Abstract:

Tourism has had huge impacts on communities and natural environments for decades, and will continue to do so. Ecotourism is one form of sustainable tourism, which is considered a more responsible way to travel. Theoretical and empirical literature is mixed however: from the types of businesses and activities under the ‘ecotourism’ umbrella; to a varied impact of ecotourism initiatives. This research seeks to explore links between community-based ecotourism, participation and conservation, through a sustainable livelihoods approach.

Sustainable Livelihoods Analysis of Community

Based Ecotourism

Research Proposal

W10025958

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Contents

Working Title..................................................................................................3

Background: Literature Review......................................................................3

Aims and Objectives......................................................................................4

Theoretical Perspective..................................................................................5

Methodology...................................................................................................6

Methods.........................................................................................................7

Timetable.....................................................................................................12

Budget and Resources................................................................................12

Ethical Considerations.................................................................................13

Risk Analysis................................................................................................15

References...................................................................................................16

Appendices

Appendix A: Maps..................................................................................18

Appendix B: Draft Observation Outline...................................................19

Appendix C: Draft Interview Outline.......................................................19

Appendix D: Draft Workshop Outline......................................................20

Appendix E: Draft Consent Form (Interview)..........................................21

Figures

Figure 1: Sustainable Livelihoods Approach..................................................5

Figure 2: Map of South East Asia, showing the three study sites..................8

Tables

Table 1: Data................................................................................................10

Table 2: Timetable.......................................................................................12

Table 3: Budget............................................................................................12

Table 4: Risk Analysis (Researcher)............................................................15

Sources of cover page photos (left to right): http://www.ccben.org; http://www.mangobayphuquoc.com; http://www.mescot.org

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Working Title

Sustainable Livelihoods Analysis of Community Based Ecotourism

Background

Ecotourism

‘Sustainable tourism’ (ST) has been gaining ground since the 1990s, as more people

became aware of the negative effects of tourism on local environments and people. The

World Tourism Organisation developed a definition of ST, using the Brundtland Report’s

definition of sustainable development as a starting point:

"Sustainable tourism development meets the needs of present tourists and host

regions while protecting and enhancing opportunity for the future... leading to

management of all resources in such a way that economic, social, and aesthetic

needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological

processes, biological diversity, and life support system" (Meyer et al. 2005:11).

Ecotourism (ET) is one form of ST, defined as “environmentally responsible travel and

visitation to natural areas to enjoy and appreciate nature that promotes conservation of the

environment and sustains the well being of a local people” (Ngece 2002:1).

Weaver & Lawton (2007) stated that ET should satisfy three criteria, namely: that attractions

are predominantly nature based; the focus is on education; and the whole package should

follow principles of ecological, socio-cultural and economic sustainability. They also

commented on the attempts to include recreational activities such as angling and trophy

hunting in ET; and attempts to include a cultural element.

There has been much research showing that ET is performing as hoped; and also research

stating that is difficult to assess initiatives, in terms of being financially viable, and also

benefitting local communities and the environment (Simpson 2009).

From an economic perspective, Wunder (2000) concluded that income obtained from ET

provided a conservation incentive. Stronza & Gordillo (2008) found that tourists tend to pay a

lot for their ‘eco-tours’ but tour operators may be reluctant to share the returns with the local

communities. Where some community members gain more than others, social conflicts

emerge. Additionally, the communities become vulnerable to the seasonality of the tourism

market, which is especially bad if they become heavily dependent on it.

From an ecological perspective, there are questions over whether the income and

employment gained from ET will unambiguously lead to conservation. ET rarely replaces

other destructive activities; and the new income can exacerbate habitat loss through more

rapid resource extraction (Stronza & Gordillo 2008). There are also problems associated

with ‘greenwashing’: whereby the ethics of tour operators do not conform to ET (Weaver &

Lawton 2007).

ET is predominantly promoted and practiced by middle class, Western white people

(Fletcher 2009). It has become increasingly institutionalised, with community-based projects

based in developing countries dependent on environmental organisations based in

developed countries Weaver & Lawton (2007).

