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Sustainable Timber Production in a Temperate Country

(OCR A2)

Discover Ltd.

“Timbers”,

Oxted Road,

Godstone,

Surrey. RH9 8AD

www.discover.ltd.uk

©Discover Ltd 2008

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Sustainable Timber Production in a Temperate Country. An Environmental Impact Assessment and Decision-Making Exercise.

Teachers’ Notes:

This unit is designed as a decision making exercise (DME), supported by a body of data collected by

students in the field. The hypothetical afforestation of a scenic upland site close to the Eagle’s Nest is

considered. Data is collected in the style of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Pupils complete a

Leopold Matrix, enabling them to assess the effects of afforestation of the site, followed by an EIA analysis,

drawing out the precise impact of the ‘traditional’ style of afforestation. In addition to discussing the pros and

cons of afforestation, this day provides a useful forum for introducing the topics of succession, vegetation

biomes and vegetation management, and looks at the sustainability of timber production ina tempete

country.

Students produce an afforestation design for the site and present this to the rest of the group. The value of

timber produced by each design is calculated and the sensitivity of each design is discussed;

Key Syllabus Areas:

Module 3: Ecosystems and sustainability. 5.3.1 Ecosystems:

(a) Define the term ecosystem;

(b) State that ecosystems are dynamic systems;

(c) Define the terms biotic factor and abiotic factor, using named examples;

(i) Describe one example of primary succession resulting in a climax community;

(j) Describe how distribution and abundance of organisms can be measured, using line transects, belt

transects, quadrats and point quadrats.

2.3.4 Maintaining Biodiversity. Maintaining biodiversity is important for many reasons. Actions to maintain

biodiversity must be taken at local, national and global levels.

(g) Discuss the significance of environmental impact assessments (including biodiversity estimates) for local

authority planning decisions. Module 3: Ecosystems and sustainability. 5.3.2 Populations and sustainability:

(f) Explain how the management of an ecosystem can provide resources in a sustainable way, with

reference to timber production in a temperate country.

(g) Explain that conservation is a dynamic process involving management and reclamation.

Introduction:

Climax biomes are dictated by climate. The natural climax biome across much of France is broad leaf

woodland. France lies at a natural crossroads of different climates and landscape and the country has a

great diversity of tree species and forests. Much of the forest is owned by local communities and private

individuals, but the French State has a ‘Code Forestier’, which ensures that all forest owners follow a long-

term plan when managing their woodlands, overseen by the Office National des Forets (ONF). In 1946, a

special government fund – FFN – ‘le Fond Forestier National’ was set up to help all aspects of forestry and

the forest industry. In France, the work of these state initiatives is funded by small taxes on saw logs, pulp

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and other wood products. The Cevennes Mountains epitomises some of the climatic extremes seen across

France. Three distinct zones have characteristic climates and associated vegetation types:

(1)The Mediterranean zone: (Hot, dry summers, mild winters.)

Natural vegetation: Evergreen oaks, holm oak, cork oak, Aleppo pine, cedars, cypress. Drought resistant

species with xerophytic adaptations: thick waxy leaves or needles.

Present day: The natural climax vegetation has largely disappeared under pressure of grazing sheep and

goats, charcoal burners, vineyards, fires and farmers, to be replaced by ‘maquis’ or ‘garrigue’ scrub. Maquis

grows on impermeable granite and consists of shrubs such as heather and broom. ‘Garrigue’ grows on

permeable limestone and includes gorse, thyme, rosemary and lavender.

(2)The Sub-Mediterranean Zone: (Mild summers with some rain, and cold winters.)

Natural vegetation: Forest of broadleaved trees including sessile and downy oaks on rich and diverse soil,

and some sweet chestnut. The tree cover protected the slopes from rain, provided humus for a rich soil and

supported a diverse flora and fauna.

Present day: A sweet chestnut culture developed, growing best on well-drained schist and granite soils on

steep valley sides between 5-900m. They provided food for local people and cattle, shelter and timber. By

1800, even remote valleys supported large populations living within this woodland ecosystem. Today, this

way of life has all but vanished, due to disease and frosts, which devastated the chestnut trees earlier this

century. The decline in the sweet chestnut and beech forests led to floods in the hillside and valley

communities – the River Herault, in 1850, rose 20m after one flood, wiping out hamlets and destroying the

livelihoods of some peasant farmers. The sweet chestnut forest remains a landscape feature in the

Cevennes today, and there is some replanting.

