rounded education, reaffirms science’s value in society, then finally connects the points through the mention of the scientists who willingly chose not to participate in inhumane war efforts, as they have “some acquaintance with history or literature or the arts”. Although Orwell uses light satire and humor to his point the essay reveals critical flaws in society’s psychology which are appropriately addressed given this juncture in history when the lack of individual thinking and judgement lead to the onslaught of war.



4. On the Rule of the Road: A.G. Gardiner

ON THE RULES OF THE ROAD BY: A.G.GARDINER

SUMMARY In order to understand what Gardiner means when he says that liberty involves a social contract and not just personal liberty, think about what he says later in the essay. Later in the essay, he says There are a lot of people in the world, and I have to accommodate my liberty to their liberties. A fat old lady was walking with her basket down the middle of a street, in Petrograd, to the great confusion of the traffic and with no small threat to herself. It was pointed out to her that the pavement was the place for foot-passengers, but she replied: “I ‘m going to walk where I like. We ‘ve got liberty now.” It did not occur to the dear old lady that if liberty unrestricted the foot-passenger to walk down the middle of the road, then the end of such liberty would be universal chaos. Everybody would be getting in everybody else’s way and nobody would get anywhere. Individual liberty would have become social lawlessness. What he means here is that we cannot simply think “I have liberty, and therefore I may do whatever I want.” We have to realize that there are times when our actions can take away liberty from other people. There is a danger of the world getting liberty-drunk in well to remind ourselves of what the rule of the road means. It means that in order that the liberties of all may be preserved, the liberties of everybody must be curtailed. When the policeman, say at Piccadilly Circus, steps into the middle of the road and puts out his hand, he is the symbol not of tyranny, but of liberty. You may not think so. You may, being in a hurry, and seeing your motor-car pulled up by this fellow, dishonour him to be interfering with your free use of the public highway? Then, if you are a reasonable person, you will reflect that if he did not incidentally, interfere with you, he would interfere with no one, and the result would be that Piccadilly Circus would be a maelstrom that you would never cross at all. You have to agree to a limitation of private liberty in order that you may enjoy a social order which makes your liberty a reality. Because our actions can take away liberty from other people, we have to have a social contract. We have to agree to give up some of our liberty in order to keep most of that liberty. Earlier in the essay, Gardiner writes about what would happen if we did not give up our liberty when told to do so by a traffic cop (or, in modern times, a stop light). If everyone tried to keep their liberty to drive whenever and wherever they wanted, no one would have any liberty to drive at all. The intersections would be jammed as everyone tried to drive at once. It would be chaos. We are all liable to forget and unfortunately we are much more conscious of the imperfections of others in this respect than of our own. A reasonable consideration for the rights or feelings of others is the foundation of social conduct. I believe that the rights of small people and quiet people are as important to preserve as the rights of small nationalities. When I hear the aggressive, bullying horn which some motorists deliberately use, I confess that I feel something boiling up in me which is very like what I felt when Germany came trampling like a bully over Belgium. By what right my dear sir, do you go along our highways uttering that ugly curse on all who obstruct your path? Can’t you announce your coming like a gentleman? Can’t you take your turn? Are you someone in particular? I find myself wondering what sort of person it is who can sit behind that hog – like outrage without realizing that he is the spirit of Prussia incarnate and a very ugly spectacle in a civilized world. Therefore, we cannot simply think that liberty means that we can do whatever we want. Instead, we have to make a social contract with other people. When we do that, we all give up some of our liberties so that everyone can live together in harmony. It is in the small matters of conduct, in the adherence of the rule of the road, that we pass judgment upon ourselves, and declare that we are civilized or uncivilized. The great moments of heroism and sacrifice are rare. It is the little habits of common place interaction that make up the great sum of life and sweeten or make bitter the journey.



Tense Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous

A.V. Present

S + V in the Present He + reads + a book

S + am/is/are + ing He + is + reading a book

S + has/have + PP He + has + read + a book

S + has/have + been + ing He + has + been + reading + a book

P.V.

S + am/is/are + PP A Book + is + read + by him

S + am/is/are + being + PP A book + is + being + read + by him

S + has/have + been + PP A book + has + been + read + by him

No Passive

A.V. Past

S + V in the Past He + read + a book

S + was/were + ing He + was + reading + a book

S + had + PP He + had + read + a book

S + had + been + ing He + had + been + reading + a book

P.V.

S + was/were + PP A book + was + read + by him

S + was/were + being a Book + was + being + read + by him

S + had + been + PP A book + had + been + read + by him

No Passive

A.V. Future

S + Will/shall + root of the verb He + will + read + a book

S + will/shall + be He + will + be + reading + a book

S + will/shall + have + PP He + will + have + read + a book

S + will/shall + have + been + ing He + will + have + been + reading + a book

P.V.

S + Will/shall be + PP A letter + will be + read + by him

No Passive

S + will/shall + have + been + PP A letter + will + have + been + read + by him

No Passive

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