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Stronza & Gordillo (2008) found that research seldom measures the link between

participation in ownership and management of ET and conservation. Of studies that have

done, they reported that Sheyvens found that ET was more likely to lead to conservation

where locals have some measure of control and share equitably; Kruger performed a study

of 57 projects, and found that conservation occurred in the 17% that had communities

involved in decision making; and Belsky concluded that participation is linked to conservation

but only if communities truly benefit from influx of tourists. Weaver & Lawton (2007) found

that studies associated factors such as collaboration, partnerships and effective leadership,

with success.

What research is required?

Stronza & Gordillo (2008) found that an increasing number of scholars have hypothesised

that ET’s real connection to conservation comes through participation in ownership and

management, rather than through economic benefits alone. They believe that greater

attention needs to be paid to values, social relations and institutions, as opposed to just

economic change, in conservation projects. They believe that weaknesses of existing local

institutions are obstacles to conservation. Institutions are “social capital”, such as trust,

reciprocity, common rules, norms and sanctions, and strong networks. The conditions under

which ET leads to stronger or weaker local institutions remains poorly understood.

Stronza & Gordillo (2008) recommended that further explanatory research be carried out on

the causal mechanisms among ET benefits, the strength of local institutions and

conservation. Research should examine the extent to which participatory approaches can

help build social capital and thus provide local communities with the capacities to translate

ET into broader and locally sustained goals of conservation and development.

Aims and Objectives

The main focus of this research is to use the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) to

examine community-based ecotourism (CBET), with special interest in the relationship

between ET participation and ownership, and conservation. Specifically, it seeks to examine

the hypothesis that community participation and ownership of ET ventures is the real

connection to conservation and sustainable development, rather than economic benefits.

The objectives of this research are to:

1. Explore the effects that ET has on a community’s capital assets (financial, social,

human, natural, physical)

2. Examine whether ET has enhanced or degraded social capital within the community

3. Examine whether ET has enhanced or degraded natural capital within the community

4. Examine links between ET, social capital and natural capital

5. Use community-based participatory research (CBPR) to identify priorities and actions

for the community

The purpose of the research is to explore links between ET, community participation and

sustainable development, in three case study areas. The study will seek to explore the

extent to which participatory approaches to ET can help build social capital.

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Theoretical Perspective

The SLA seeks to understand and build on people’s existing assets to develop positive

livelihood outcomes by identifying practical action. It is founded “on a belief that people

require a range of assets to achieve positive livelihood outcomes” (DfID 1999:5). The

approach is people-centred and holistic, based on the views of those concerned (Simpson

2009). The five categories of assets are shown in Figure 1.

Fig.1: Capital Assets

Source: DfID

The ‘asset pentagon’ visually represents people’s assets: the centre point being zero access

to assets, and the outer perimeter representing maximum access. Different shaped

pentagons can be drawn for different people, social groups or communities. Gathering

information about trends incorporates a time dimension, meaning accumulation and loss of

assets can be examined (DfID 1999).

This exploratory study will employ a combination of deductive and inductive theory. Firstly

the hypothesis and SLA inform the evidence I will look for, and the data collected will confirm

or refute the hypothesis. The study seeks new insights, and will draw conclusions and

generate ideas that can be fed into further development of theory related to ET and SLA

(Grix 2004).

Worldview

The study will be approached from a critical realist (CR) perspective, which states that the

social world exists independently of our knowledge of it, but it is constructed through the

Human Capital: skills,

knowledge, ability to labour and

good health

Social Capital: networks and

connections, membership of

more formalise groups, and

relationships of trust, reciprocity

and exchanges

Natural Capital:

natural resource

stocks from which

resource flows and

services useful for

livelihoods are

derived, e.g. land,

water, biodiversity,

etc.

