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![Page 1: Surveillance in Humanitarian Emergencies. Methods of Data Collection AssessmentSurveySurveillance Objective Rapid appraisal Medium-term appraisal Continuous.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062408/56649e7f5503460f94b834c7/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Surveillance in Humanitarian Emergencies
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Methods of Data Collection
Assessment Survey Surveillance
Objective Rapid appraisalMedium-term appraisal
Continuous appraisal
Data TypeQualitative/
Cross sectional snapshot
Quantitative/
Cross sectional
snapshot
Quantitative/ Longitudinal trends
MethodObservational /
Secondary source
Sample with survey instrument
Periodic, standardized data collection
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What factors make surveillance especially important, in emergency settings?
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Why Is Surveillance Especially Important In Emergencies?
• Host– Morbidity and mortality are higher among malnourished
persons– New arrivals may have no natural immunity
• Organism– Crowding can mean higher infective dose– Displacement may result in exposure to new pathogens
• Environment– Lack of clean water and poor sanitation are favorable to
spreading disease– Poor access to care can increase case fatality ratios
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What Diseases or Conditions Will You Conduct Surveillance For?
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Types of Data Dollected in Surveillance Systems in Emergencies
• Mortality• Morbidity
– diseases of public health importance– diseases of epidemic potential
• Nutritional Status• Program Indicators• Indicators of the quality of the system
itself
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Health Surveillance In Emergencies
One over-riding principle
ONLY COLLECT DATA WHICH AREONLY COLLECT DATA WHICH ARE
USEFUL AND CAN BE ACTED UPON USEFUL AND CAN BE ACTED UPON
IN THE FIELD!!!IN THE FIELD!!!
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Who Conducts Surveillance in Emergencies?
• WHO has overall responsibility for surveillance
• UNHCR often manages surveillance in refugee camp situations
But
Implementing partners (usually NGOs) actually carry it out
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Objectives Of A Surveillance System
• To determine main health problems requiring intervention
• To follow trends in health status in order to revise health priorities
• To target resources to area of greatest need • To detect and respond rapidly to epidemics• To evaluate program effectiveness
– Coverage– Quality of care – Impact
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Principles Of Health Surveillance In Emergencies
• Include all facilities and health partners
• Use simple standardized case definitions
• Use a simple standardized data collection form
• Collect data regularly (daily, weekly, or monthly)
• If possible, augment clinic-based surveillance with community-based surveillance
• Analyze data and provide timely feedback
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Mortality Surveillance
• Potential data sources for deaths?
• Limitations?
• What role could SC/US play in mortality
reporting?
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Mortality Surveillance
• Potential data sources – Hospitals / clinics– Community and
religious leaders– Burial grounds– Shroud distribution– Body collectors– Other sources
• Limitations
– Deaths under-reported
– Exaggerated– Concealed– Denominator inflated
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Surveillance Emergencies:Mortality
• Important indicators in emergencies
• Reported number of deaths
• Mortality rates - CMR, U5MR
• Age/Sex specific mortality rates
• Cause specific mortality rates
• Case fatality rates - measles, cholera etc.
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What Are Some Expected Case-Fatality Rates?
• Cholera
• Shigella dysentery
• Typhoid
• Measles
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Expected Case-Fatality Rates
• Cholera: 1% or lower
• Shigella dysentery: 1% or lower
• Typhoid: 1% or lower
• Measles: 3%
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Mortality Form
No. of deaths Totalmales females males females
Watery diarrheaBloody diarrheaSuspected choleraRespiratory tract diseaseMeaslesMalariaMaternal deathSuspected meninigitsOther/unknownTotal by age and sexTotal <5 yrs
0-4 yrs 5+ yrs
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Leading Causes of Mortality in Under 5
Susp. Malaria
24%
All other58%
Severe Malnutr.
10%
Jaundice3%ARI
5%
Leading Causes of Mortality in Over 5
ARI3%
Susp. Malaria
21%
All other59%
Severe Malnutr.
5%
Jaundice12%
Leading Causes of Mortality, Darfur, Sudan, May-September 2004 (N=1,514)
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War-Related Trauma and Mortality of Refugees
War-relatedTrauma
63%
Natural19%
Non War-relatedTrauma
37%
Chronic51%
Unknown22%
Infectious3%
Other5%
Kosovo: Feb ’98 –Jul ‘99
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0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Landmine UXO Other/Unknown
Nu
mb
er
of
vic
tim
s
18 yr and older
under 18 years
..