(3)The Mountain Zone: (High rainfall (1600mm+), violent storms in Autumn (the Mistral). Very cold in winter,

droughts common in summer.)

Natural vegetation: Beech, birch and fir forest, with some Scot’s pine. No trees in exposed places.

Present day: By 1100, pasturing sheep, goats and cattle had opened up much of the high beech forest.

The livestock were brought up from the valleys for summer grazing – transhumance. Later, beech woods

were cleared for fuel for glassworks and other nearby industries. Bare ground was liable to erosion and

contributed to localised flooding. Remains of the original beech forests (oubacs) can now be found in

sheltered ravines and on north facing slopes, the rest are found are planted and managed. Coppicing for

firewood is common, but there are many trees grown to maturity (100 – 150 years old), which are used to

make furniture.

Afforestation in the Cevennes – 1882 to the present day.

By the 19th century, the uplands of Lozere were known as ‘Le Desert’. Human and sheep populations had

increased, and the native beech and pine woodlands were dramatically reduced in size – lack of tree cover

lead to major soil erosion and later, flooding, as material was washed from the slopes and choked river

channels. After the disastrous floods of the 1850s, the French Government was persuaded to restore the

forest cover on Mont Aigoual. This was seen as an area likely to cause flooding, being one of the wettest

and most exposed parts of the Cevennes range. Georges Fabre, the forester in charge, had a very difficult

job in coping with the extreme climate, eroded soils and the opposition from the local community who were

mainly concerned with fencing which excluded sheep and goats. The afforestation of the Cevennes began in

1882. The pioneer forests planted by Fabre were dark monotonous stands of mountain pine from the Alps,

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and Scots pine. These trees are hardy and thrive in exposed positions – natural beech and fir have been

allowed to regenerate amongst the shelter provided by the pines, which effectively act as a ‘nurse crop’. 14,

000 Ha were replanted and the work continues over 100 years later.

Today, the ONF] owns most of the Cevennes National Park forests. Forest covers about two thirds of the

core zone of the Park. Modern afforestation techniques are aimed at preventing soil erosion, and at using

marginal land not suitable for farming – being too high, steep, exposed too rocky, and due to the reduction in

the practise of transhumance.

Teams of locally based foresters manage the forest – there are four based in Pont de Monvert. The main

species planted are beech, oak and conifers. Trees are planted in 5m2 soil, approximately 1 200/Ha,

simplifying organisation and management. Species are mixed to improve the appearance of the forest and to

reduce the risk of disease. 1000 Ha of Norwegian pine were destroyed by the parasite ‘Dendrochtone’ which

damaged the trees making them suitable only for paper. Trees are not planted in large stands at the same

time, but are mixed age to give the forest a more natural appearance and continuous ground cover –

preventing soil erosion. The mixed age planting policy also reduces the risk of forest fire. There is less

undergrowth (such as broom), less accumulation of leaf litter and dead branches, and older trees burn less

easily as they have fewer branches close to the ground. The OFN leaves wide fire breaks in the plantations

and forest roads, which can be used by fire fighters. Pools have also been excavated at various places in the

forests to allow easy access to water.

The ONF requires that no more than 5Ha of forest be cleared ‘en bloc’ – although more usually, foresters

mark out individual trees which are ready for felling and timber companies fell the marked trees within the

stand. Sections of forest are auctioned off in the autumn, and successful timber companies may fell and

remove only the marked trees. New trees are planted immediately in the gaps to ensure continuous canopy

cover. The wood from the conifers is taken to local saw mills (such as at Le Bleymard, Mende and Cocures,

near Florac). It is generally used for building construction or for making pallets. Much timber also goes to

Arles, about 100km distant, to make paper pulp. Timber from hardwood trees - beech and sweet chestnut -

is used for furniture.