Physical Capital:

basic infrastructure

and producer goods

needed to support

livelihoods, e.g.

affordable

transport, secure

shelter and

buildings, adequate

water and

sanitation,

affordable energy,

and access to

information

Financial capital: resources including

available stocks (bank deposits, cash,

livestock) and regular inflows of money

(wages, state transfers, remittances)

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interactions of individuals (Grix 2004). A pragmatic worldview will also be adopted, in which it

is not necessary to question reality and the laws of nature. This worldview is real-world

practice oriented; using diverse approaches to develop knowledge (Creswell 2009), and is

therefore relevant to SLA which is used to examine existing situations.

Methodology

Answers to research questions will be acquired using a combination of qualitative and

quantitative methods, and CBPR. The combined methods are necessary due to the

complexity of SL analysis. Quantitative data can be easily categorised and counted, while

qualitative data enriches the study. This also enables cross-checking and triangulation of

findings, complementary analysis of results, analysis of diverse opinions, and the ability to

look into perceptions and sources of relevant change and impacts (Simpson 2009; Ritchie &

Lewis 2009).

When examining sustainable livelihoods, not all factors of capital assets can be measured

quantitatively. Even examining those that can (e.g. wages) will not necessarily prove useful.

Individuals and communities can provide more valuable information through qualitative

analysis: issues of group dynamics can be captured, as well as descriptions of processes

(Simpson 2009). Jones (2005) differentiated between structural social capital (membership

of formal organisations) and cognitive social capital (trust, solidarity, reciprocity, and

membership in labour saving groups); and noted that previous studies had only considered

structural capital. This study will consider both, using Krishna & Shrader’s template.

CBPR is a collaborative approach that enables communities to actively participate in

research. It has evolved as an alternative research paradigm (OBSSR). CBPR involves

shared decision making, shared ownership, and recognition of contributions in the research

(Horowitz et al. 2009). It is an important tool for improving the quality, effectiveness and

sustainability of projects, providing a mechanism for communities to express feelings and

share knowledge (Simpson 2009). CBPR benefits the community as well as the researcher

through knowledge gained (OBSSR). Laverack & Thangphet (2007) provide an example of

using CBPR to examine community capacity to manage ET in two communities in Thailand.

Key to their approach was using strategic planning to initiate community actions towards

sustained, locally managed ET. This approach made people more aware of their strengths

and weaknesses. The information gathered was then used to improve their livelihoods

through strategic planning and collective action.

This study is not designed to be a rigid template: it does not seek to make generalisations

between participation and conservation. However, it is a flexible approach that can be

adapted to other projects and environments. Endogenous CBET initiatives and the concept

of social capital are also scarce in current literature (Jones 2005), so this will add to case

study material.

Sampling

Since qualitative research does not aim to estimate the incidence of phenomena, it requires

a sampling logic where scale and statistical representation are not key considerations.

Therefore ‘non-probability sampling’ is better suited, due to its ability to represent relevant

characteristics: units of investigation are deliberately chosen to reflect particular features,

and so the chances of selection are unknown. Purposive sampling will be employed, to

7

enable a detailed exploration of the central themes. This will ensure all relevant areas are

covered and some diversity is included. Some use of convenience sampling has been

employed with regard to finding study areas. Additionally, it can be argued that opportunistic

sampling will be employed: although I can state that I intend to act upon interesting

observations during fieldwork, I cannot foresee what those observations will be, or how

many there will be. The deliberate nature of purposive sampling does not equate to bias, but

clear objectivity must be maintained when selecting units of investigation (Ritchie & Lewis

2009).

Data Analysis

Quantitative data will be analysed using SPSS, and content and discourse analysis of

qualitative data will be used to create tables and matrices outlining key impacts of CBET

(Simpson 2009).

Triangulation

The study will incorporate both method and data triangulation (as shown in Table 1 on page

10). Multiple methods will be used to investigate the same phenomenon, and multiple data

sources will be used in order to analyse the same phenomenon.