37%
54%
9%
Landmine/UXO Injuries – AfghanistanExplosive Type by Age Group
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Morbidity Form
Diagnosis Totalmales females males females
Watery diarrheaBloody diarrheaSuspected choleraRespiratory tract diseaseMeaslesMalariaSuspected meninigitsSkin diseaseSexually transmitted infectionsTrauma/accidentOther/unknownTotal by age and sexTotal <5 yrs
0-4 yrs 5+ yrs
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Keep case definitions simple
Disease Definition
Measles
Malaria
Watery Diarrhea
Lower RespiratoryInfection
For other examples, refer to WHO guidelines
Fever, Rash + cough or rash or conjunctivitis
Fever and periodic shaking, chills
More than 4 stools per day, but no blood or rice-water in stool
Fever, cough, rapid breathing(x breaths per minute-dep. upon age)
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Surveillance in Emergencies: Morbidity
• Record ONLY ONE diagnosis per patient choose most ‘important’
• Take new (incident) cases not repeat cases record and register if case is new or repeat
• In post emergency phase, consider including lab diagnosis as part of case-definition to improve sensitivity of clinical diagnosis
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Rates: Problems With Denominator
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Population refugee camp: April 2001Camp committee: 45,000UNHCR estimate: 25,000Census April 8: 11,500
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Population refugee camp: February 2001Camp committee: 30,000UNHCR estimate: 23,000Count after relocation: 20,000
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Mortality Rates In Refugee Camps In Guinea, 2001 (Original Populations Estimates)
Emergencythreshholds
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Mortality Rates In Refugee Camps In Guinea, 2001 (Population Estimates Revised Downward)
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Case Study
Surveillance in Darfur
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Early Warning and Response Network (EWARN) - Darfur
• Established in May 2004 by WHO and Sudanese MoH aiming:– To ensure timely detection, response and control
of outbreaks among IDPs in Darfur region– To monitor trends of communicable diseases in
order to take appropriate public health actions– To estimate workload of different health units
involved in the system in order to rationalize resource allocation
Thanks to Ondrej Mach, M.D., CDC
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Darfur Surveillance
• What kind of system would you set up?
• Would you collect surveillance data from every location?
• What conditions would you include?
• Would you use this system to collect mortality data?
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Stakeholders in EWARN
• MoH (Federal and Local)– Coordination– Data collection and data entry
• WHO– Coordination– Data entry and analysis– Presentation and dissemination of results
• NGOs– Data collection– Communications– Logistics
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EWARN Reporting Area
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EWARN Weekly Reporting Cycle
Health Center in Mossei Camp, South Darfur
DataGathered
Field Clinics
1
DataEntered
WHO States
2
ReportWHO Khartoum
3
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Health Events Under Surveillance
• 10 communicable diseases/syndromes– Acute Watery Diarrhea– Bloody Diarrhea– AFP– ARI– Neonatal Tetanus– Malaria– Suspected measles– Suspected meningitis– Acute Jaundice syndrome– Acute unknown fever
• Severe malnutrition• Injuries• Other
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Reporting
• There are 56 reporting units (health facilities) in the three states
• Four indicators are collected for each Event:– Count of new cases diagnosed
• Under 5 years of age• Above 5 years of age
– Count of deaths in the week caused by event• Under 5 years of age• Above 5 years of age
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Reporting Cycle
• Reporting is weekly• Data is sent from reporting units to state
capitals• Data is entered in state capitals and
forwarded to WHO office in Khartoum and the Federal MoH
• Epi Info 6 with EPI Data are used for data processing
• MMWB is prepared and distributed every Sunday
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Leading Causes of Morbidity in Under 5
ARI20%
All other57% Severe
Malnutr.3%
Susp. Malaria
15%
Bloody Diarrhea
5%
Leading Causes of Morbidity in Over 5
ARI14%
Bloody Diarrhea
5%
Susp. Malaria
16%
All other61%
Injuries4%
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Outbreak Detection
• Acute Jaundice Syndrome (Hepatitis E)
• Measles
• Meningitis
• Cases of Acute Flaccid Paralysis (infection with wild polio virus)
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Measles Outbreak Darfur, May-September 2005
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
# o
f C
as
es
May23
June6
June20
July4
July18
Aug1
Aug15
Aug29
Sept12
Sept26
Week Beginning
EPI Curve - 2004 Measles
VaccinationCampaign
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0
2
4
6
8
10
# o
f C
as
es
May23
June6
June20
July4
July18
Aug1
Aug15
Aug29
Sept12
Sept26
Week Beginning
EPI Curve - Meningitis in Morni Camp
VaccinationStarts
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Acute Jaundice (Hepatitis E)
Children Under 5
Over 5 years of age
Cases 1,232 7,678
Deaths 7 105
Case Fatality Rate 0.6 % 1.4 %
Attack Rate in Camps 0.7% (0.13% - 9.1%)
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August 1, 2004 (Week 30)n = 330
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August 15, 2004 (Week 32)n = 734
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August 29, 2004 (Week 34)n = 768
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September 12, 2004 (Week 36)n = 1,267
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Bloody diarrhea and Acute Jaundice cases in Morni Camp, West Darfur
Morni
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
Week
AJS
cas
es
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Blo
od
y D
iarr
hea
cas
es
AJS Bloody diarrhea
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Epidemic prone diseases:CholeraShigellosisTyphoid feverAcute Lower Respiratory
InfHepatitis A, EMeaslesMeningitisInfluenza
Diseases with increased risk due to flooding:
Tetanus in adults Leptospirosis (rats)DengueMalaria
Diseases linked to overcrowding: All diarrhoeasAcute respiratory tract infectionHepatitis A, EInfluenzaMeningitisMeaslesTuberculosis
Vector borne diseases: DengueMalariaScrub TyphusLymphatic FilariasisJapanese encephalitis
Zoonosis present: Leptospirosis Anthrax RabiesTrichinosis Melioidosis Brucellosis Nipah virus
WHO: Health Risks for Communicable Diseases Following Asian Tsunami
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WHO: Suggested Health Events For EWAR
Acute watery diarrhoea (suspect cholera)Acute diarrhoeaAcute bloody diarrhoeaAcute Jaundice syndromeSuspected meningitis Acute Lower Respiratory Infection Suspected measles Fever of unknown originsSuspected malaria Acute hemorrhagic feverUnknown diseases occurring in a cluster