Surrounded by Water

Surrounded by Water:

Landscapes, Seascapes and Cityscapes of Sardinia

Edited by

Andrea Corsale and Giovanni Sistu

Surrounded by Water: Landscapes, Seascapes and Cityscapes of Sardinia Edited by Andrea Corsale and Giovanni Sistu Translation from Italian to English of chapters I, VIII, X, XII, XIX, XX, and partial translation of chapters IV and XVIII, by Isabella Martini This book first published 2016 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2016 by Andrea Corsale, Giovanni Sistu and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-8600-9 ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-8600-0

TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface ...................................................................................................... viii Andrea Corsale and Giovanni Sistu Prologue Chapter One ................................................................................................. 2 Cultural Heritage and Identity: Images in Travel Literature Clara Incani Carta Part I: Elements Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 16 “Geodiversity” of Sardinia Antonio Funedda Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 27 Climate, Climate Change and Desertification Andrea Motroni Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 35 Hydrogeological Assessment of Sardinia and Related Issues Giorgio Ghiglieri and Stefania Da Pelo Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 48 Characteristics and Properties of Sardinian Soils Andrea Vacca Part II: People, Territory and Policies Chapter Six ................................................................................................ 64 Demographics of Sardinia: Main Features and Trends Andrea Corsale

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Chapter Seven ............................................................................................ 82 “Deserting the City and the Countryside”: Socioeconomic Restructuring and Migration Process Silvia Aru Chapter Eight ............................................................................................. 99 The Foreign Presence in Sardinia Michele Carboni and Marisa Fois Chapter Nine .............................................................................................112 Sociolinguistic Profile of the Language Situation in Sardinia Maria Antonietta Marongiu Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 127 Landscape Marcello Tanca Chapter Eleven ........................................................................................ 142 Coastal Planning and Tourist Development: Reframing Sea Paradises Carlo Perelli Chapter Twelve ........................................................................................ 155 Urban Areas: Cities Do (Not) Exist in Sardinia Maurizio Memoli Chapter Thirteen ...................................................................................... 172 Economic Outlook: A “Missed Opportunity” Marco Sideri and Stefano Usai Chapter Fourteen ..................................................................................... 184 Mobility Italo Meloni Chapter Fifteen ........................................................................................ 195 Rural Territories and Agriculture Francesco Nuvoli and Fabio Parascandolo Chapter Sixteen ....................................................................................... 220 Tourism in Sardinia: A Potential Yet to be Achieved Monica Iorio

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Chapter Seventeen ................................................................................... 242 Environmental Policies in Sardinia: Some Desirable Scenarios of a Complex Development Strategy Giovanni Sistu and Vania Statzu Chapter Eighteen ..................................................................................... 256 Water Management: Reducing Vulnerability and Improving Management during Droughts Roberto Silvano Chapter Nineteen ..................................................................................... 272 Energy and Territory: A Difficult Balance Matteo Puttilli Part III: Perspectives Chapter Twenty ........................................................................................ 288 The Mediterranean Context Raffaele Cattedra Contributors ............................................................................................. 310

PREFACE

This collective work aims to give an insight into the physical and

human geography of Sardinia, the second largest Mediterranean island, with its complex, varied, changing and often hidden features. The title, “Surrounded by Water”, recalls the identity of a land whose coastlines and surrounding seas have symbolically represented social, economic, political and cultural bridges or walls, meeting or colliding places, over its long and difficult history. Landscapes, seascapes and cityscapes will be presented and analysed, together with other aspects, through a descriptive focus and the original contributions provided to the research by some local experts, in order to offer worldwide scholars and students a complex and multi-dimensional view of the Sardinian reality through the lens of its geographical features.

Each chapter of the book offers an in-depth and concise analysis of a specific theme, through the description of its characteristics and current variations within the island territory. These descriptive aspects will complement insights related to the experiences and findings provided by the authors during the research.