Scale

This study is small-scale and in-depth, being undertaken at three study sites. It will involve

individuals and communities. Due to the scale of the study, no attempt will be made to

generalise the findings to a wider population. However, it is hoped that the participatory

action research methods employed will garner some useful insights on ‘best practice’ that

can be shared. There is also the possibility of reproducing the research in other locations, or

carrying out a longitudinal study, to observe development over time.

Weaknesses

Potential weaknesses exist within this study. Firstly, SLA assumes capital assets can be

expanded in an incremental way, which may not be the case. It also does not pay much

attention to inequalities of power, or macroeconomic trends and conflict. Lastly, it

“underplays the fact that enhancing the livelihoods of one group can undermine those of

another” (Serrat 2008:4). Additionally, the budget places limits on the time that can be spent

at study sites and therefore the amount of data that can be collected. Observational methods

also have the disadvantage that participants will know they are being observed, distorting

’reality’. However, one of the key advantages of collecting qualitative data is its flexibility,

through open-ended questions and the ability to react to responses and adapt (FHI).

Methods

The study will employ the research methods detailed below. Table 1 summarises the data,

and methods of collection and analysis.

1. Literature Review

I will conduct a comprehensive literature review on tourism, ST, ET and CBET. This will

provide background information that will constitute the theoretical framework for the study.

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2. Case Studies

I will identify areas where CBET is taking place in order to conduct case studies. World

Wildlife Fund (WWF) is involved in CBET initiatives in Asia. Through contact with WWF, the

following communities have been provisionally selected:

Chi Phat, Ko Khong, Cambodia

Mango Bay, Phu Quoc, Vietnam

Mescot Initiative, Malaysian Borneo

Figure 2 shows the locations of these communities (further maps can be found in Appendix

A). I will contact to ask permission to carry out research in their communities. I will then visit

the study areas for two weeks to conduct the empirical research listed below.

These represent CBET projects at different stages of their development, with differing levels

of state and private support, understandings of ET, and activities available. As these

communities are accustomed to accepting visitors, it is assumed that the period of

acclimatisation will be fairly short. An ‘ice breaker’ will be initiated shortly after arrival, with

the support of community leaders. This will allow me to discuss the purpose of the study and

what will be asked of participants.

Analysis of the ecological and socio-cultural background will be carried out, which takes into

account the structure, operation, funding and stakeholders of initiatives (Simpson 2009).

Fig. 2: Map of South East Asia, showing the three study sites

Source: http://www.nationsonline.org

3. Questionnaires

Following the initial meeting with the community, I will ask community members to complete

questionnaires, designed to inform levels of capital assets, which can be analysed

Chi Phat,

Cambodia Mango Bay,

Vietnam

Malaysian

Borneo

9

quantitatively. Questions will be developed using Krishna & Shrader’s template, to capture

both structural and cognitive levels of capital (Jones 2005). Average scores and percentages

will be recorded.

The questionnaire will consider household composition, income generation, food security,

and number and membership of community organisations. It will consider who is perceived

to receive benefits and costs from ET, at the household and community level. It will also

consider cognitive factors such as cohesion, trust, reciprocity, equity, decision making,

exclusion, power and conflict (Simpson 2009; Jones 2005). Participants will be asked to

consider changes that have taken place over time.

4. Participant Observation

The communities will be observed for 4 hours per week for 10 days. I will observe those who

participate in the ET initiative and those who do not, where applicable. I will also observe

community meetings and interactions with tourists. Observations will inform capital assets

such as participation and networks, and also their skills in terms of operating their CBET

initiative.

5. Semi-Structured Interviews

Shortly after arrival I will conduct interviews with key informants, such as community leaders

and entrepreneurs. These will focus on the evolution of the ET initiative, and past, present

and future developments and issues.

I will also choose several other community members to interview, based on participant

observations. This will include people who are highly engaged and those who are not. The

exact number cannot be defined, as it will depend on the size of the community, the extent of

the ET initiative, and observations. I will endeavour to include women, children, older people

and people with disabilities, in order to gain a thorough account as possible.