The forests are now highly valued by the local community. They provide recreational, hunting and

employment opportunities. Hunting in the forests is by license only – the acquisition of a license tends to be

controlled by Departemente, it being more difficult to acquire a license if you live outside Lozere or Gard.

The forests are also valued as a source of ‘champignons’ – mushroom collectors come from a wide radius to

collect chantarelle, ceps, morelle and truffles in the forests. Recreation in the forests of the Cevennes is

actively encouraged – there are many waymarked footpaths and ‘sentiers’ for horses and mountain bikes.

However, the form that recreation takes in the forests is in sympathy with the surroundings. There are no

large scale tourist attractions and recreation tends to be low-key and active.

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Arguments for and against commercial afforestation.

1 Quantity of forest cover:

France lies slightly below the EU average forest cover, at 28%, and well below the World average of 31%.

However, France has more broadleaved woodland than any other major European country: 17% is covered

by broadleaved trees; 10% by conifers. Compare these figures with other European countries, and countries

around the world (1998 figures):

Country: % Forest Cover Country % Forest Cover

Austria 47% Russian Federation 45%

Belgium/Lux. 22% China 14%

Denmark 10% Japan 67%

Finland 66% Brazil 58%

France 27% Zaire 77%

Germany 31% Australia 19%

Greece 51% Indonesia 62%

Ireland 8% Peru 66%

Italy 22% India 23%

Netherlands 10% World total 32%

Portugal 31%

Spain 17%

Sweden 59%

UK 11%

EU 33%

2 Timber usage:

Despite afforestation efforts during the last 150 years, France remains a net importer of timber and timber

products. After gas and oil, wood and forest products are the most valuable commodities traded between

countries around the world. The import bill for wood products for France currently exceeds that for cars and

food products:

Consumption of wood products 1975 1986 1990 1995 2000

Fuel wood (x 1000m3) 10, 680 10, 540 10, 767 10, 915 11, 056

Sawn wood (x 1000m3) 9, 651 10, 387 10, 888 11, 708 12, 589

Wood-based panels (x 1000m3) 2, 850 3, 218 3, 469 4, 190 5, 061

Paper and board (x 1000m3) 4, 778 6, 683 7, 132 8, 129 9, 338

Total consumption (x 1000m3) 27, 959 30, 828 32, 256 34, 942 38, 044

Consumption per capita (x 1000m3) 0.451 0.541 0.566 0.613 0.667

The per capita usage of timber and wood products in France has increased during the last 25 years, as the

population of France has remained reasonably static. There are many arguments for and against

commercial afforestation schemes, not least domestic demand

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3 Conservation and habitat loss:

The Roc de Montal is open broom heath provides an excellent habitat for several species of raptors, many

of, which are internationally threatened species, despite the fact that they may be seen frequently around the

Eagle’s Nest. For example, the Short Toed Eagle hunts snakes, which are found, on the dry heath. The Roc

de Montal also supports Peregrine Falcons and Ravens, which nest on the open rock ledges. Goshawk,

Merlin and even Golden Eagles hunt on open heath and have been seen around the Centre. Red Grouse

and Golden Plover are to be found amongst the heather, as are a huge diversity of invertebrate species such

as crickets, beetles, grasshoppers and bugs.

Most students will probably have the opinion that commercial forestry is a poor habitat for wildlife. This is

certainly not the case – especially if it is managed to encourage species diversity and a varied age structure.

Several threatened species are present in the Cevennes National Park and the OFN is an active participant

in the reintroduction of Capercaille close to the Centre. Wild Boar, red and roe deer, pole cat and pine martin

shelter in the conifer forests. The forests are also an excellent source of food for humans and animals, with

fungi in particular growing on the abundant dead wood.

In the past, the main objective of the forestry industry was:

I To increase the total forest resource;

II To maximise the amount of timber produced;

III To prevent soil erosion.

These objectives have been replaced by a shift towards the production of high quality timber rather than just

quantity, hence the incorporation of more broad leaf species used for furniture timber, as well as fast growing

conifers. Woodland systems are changing to properly structured and ecologically sustainable forests. Fuller,

1995, wrote guidelines which should be followed to improve the nature conservation value of commercial

forests. The ONF, in improving their policies and work in the PNC have started to incorporate many of these

recommendations into their forestry strategies. The area is witnessing a gradual movement away from the

dense, dark stands of sitka spruce planted during the last century.