This work will be introduced by a contribution on the cultural heritage and identity of Sardinia through travel literature, preceded by two key political maps of the island, symbolically leading the foreign reader to re-approach it.

The first part of the book (“Elements”) will cover the main aspects of physical geography, with some chapters on geology, soils, hydrogeology and climate. The physical characteristics will combine with complex phenomena such as desertification, pollution and climate change.

The second part (“People, territory and policies”) will deal with human geography, through chapters on demographics, migration, foreign population, landscapes, coastal planning, urban areas, economy, agriculture, tourism, environmental policies, water management and energy, analysing their main characteristics and the complex responses of stakeholders, institutions and civil society on vital, critical issues such as the management of natural resources, democratic participation and local autonomy.

A broader angle will be finally offered, covering the connections and relations between Sardinia, Europe and the Mediterranean area, leading

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the reader to the end of this symbolic journey through ever-changing identities and perspectives.

The authors’ common and shared aim is to raise a new, modern interest in Sardinia, in further regional geographic studies, in academic, scientific and cultural exchanges, among peoples and countries with both similar and different histories, identities, issues and hopes.

Andrea Corsale, Giovanni Sistu

CHAPTER FOUR

HYDROGEOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF SARDINIA AND RELATED ISSUES

GIORGIO GHIGLIERI AND STEFANIA DA PELO

Groundwater Resources: Overview Fresh water is a limited resource; it is essential for agriculture,

industry, and for the existence of mankind. Surface and groundwater resources, considered both in their

quantitative and qualitative aspect, are an essential and determining factor for preserving and developing every form of life, and, as such, they are absolutely necessary to sustain and balance the development of various types of natural environments, as well as for the socio-economic growth of a territory. Qualitative and quantitative degradation of such resources imply a serious environmental issue, as supplies for household, agricultural, and industrial use rely on their exploitation. Anthropic pressures, also connected to productive activities and their related impact (uncontrolled sewage discharges, pesticides and fertilizers, overexploitation of groundwater, sea water intrusion phenomena, etc.), can generate qualitative and quantitative degradation of this resource, making it unsuitable to its several uses and, in particular, to its most valuable ones (drinkable and environmental).

In particular, groundwater resources are the largest fresh water supply in the world, making up more than 97% of all the available fresh water on the earth (save for glaciers and polar caps). The remaining 3% is mainly composed of surface water (lakes, rivers, wetlands) and of the humidity of the soil. Until recently, the attention paid to groundwater was mainly focused on its use as drinkable water (for instance, because for groundwater, the water supply covers around 75% of the inhabitants of the European Union), while acknowledging it as an important resource for industry (e.g. cooling water) and agriculture (irrigation). Anyway, it has

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become increasingly obvious that groundwater must not be considered just as a reserve water supply, and that it should be preserved for its environmental value as well. Groundwater plays an essential role in the hydrologic cycle; it is important for nutrition in wetlands and rivers, and it is a reservoir during dry periods.

Groundwater represents a “hidden resource”, quantitatively more significant than surface water. Pollution prevention, monitoring, and recovery are more difficult than for surface water, due to groundwater’s inaccessibility. Such “hidden” features make it hard to locate, characterize, and adequately understand the effects of pollution, which often leads to a lack of awareness and/or of proof concerning the amount of risks and pressures. By the way, recent reports show that pollution due to household, agricultural, and industrial sources is still a main cause of degradation, despite major advancements in some areas, either directly through sewage (effluent), or indirectly because of the spreading of nitrogenous fertilizers and phytosanitary products, as well as through the leaching of old industrial sites or the disposal of contaminated waste (dumping grounds, pits, industries, etc.). While point sources caused the most part of the pollution identified up to now, there is evidence that non-point sources are causing a growing impact on groundwater. For instance, nitrate concentrations are presently exceeding the threshold values imposed by EU regulations in around one third of the groundwater bodies in Europe.