These interviews will focus on changes in capital assets associated with ET. I will discuss

past, present and future development and issues. Where interesting observations have been

made, interviews will be conducted shortly after these observations in order to clarify and

provide insight to observations.

Open-ended questions will be used, which may be varied according to the audience, to

include questions of relevance and meaning to each community; identified through

participant observation and interviews with key informants. The general strategy will be to

start with broad questions and follow up on the interviewee’s responses, to capture his or her

meanings and avoid imposing my own meanings or bias. This is outlined in the interview

sheet in Appendix C.

6. Participatory Workshops (CBPR)

Participatory workshops will be set up in order to undertake CBPR. I will work with

community leaders to develop the agenda for these workshops, but essentially it will be

aimed at discussing observations and results so far, and identifying areas for improvement

(see Appendix D for an outline). One participatory focus group will be conducted in each

study site. It will last up to 4 hours and involve 10-15 participants.

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Activities that will be undertaken include:

Asset mapping: participants will identify past and present capital assets within the community, which will enable them to utilise and build on existing resources. It will involve detailing assets and also creating drawings of maps.

Priority ranking: participants will be asked to assign high, medium or low

importance to various ‘priorities’. The participants’ priority hierarchy is essential (as

opposed to the researcher’s), showing their values using their language and

concepts (Kitzinger 1994).

Pentagon configuration: participants select one of five statements they believe to

be true for each asset. A pentagon is developed from results, and participants then

discuss ways to improve which is fed into strategic planning (Laverack & Thangphet

2007).

7. Photographic and Video Evidence

I will gather photographic material from the study area, to aid reader visualisation of the

study areas. This will include examples of conservation or loss of biodiversity; community

meetings; interaction; and other interesting observations. Photographs will also be taken of

activities in the workshops. Photographs and videos will also be sought from the community

and from tourists that have visited the area via internet searches.

Table 1 summarises the data that will be collected, and the methods employed for data

collection and analysis. Throughout, I will be exploring who participates in CBET, who feels

positive and negative effects, what those effects are, how people feel about them, and what

improvements could be made.

Table 1: Summary of Data

Method Analysis Data to collect

Literature review

Content analysis of secondary research in terms of SLA and capital assets

Books

Journal articles

Organisational reports

Case studies Situational analysis of initiatives Ecological and socio-cultural background

Structure, operation, funding and stakeholders of initiatives

Past, present and future developments and issues

Relevant laws, statutes and policies

Questionnaires Quantitative analysis Human capital: health, education, skills, time use, population composition

Social capital: social structure, participation, decision making patterns, gender roles

Natural capital: land and water resources, produce, wildlife, biodiversity, examples of conservation

Physical capital: housing conditions, educational services, health services, transport and communications

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Method Analysis Data to collect

Financial capital: household income and expenditure patterns

Participant observation

Conversation analysis: structure and content

Human capital: skills, time use Social capital: social structure, participation, decision making patterns, gender roles Natural capital: interaction with resources, examples of conservation

Semi-structured interviews

Content analysis: identify themes in content and context

Heuristic analysis: idiosyncratic meanings

Life history: single narratives and collected around common themes

Human capital: health, education, skills, time use

Social capital: social structure, participation, decision making patterns, gender roles

Natural capital: land and water resources, produce, wildlife, biodiversity, examples of conservation

Physical capital: housing conditions, educational services, health services, transport and communications

Financial capital: household income and expenditure patterns

Community-based participatory research

Asset and historical mapping

Priority ranking

Pentagon configuration

Human capital: health, education, skills, time use

Social capital: social structure, participation, decision making patterns, gender roles

Natural capital: land and water resources, produce, wildlife, biodiversity, examples of conservation

Physical capital: housing conditions, educational services, health services, transport and communications

Financial capital: household income and expenditure patterns

Photographic and video evidence

Visual analysis of relationships and interactions

Recording evidence to aid reader visualisation

Human capital: skills, labour force participation, time use

Social capital: membership of formal and informal groups, decision making, mutual support and reciprocity

Natural capital: land and water resources, produce, wildlife, biodiversity, examples of conservation

Physical capital: housing conditions, educational services, health services, transport and communications

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Timetable

The research will last for 4 months and will be undertaken between June and September

2011. Table 2 shows when each stage of the research will take place, and how long it will

take. An additional 2 weeks ‘contingency’ have been left blank at the end, in case of any

issues resulting in a delay. As no stage of the research is time-sensitive (e.g. dependent on

harvest season) it is not important where delays may occur.