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Good practise in designing new forestry (Fuller, 1995):

• Native species are generally better than non-native;

• A mixture of species is generally better than a monoculture;

• Natural regeneration is better than planting;

• If planting is necessary, use locally native species and local genetic types;

• Forest edges are better sinuous and feathered, not straight and abrupt;

• Make use of other existing features in the woodland, such as streams;

• Felling to produce a mixture of different aged trees is better than felling single aged trees all at once;

• Avoid the use of artificial chemicals;

• Retain some trees beyond the length of the rotation, especially damaged or misshapen ones with

lower value;

• Design the woodland carefully;

• Avoid planting conifers on ancient woodland;

• Try to avoid extensive and repeated damage to rides during forestry work;

• Felling small areas is better than felling large areas all at the same time;

• Thin as early and as heavily as possible, allowing the woodland the maximum time to recover with

the minimum impact;

• The presence of a shrub layer is advantageous to many organisms;

• Reduce the component of invasive non-native species, such as rhododendron;

• Wider spacing of trees is better than very close – there is more potential for ground flora

development;

• Minimal disturbance of the ground before planting is best – scarifying is preferable;

• Dead or dying trees are best left to rot in situ;

• Cut branches from big trees are best left where they fall – leave some brashings;

• If block felling is being carried out, it is probably best not to fell more than 10 – 20% of the area in

any 5 – 10 year period;

• Avoid sensitive times of year for harvesting and heavy work, eg. Not during March to July, when

birds are nesting;

• If possible, have areas or networks of uncropped land where the trees are not managed;

• Have a mixture of conifers and broad leaf trees.

Factors and processes threatening biodiversity, and biodiversity management. Ecosystem processes can be disrupted by changes to the ecosystem such as deforestation and re-

afforestation with introduced species. The Cevennes National Park is the only French National Park on the

mainland which has a significant amount of commercial forestry. More than 1,500km2 cover the PNC,

approximately half of which is coniferous forestry. Of this, one third is planted, non-native species (Austrian,

black and maritime pine, Douglas fir). 63% of the core zone of the Park, 58,047 Ha is covered with forest.

What happens to biodiversity when native deciduous woodland is replaced by non-native, conifer species?

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Arguments for Commercial Forestry Arguments against commercial forestry

France is a net importer of timber and wood

products. The import bill for timber exceeds that for

fuel, cars and food.

Forestry provides employment, particularly in rural

areas, where it is a larger employer than agriculture.

The Cevennes would have been virtually covered in

woodland prior to human settlement. Pine would

have been present at altitude – afforestation

redresses the balance of nature.

Forestry provides unique habitats for flora and fauna.

Over 30 species of birds nest exclusively in

coniferous woodland, including threatened species

such as goshawk.

Recreation and tourism are encouraged in areas of

commercial forestry. The PNC contains extensive

waymarked walks. People on horseback and

mountain bikes use Forest access roads. Car rallies

are held in the Park and hunting is permitted. People

gather mushrooms and bilberries in the forest.

Careful landscaping of forestry plantations can

enhance the beauty of an area. Landscape features

can be highlighted by the use of different trees.

Domestic timber production reduces the pressure on

tropical rainforests.

Woodland stabilises soil on steep mountainsides,

reducing the risk of soil erosion and flooding.

Planting non-native species creates ecosystems with

lower biodiversity than ecosystems containing native

species. Only a restricted number of species may

survive in the micro-habitats created. Invertebrates

are particularly affected.

A change of ecosystem, eg. reverting open heath to

coniferous woodland, changes the whole community

structure. Birds of open heaths have declined in the

Cevennes due to afforestation. These are often

replaced by species of lesser conservation value.

The needles of conifers are tough, acidic and toxic.

They take a long time to decompose, rendering

conifer forest soil acidic and low in nutrients. Artificial

fertilisers have to be used when trees are planted.