Starting from the premise that surface and groundwater have to be considered as belonging to one system, the question of their management has to pass through the knowledge of quantitative and qualitative variables – including time trends evaluation – of all water supplies and the peculiarities of the territory. That is to say understanding and taking into account the high complexity of socio-economic factors (anthropic pressures) and natural ecological conditions, through a multidisciplinary approach.

For a thorough and dynamic evaluation of the environmental condition (qualitative and quantitative) of water resources and the areas at risk for degradation, as well as for planning suitable protective measures, it is necessary to arrange monitoring plans.

Moreover, the Convention to Combat Drought and Desertification (UNCCD), adopted during the Conference of the United Nations on Environment and Development held in Rio, defines Desertification as “land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas” deriving mainly from negative human impacts. This definition, which mainly focuses on soil degradation, may need to be reinterpreted for water resources. Moreover, the meaning given to the word “desertification” is

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generally and commonly linked to the concept of partial or total lack of water. Both from a qualitative and a quantitative point of view, surface and groundwater resources are an essential factor for the conservation and development of any form of life. The deterioration of water resources, which has a negative impact on the natural environment and on the socio-economic growth of an area, is a key indicator of desertification (UNEP, 1994; Barbieri et al., 2005; Ghiglieri et al., 2006, 2009b.).

General hydrogeological setting of Sardinia

The island of Sardinia is settled in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, facing North Africa. This geographic position gives it a mild climate and a natural scarcity of water resources, making the territory vulnerable to desertification processes.

Climate conditions changed in the last fifteen years, causing long-lasting periods of drought and other environmentally disastrous events such as prolonged or intense rainfalls, which had negative effects on the hydrogeological system with floods and landslides.

Water supply in Sardinia is assured mainly by surface water resources, which are regulated through dams. The needs of a growing population, particularly pressing in summer, face the reduced meteoric water resources available to fulfil peak demands by residents and tourists. The development of new urban areas and the expansion of historical settlements have led to the loss of agricultural areas of primary interest, and conflicts often arise between users for the allocation of water resources (Barbieri and Barrocu, 1984; Ghiglieri et al., 2006).

In many areas, though, groundwater is an important alternative source for water resources but, up to now, it is not rationally used because there is not a public service to control and monitor this exploitation. The lack of management in its use is leading to a qualitative-quantitative deterioration of groundwater (overexploitation, salt-water intrusion in the coastal aquifers, biological or chemical pollution, etc.) and also to socio-economic conflicts between the competing demands.

In Sardinia, besides a lack of hydrogeological and hydrochemical information, which is only sporadic and not homogeneous, the hydrogeological complexity of the island must be further taken into account.

In a surface area of 24,000 km2, all lithological types are represented, from tectonic processes of the Precambrian to the present day. The geological features of Sardinia are very complex and this is clearly reflected in its hydrogeological structures. Deep and shallow aquifers may

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be identified, though they are often locally interconnected. Waters infiltrate and circulate at depth along the major faults and thrusts displacing the Palaeozoic crystalline bedrock and overlaying formations in up-faulted and down-faulted blocks.

Locally, deep hot groundwaters flow from springs and wells, but generally their temperature is moderate as in discharge areas hot waters become mixed with cool waters from the upper aquifer levels. Their heat is due to the geothermic effect associated with their deep circulation (Bertorino et al., 1982; Loddo et al., 1982).

Based on the literature and on the results of research projects the general hydrogeological assessment of Sardinia is described hereafter.

The overall picture of the knowledge on groundwater has not been exhaustive so far, with a significant lack of information on hydrogeological features, geometry and the potential of aquifers and the entity of the samples.

The bibliographical information on groundwater bodies at a regional scale is absolutely insufficient, and also the information on groundwater collected by the authorities and the institutions in charge does not provide exhaustive results. In particular, at the regional level, the only systematic works useful to characterize groundwater have been: Ricerche Idriche Sotterranee in Sardegna - Progetto Speciale CASMEZ n° 25 [Groundwater Research in Sardinia – Special Project CASMEZ n. 25] and the Sistema Informativo delle acque sotterranee della Sardegna (SIRIS) [Information system of Sardinian groundwater].