Table 2: Timetable

Week: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Background research

Developing methods

Time with communities

Collecting data

Analysing data

Report writing

Contingency

Budget and Resources

A budget of £2,854.14 has been prepared to cover the costs of the research outlined above.

Table 3 shows a breakdown, using the foreign exchange rate of US dollars to GB pounds on

1st April 2011. This includes all travel and accommodation costs, visas and insurance. It also

includes recording equipment, stationery, and other equipment necessary for undertaking

the research. Some funds have been kept aside as a contingency fund. This budget will be

funded by the researcher. Items once I have returned home have been omitted as I would be

paying for them anyway, e.g. internet connection, rent, food at home, etc.

Table 3: Budget

Item Unit Cost Quan. Subtotal Total Cost

Flights: Manchester – Phnom Penh, Cambodia Phnom Penh – Sandakan, Malaysia Sandakan – Manchester

£504.00 £242.00 £512.42

1 1 1

£504.00 £242.00 £512.42

£1258.42

Internal travel: Bus: Phnom Penh to Andoung Tuek Boat between Andoung Tuek and Chi Phat Bus: Andoung Tuek to Rach Gia Boat between Rach Gia and Phu Quoc Bus: Rach Gia to Phnom Penh Bus between Sandakan and Batu Puteh

£6.52

£15.26 £11.45 £5.84 £7.21 £4.36

1 2 1 2 1 2

£6.52

£30.52 £11.45 £11.68 £7.21 £8.72

£76.10

Accommodation: per night B&B Chi Phat, Cambodia

£12.40

14

£173.60

£893.62

13

Item Unit Cost Quan. Subtotal Total Cost

Mango Bay, Vietnam Mescot Initiative, Malaysia

£37.18 £14.25

14 14

£520.52 £199.50

Food: £5 per day incl. 2 meals and snacks £5.00 45 £225.00

Internet and phone: per week while travelling £5.00 6 £30.00

Insurance: ‘Infinity’ quote for 4 months worldwide £66.78 1 £66.78

Visas: Cambodia Vietnam Malaysia

£15.26 £44.00

N/A

1 1

N/A

£15.26 £44.00

N/A

£59.26

Recording equipment: Asus laptop – already own [Audio: Samsung mobile phone – already own] [Video: Flip video recorder – already own] [Photographic: DSLR Nikon D40 – already own]

N/A N/A N/A N/A

N/A N/A N/A N/A

N/A N/A N/A N/A

£00.00

Stationery: Pens and pencils Writing pads Highlighters – pack of 6 Flipchart A1 Paper for workshops (pack of 40) Sharpie Pens for workshops (pack of 12) Sticky notes for workshops (pack of 6)

N/A

£2.50 £2.00 £7.99 £9.99 £9.99

N/A

2 1 1 1 2

N/A

£5.00 £2.00 £7.99 £9.99

£19.98

£44.96

Contingency: in case of extended time necessary with communities, loss of spending money; other extenuating circumstances

£200.00 1 £200.00

TOTAL £2854.14

Ethical Considerations

Efforts will be taken to minimise risk to participants and study sites (physical, psychological,

social, economic, and legal). A principle of ‘reciprocity’ will be adopted, to ensure that

participants benefit from the research too (Creswell 2009).

Communities will be made aware that:

Fraudulent practices such as of suppressing, falsifying or inventing findings will

not be undertaken;

Data will only be recorded and processed with permission;

Data will only be used for the purposes outlined;

Results will not be misused in order to advantage any group; and

They will be provided with a preliminary copy of the research publication.