Acidic run off, artificial fertilisers and pesticides used

in managed forests can enter watercourses and

harm aquatic life low down in the food chain. This

affects fish, otters and beaver.

Homogenous stands of monoculture conifers,

planted in lines with harsh edges are unnatural and

unattractive. Within the forest, views are restricted

and the habitat is dark and lifeless.

Access to commercial forestry is restricted to rights

of way. Walking through the plantations themselves

is difficult off major tracks. Hunters and mushroom

collectors find access in conifer woodland difficult.

Aims

• To investigate the effects of afforestation on a scenic upland site in the style of an environmental

impact assessment;

• To prepare and EIA report, which addresses the possible impact of afforestation on the Roc de

Montal on biodiversity and landscape.

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Introduce this part of the day as a scenario:

“An environmental Consultancy have been approached by the Parc National des Cevennes, to carry out an

EIA on the Roc de Montal, in lieu of a planning application by a Timber Company - ‘Trees are Us’ - who are

bidding to afforest the site. They have also been invited to tender their own afforestation plan, which is

sympathetic to the aims of the National Park - Conservation of the natural ecosystems within the National

Park and the maintenance of traditional lifestyles in the area.”

And either:

To construct an appropriate afforestation plan for the site, taking consideration of timber production and

revenue, recreation provision, biodiversity, preservation of landscape value and maintaining the traditional

uses of woodland in France;

Hypotheses

• Afforestation of the Roc de Montal would modify the abiotic and edaphic environment at the site,

reducing its biodiversity;

• Timber production can be sustainably managed at this site.

Data collection sites

The Roc de Montal is a group of granite tors within walking distance of the Eagle’s Nest. Students visit the

Roc de Montal to assess the landscape value of the site and its environs, and sample an area of intensive

spruce forestry, passed through en route to the Roc de Montal. The return route passes through an area of

ancient beech woodland to the east of the summit, which can be visited to draw out the contrast between

deciduous and coniferous woodland ecosystems.

Equipment

Map and compass

Point frame quadrat

30m Tape measure

Random numbers table

Soil pH kit

Soil auger

Trowel

Dirty hands test sheet

Light meter

Air thermometer

Ground thermometer

Soil thermometer

Hygrometer

Wind watch

Meter ruler

30cm ruler

Identification keys (woodland and heathland)

Ranging pole

Methods and Organisation of Study

The EIA will determine the potential effects of afforestation on the Roc de Montal. It is therefore necessary to

establish what would be lost from the site should the scheme go ahead. The abiotic and edaphic conditions

giving rise to the biotic community on the ridge is assessed, and the biotic community surveyed. The

potential impact of afforesting the site is determined by comparing these results with an afforested site.

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Abiotic Factors.

With an elastic band, attach an air thermometer to a ranging pole, with the bulb 1.50m above ground, facing

out of direct sunlight. Attach an air hygrometer to the thermometer;

Push a digital soil thermometer 5cm into the ground;

Stand a hygrometer on the ground next to the digital thermometer, and prop a simple alcohol thermometer

next to it. Ensure the bulb isn’t touching vegetation;

To record light levels, hold the light meter (environmental comparitor) next to the air thermometer, and

record wind, using a wind watch.

When explaining how this equipment is to be set up and used, this should be justified in terms of

standardisation of data collection between groups, and repeatability between sites. Discuss with students an

appropriate time interval between data readings – we suggest readings at 15-minute intervals over a two to

three hour time period.

The equipment thus organised, students should allow at least ten minutes for the equipment to equilibrate

before taking their first set of readings. Recording sheets are provided in this pack (appendix 6). This time

can be used to discuss the next exercise.

Biotic Community.

An environmental impact assessment aims to determine what species will be lost from an area, should the

ecosystem be altered. It is important that all species are identified and an accurate species list constructed.

An assessment of the rarity and ecological value of particular species and species assemblages can be

made. Discuss the following options:

Why is ‘sampling’ necessary?

Qualitative Vs quantitative sampling.

Quadrat size selection – carry out a nesting quadrat exercise;

How to place quadrats – random, semi-random or systematic. What is the most appropriate method at a

given site?;

In a random technique, how much data is needed at a given site – calculation of the running mean;

The most appropriate method of recording what is present in the quadrat: objective vs subjective –

presence-absence / abundance scale / percentage cover / biomass, etc.

We recommend use of point frame quadrats, placed randomly (using a random numbers table) in a 10m x

10m grid. A total of 40 to 50 quadrats between the group will be sufficient to collect a representative sample

of data. Students can collect vegetation data from their quadrats by any number of quantitative methods –

this is important as the presence and relative abundance of species is important in recognising the value of

the site. A recording sheet is included in this pack (appendix 7). In each quadrat, students should also record

soil moisture, maximum vegetation height, light at ground level, % cover bare ground and % cover leaf litter.

Edaphic Factors.

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Afforestation would also affect the soil. Students examine a soil profile and assess soil pH and texture in the

field. This exercise should be demonstrated, with students being brought in to assist as appropriate. At the

second site, students can repeat this exercise themselves. A soil auger is used to take a soil core. Identify

the soil horizons present within the sample, measure their thickness and ascertain the soil pH and texture.

Soil pH is assessed using a barium sulphate soil test kit. Put a pea-sized amount of soil in the test tube and

add a spatula-full of barium sulphate and distilled water to the half way mark. Shake the sample thoroughly.

The barium sulphate acts as a flocculent and the particles of clay in the sample will adhere and settle out of

the suspension. Add 1cm depth of soil indicator solution. Mix the contents of the tube gently and compare

the resulting colour with the colour chart. Soil texture is assessed in the field using the ‘Dirty Hands Test’

Landscape Assessment.

An important part of an EIA is the perceived value of the landscape. This is assessed subjectively by each

student using a landscape evaluation. Landscape evaluations have limitless applications – discuss how one

could be made up for a shopping centre. Discuss the limitations of the technique – the effect of the weather

conditions, time of day, personal experience and expectations. The landscape evaluations included in this

unit are designed specifically for the Roc de Montal and represent two possible styles that students could

produce for themselves. (Appendices 4 and 5).

Data Processing and Analysis

(1) Preparing the EIA Forms.

Complete the Leopold Matrix, which is designed to encourage students to consider whether afforestation has

a positive or negative effect on a range of factors at different times during the life of the plantation – during

planting; whilst the trees are growing; and during the harvesting of the timber.

Environmental Impact Assessment.

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Summary of the potential impacts of afforestation on biodiversity and related factors: Biodiversity of trees and other plant species

Biodiversity of mammal and bird species

Biodiversity of invertebrate species

Impact on food chains and food webs

Impact on Microclimate

Impact on soil and nutrient cycling

Impact on local landscape

Impact on local economy

The Eagle’s Nest.

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Landscape Evaluation 1.

There are many ways of assessing landscapes. The checklist below is based on that used by the

Countryside Commission when evaluating landscapes. To complete the table, circle the words you feel are

most appropriate when describing the landscape features you are looking at.

Aesthetic Qualities:

Size: Tiny Small Large Vast

Area: Tight Enclosed Open Exposed

Diversity: Uniform Simple Diverse Complex

Form: Steep Sloping Rolling Flat

Colour: Monochrome Dull Colourful Gaudy

Movement: Still Calm Active Busy

Pattern: Random Irregular Organised Formal

Impressions:

Beauty: Ugly Plain Attractive Stunning

Security: Comfortable Safe Unsettling Threatening

Management: Artificial Managed Natural Wild

Familiarity: Everyday Familiar Unusual Strange

Effect of people: Untouched Harmonious Unbalanced Destructive

Now answer these questions:

How do you feel about this area? Use this space to record six words not listed, which describe your feelings

about this area. …………………… …………………….

………………….. …………………….. ……………………. …………………

How suitable is this area for informal recreation? How do you think local may use this area already? How do

you think visitors to this area may use it already? How could the provision of recreation in this area be

improved? Record your ideas in the space below:

Preparing an Afforestation Scheme.

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Students are provided with a range of resources, which will enable them to plan a design for afforesting the

Roc de Montal. The design will be presented on a base map, the master is the last page in this pack.