Protecting Participants from Harm

Participants will be given a clear understanding of the issues to be addressed before being

asked to participate. Only questions relevant to the study will be asked. I will remain alert to

signs of discomfort; and in the event of someone becoming uncomfortable, I will check their

willingness to continue. After the interview, I will revisit confidentiality, to reassure the

participant. I will also offer to revisit issues discussed, or move onto other topics. I will not

give advice, but offer to help the participant seek support (Ritchie & Lewis 2009).

14

In the event of a participant disclosing information that indicates they are at risk of harm, I

will encourage them to report it themselves, seek help another way, or I will offer to talk to

someone on their behalf. The interview as a whole will be treated as private and confidential,

so reporting observations as well as disclosures will require consent (Ritchie & Lewis 2009).

The research will adopt an ‘equality’ principle, ensuring no bias is made against people

because of gender, sexual orientation, race, religion, disability or age (Creswell 2009).

Informed Consent

Community leaders will be contacted in order to secure agreement of access to the study

site in order to undertake the research (Creswell 2009). Participants will be provided with

information about the purpose of the study, the researcher, how the data will be used, the

subjects to be covered, and what is required of them, in terms if input and time (Ritchie &

Lewis 2009). All participants will be given consent forms (Appendix E) to sign,

acknowledging their rights during data collection (Creswell 2009).

It will be made clear that all participation is voluntary, and participants have the right to

withdraw at any time (Ritchie & Lewis 2009). Debriefing will be undertaken following

interviews and workshops to ensure accuracy in data interpretation (Creswell 2009).

Permission will be sought to audio-record interviews. In the case of someone refusing

permission, detailed notes of responses will be made instead. Permission will be sought to

record workshops on video. If denied, materials from the activities will be used to conduct

data analysis. With regard to photographic evidence, permission will be sought from

participants, where they are the subject of the photographs. Permission will be sought via

email for photographs found through internet searches.

Anonymity and Confidentiality

Due to the case study nature of the research, absolute anonymity cannot be guaranteed. It is

highly likely that community members will be aware of who is being interviewed and

observed; and everyone at the workshop will know each other as it is community-based.

Participants will be made aware of these matters (Ritchie & Lewis 2009).

Confidentiality (avoiding attributing comments to people using name or role, or referring to

characteristics) during interviews will be upheld. However, this becomes more complicated

when considering participant observation. Where possible, confidentiality will be protected by

making general comments instead; or consent will be sought from the person involved

(Ritchie & Lewis 2009).Some participants may wish to be known, and they will be given the

option of having their comments attributed to them, but made aware of the risks posed.

In terms of data storage, audio recordings and transcripts will be coded and identifying

information will be stored elsewhere. All data will be password protected. However,

anonymising some forms of data, e.g. photos and videos, is not possible. Participants will be

made aware of this prior to the study (Ritchie & Lewis 2009). Data archiving will be

discussed prior to the study. Participants will be informed that data will be kept for the

number of years in line with the School of Built & Natural Environment policy, and then

destroyed (Creswell 2009).

15

Risk Analysis

It is sensible to make arrangements to minimise risks to researchers at the beginning of the

study. Risks may be within study sites, or during travel to and from them. Possible risks

include: modes of transport, familiarity with the location, personal safety, and ways in which

private engagements are carried out (Ritchie & Lewis 2009).

Potential risks are shown in Table 4, with mitigation strategies alongside. Risks have been

analysed in terms of their likelihood (1 to 5, unlikely to very likely) and their impact (1 to 5,

low to high impact).

Table 4: Risk Analysis (Researcher)

Area of Risk Risk Factor Mitigation

Personal safety, e.g. mugging, rape, etc.