Expand it to A3 size on a photocopier, as students find this easier to work with. Discuss which tree species

have been planted where, and why. Students should use a colour key indicating different species, and

should annotate their map with a detailed justification of each species’ position, considering:

• How biodiversity at the site can be maxinised whilst allowing for full timber production;

• How timber production at this site can be considered to be sustainable;

• Arrangements for harvesting the timber, routine and emergency access;

• How have water courses been protected;

• Any improvements for flora and fauna in the area – nest boxes, clearings, native species, species

assemblages, etc;

• How has the afforestation design taken account of existing landscape features, such as the Roc de

Montal, the river valley and distant views;

• What arrangements have been made to maintain and improve access to the site for farmers and the

public;

• Recreational initiatives, eg. Mountain bike routes, picnic areas, car-parking facilities – could and

should this area be turned into a major recreation site?

This takes about an hour and a half. Students should then calculate the value of their timber as indicated.

Finally, the groups should present their plan to the rest of the class, justifying their design choices.

The Eagle’s Nest.

Timber Species Fact Sheet. (Appendix 1)

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This list details the more commonly used tree species for commercial forestry. Use it to work out which

species would be best planted where on the Roc de Montal. Use the yield data to calculate the volume of

timber (in m3) produced after 50 years growth.

SCOTS PINE. Yield: 350m3 per Ha after 50 years.

From: Alpine (above 800m)

Prefers: Wide range of conditions. Easy to establish on broom scrub. Frost hardy. Needs plenty of light.

Thrives on acidic, light, well-drained soil. Avoid water logged and alkaline soils.

Remarks: Growth is rather slow, but this is a hardy tree species, and considered a safe bet in most

conditions. A tree with a high, open canopy, therefore encouraging understorey development.

Timber: General purpose. Easily treated for outdoor use – fencing, joinery, etc.

CORSICAN PINE. Yield: 450m3 per Ha after 50 years.

From: Corsica.

Prefers: Low elevations. Light, well drained soils, preferably acidic, but can tolerate base-rich soils better

than Scots pine.

Remarks: Better yielding tree than Scots pine, but more difficult to establish.

Timber: As Scots pine, but not as strong – less suitable for building.

LARCH. Yield: 400m3 per Ha after 50 years.

From: Japan or Central Europe.

Prefers: Wide range of conditions. Suitable for grassy, broom-covered or heathery slopes. Quickly outgrows

and suppresses surrounding vegetation, so a valuable pioneer species. Avoid dry sites where annual rainfall

is >750mm. Avoid poorly drained and exposed situations – ideal for protected slopes.

Remarks: The only deciduous conifer – leaves turn brown and fall in Autumn – a useful species for

improving ecological diversity in the understorey.

Timber: Strong and heavy. Fencing, gates, building, telegraph poles and chipboard.

DOUGLAS FIR. Yield: 650m3 per Ha after 50 years.

From: Western North America.

Prefers: Well-drained soil of good depth and moderate fertility. An excellent tree for valley slopes, but not for

exposed conditions, heather-covered ground, or shallow or waterlogged soils.

Remarks: On suitable sites, grows rapidly and produces a high volume of timber. Good drainage is

very important.

Timber: An excellent construction timber with a high strength to weight ratio. Suitable for fencing, joinery,

poles, chipboard and pulpwood.

NORWAY SPRUCE. Yield: 500m3 per Ha after 50 years.

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From: Scandinavia.

Prefers: Moist soils and acidic peats. Succeeds on old woodland sites, and most soils of moderate fertility.

Shade tolerant. Fails on heather sites, and does poorly on well-drained sites.

Remarks: Produces a high volume of timber on suitable soils.

Timber: Wide range of uses, including timber for building and Xmas trees.

SITKA SPRUCE. Yield: 600m3 per Ha after 50 years.

From: Western North America.

Prefers: Damp sites and exposed high land. Stands exposure better than any other common conifer. Avoid

all dry sites.

Remarks: Faster growing than Norway Spruce, and a very high volume producer.

Timber: Similar to Norway Spruce. An excellent pulpwood tree also.

OAK. Yield: 75m3 per Ha after 50 years.

From: All across Europe.

Prefers: Well-aerated, deep, fertile soils. Avoid all shallow, poorly drained soils, and exposed sites.

Remarks: A valuable wood for furniture-making, but grows very slowly – of much greater ecological

value – at least 10 000 species of invertebrate, bird, mammal, lichen, etc. are known to inhabit or rely on oak

at some stage of their life cycle.

Timber: A valuable wood for furniture making.

BEECH. Yield: 90m3 per Ha after 50 years.

From: All across Europe.

Prefers: Well drained soils. Many be slightly acidic or alkaline. Grows well on exposed slopes.

Remarks: Casts a very dense shade – despite being deciduous, very little understorey beneath beech

woodlands. Of limited ecological value, therefore, other than in adding diversity to conifer plantations.

Timber: A very strong timber used in interior construction and furniture making.

BIRCH. Yield: 300m3 per Ha after 50 years.

From: All across Europe.

Prefers: Most soils. Copes well with acidic, freely draining soils. Avoid very exposed sites – suitable for

slopes. Good pioneer on heather/broom scrub.

Remarks: A useful tree for increasing ecological diversity on a conifer site.

Timber: A poor quality timber, suitable for chipboard and pulpwood only.

The Eagle’s Nest

Forestry Commission Guidelines for Forestry Design. (Appendix 2).

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The success and sustainability of your afforestation plan, in terms of its sensitivity to the needs and values of

the National Park and other interest groups, depends on its visual, recreational and ecological impact on the

landscape. These design principals and techniques will help you create an attractive and varied landscape.

ECOLOGY:

Native species should be favoured, and a mixture of hard and softwoods provides the highest biodiversity.

Leave gaps and use deciduous species to encourage an under storey.

LANDSCAPE:

The shape of the forest is particularly important. Edges should be irregular, diagonal to the contour, and

reflect the shape of the ground by rising uphill in hollows, and downhill on convex slopes. The following

should be avoided:

• Long, straight edges;

• Right angles;

• Parallel edges;

• Symmetrical shapes;

• Vertical boundaries (running straight

uphill);

• Horizontal boundaries (following

contours).

The following are recommended:

Leave unplanted areas which would screen main landscape features;

Leave gaps between forest and watercourses – this avoids shading water plants and acidification by needle

litter. Stream valleys should be planted with broadleaved species if possible, to benefit aquatic life and

increase diversity;

Vary the width of unplanted verges beside linear features (tracks, paths, streams);

Include areas of larch, a deciduous conifer - they can be used to highlight landform;

Leave irregular gaps where possible;

An under storey of shrubs near edges provides valuable wildlife habitats, and improves visual diversity.

RECREATION:

With any recreational provision, it is important to minimise any negative visual effects from the scheme. You

will need to consider whether your proposals are in sympathy with the natural environment which people

come to the site to appreciate. Waymarked trails encourage people to enjoy the forest and the PNC and

ONF use them around the PNC. Ideally, they should provide for a full range of physical ability. As much

landscape variety as possible should be included. Avoid sites susceptible to erosion – avoid the track going

directly down slopes. Inclusion of interpretative boards will help to inform visitors to your aims, encouraging

them to treat the site with respect. Picnic areas, where used, should be located for their shelter, aspect

(generally SSE-WSW), and view. They are usually close to a car park, but with sufficient ground or tree

separation to give visual detachment and minimise traffic noise.

Eagle’s Nest.

Method for Estimating Timber Value at Felling. (Appendix 3).

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Place over lay grid onto base map. Each square is 1Ha (100mx100m). Count the number of squares

occupied by each species. If a square is less than half covered, ignore it. If a square is more than half

covered, count it in the total.

Write down each species planted in the first column of the table, bottom right of the base map. Record the

yield data for each species planted in the second column – this data is in the Timber Species Fact Sheet

(appendix 1).

Fill in the total area occupied by each species in the third column.

Calculate the total yield for each species by multiplying together column one and two.

Calculate the total timber yield by adding up the values in column four. Record this on the table.

Students can now calculate the profitability of their scheme. The value of standing medium grade

construction timber is 50 Euros per m3, and the production costs 15 Euros per m3.

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