3 x 3 = 9 Find out about known risks and dangers beforehand

Take details of flights, accommodation, etc. and take contact numbers

Take extra copies of important documents

Observe any customary dress codes

Ensure accommodation is secure

Take padlocks to keep valuables safe

Avoid walking or travelling alone in unknown places, especially at night

Travel: accident/crash 2 x 5 = 10 Only use operators with good safety records

Take care crossing roads

Interviews 3 x 3 = 9 Find out background information about participants beforehand

Ensure others know of times and locations of interviews

Remain in contact before and after interviews

Conduct interviews in communal areas

Be alert to possible risk factors or heightened risk

Respond to raised feelings with respect and empathy, and possibly move onto another topic

End the interview if risk increases further

16

References

Cambodia Community Based Ecotourism, http://www.ccben.org (accessed 23/03/11)

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Creswell, J. (2009) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, (3rd edition), London: Sage

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Appendices

Appendix A

Maps

Fig. A1: Maps showing study sites in Cambodia and Vietnam

Sources: http://www.wildfrontiers.co.uk/; http://www.complete-india-asia.com/ and

http://www.vietnamhotels.biz/

Fig. A2: Map showing study site in Malaysian Borneo

Sources: http://www.stayresmalaysia.com and www.mescot.org

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Appendix B

Draft Observation Outline

Appendix C

Draft Interview Outline

Study site: ________________________________________________________

Date: ________________________ Time: ____________ to _______________

Location/Activity: __________________________________________________

Description: e.g. physical setting, participants, accounts of events or activities,

reconstruction of dialogue, etc.

Reflective notes: own subjective responses to observations: speculations, feelings,

problems, ideas, hunches, impressions, prejudices

Interview reference: _______________Study site: _______________________

Date: ________________________ Time: ____________ to _______________

Location/Activity: __________________________________________________

Interview Guide

Introduction

Background and contextual information; Definitional questions

Present circumstances (age, housing, sources and levels of income)

Life history (childhood and family background, education, work history,

friendships

Core part of the interview: more in depth; attitudinal/evaluative/explanatory

Tourism – what you know, what you think – nature, feelings

Effects of tourism – past, present, future

Winding down: suggestions

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Appendix D

Draft Workshop Outline

Study site: _______________________________________________________

Date: ________________________ Time: ____________ to _______________

Location/Activity: __________________________________________________

Introduction

Thanks for hospitality

Findings so far

Aims of discussion

Asset mapping

Identify past and present capital assets

What has changed?

What existing resources exist that can be built upon?

Priority ranking

Assign high, medium or low to ‘priorities’

Create hierarchy

Pentagon configuration

Select one of five statements for each asset

Develop pentagon

Discuss ways to improve

Winding down

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Appendix E

Draft Consent Form (Interview)

Researcher: Francesca Hughes

Sponsoring institution: Northumbria University

The purpose of the research is to explore links between ecotourism, community

participation and sustainable development. Participating will allow you to share feelings,

knowledge and experiences. Findings will be fed into community-based participatory

research, which aims to identify areas for improvement.

Participants have been selected by considering roles within the community, and through

participant observation. The study aims to include diverse views within the community,

and will therefore include men, women, children, and older people.

Interviews will last 1-2 hours and will focus on changes in capital assets associated with

ecotourism. Past, present and future development and issues will be discussed. Where

interesting observations have led to the interview taking place, questions will be asked

in order to explore the observation in more depth.

Anonymity and confidentiality:

Absolute anonymity cannot be guaranteed due to the case study nature of the research.

Confidentiality will be upheld: comments made will not be attributed to you in name, role

or characteristics. However, you have the right to have comments attributed to you if

you wish. Audio recordings and transcripts will be coded and identifying information will

be stored elsewhere. All data is password protected.

You have the right to withdraw at any time.

I, the participant, confirm that:

I have been briefed about this research project and its purpose and agree to participate

I have discussed any requirements for anonymity or confidentiality with the researcher

I agree to being audio-taped / videotaped during the interview

Participant’s signature: _______________________________________________

Researcher’s signature: ______________________________________________

Names of people to contact with questions:

Francesca Hughes [include contact details] [Supervisor – include contact details]