The outcomes of the first project date back to more than thirty-five years ago, and are thus affected by remarkable limitations concerning mainly the analysis of deep wells, which at the time were not so numerous, and the lack of data computerization that makes the survey of little use, save for a consultation to look for water points; existing chemical, physical, and bacteriological analyses can only be used as historical reference data. The second project was completed in 2001, and its aim was to create an informative system to manage information on groundwater.

According to Caboi et al. (1982) and the SIRIS project, seven hydrogeological complexes were recognized on the basis of their permeability. However, to deal exhaustively with the complexity of the hydrogeological outline of the Sardinian territory, the bibliography lists also some recent works published in national and international journals on this topic. A synthetic description of the island’s hydrogeological assessment is given below:

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1. High-permeability complexes, essentially dolomitic-limestone, 100-700 m thick. They are represented by the Cambrian carbonate aquifer of the Sulcis and Iglesiente areas, often in sub-vertical attitude and by the Mesozoic aquifers of the Nurra district (Ghiglieri et al. 2006; 2007; 2008; 2009a, b,), of Mount Albo, of the Orosei Gulf, of the Oliena Supramonte, of the Sarcidano, and of the “Tacchi” of Ogliastra and Barbagia. They are also represented by the Miocene carbonate aquifers of Logudoro, Anglona, and Sarcidano.

2. High-permeability volcanic complexes of Montiferru and Logudoro. Basalts, with related scoriaceous and cavernous types of lava lying on phonolitic trachytes, of about 250 m thickness, dating back to the Pliocene.

3. Medium-permeability complexes, largely represented by the Quaternary alluvial lithological unit, which in its lower strata dates probably back to the Pliocene. Thickness of this complex is up to 200 m; it spreads out mostly in the Campidano graben and, to a lesser extent, in some limited coast flats (e.g. Nurra, Sarrabus Gerrei, Low Sulcis).

4. Medium- or low-permeability complexes, sedimentary or volcanic, mostly from the Tertiary, with up to 800 m thickness. Sandstone, arenaceous or calcareous marls, ignimbrite, tufa, andesite, etc., of Logudoro, Anglona, Trexenta, Sulcis and Quirra areas.

5. Medium- or low-permeability complexes, mostly alluvial, of the Pliocene, thickness 200-500 m, called “Samassi Formation”, in the subsoil of the Campidano graben and around the area of Cagliari.

6. Low-permeability granitic-schistose-metamorphic complex, more or less fractured, moderately permeable along the main faults and dislocations represented by the Caledonian-Hercynian bedrock of the island, almost exclusively Palaeozoic, with an almost unlimited thickness.

7. Impermeable Miocenic marly complex. Thickness up to 400 m in Marmilla, Trexenta, Campidano di Cagliari and part of the Logudoro. At the beginning of the 2000s, within the necessary activities for the

“Redazione del Piano di Tutela delle Acque (con coordinamento a cura dell’Assessorato Difesa Ambiente della Regione Autonoma della Sardegna) ai sensi dell’Articolo 44 del D.Lgs. 152/99 e s.m.i. e Sistema Informatico di Supporto alle Decisioni (DSS) per la gestione dei bacini idrografici” [“Drafting of the Water Safeguard Plan (coordinated by the Assessorato Difesa Ambiente of the Regione Autonoma Sardegna) according to the Article 44 of D.Lgs. 152/99 (subsequent modifications,

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amendments, and supplements) and its Decision Support System (DSS) for the management of hydrographic basins”], surveys were carried out aimed at better characterizing groundwater by setting up and managing a qualitative and quantitative monitoring network of significant located aquifers (RAS, 2006a). The main goal of the Water Safeguard Plan was to provide characterization of groundwater, starting from known data, achieving a programme of supplemental surveys aimed at completing knowledge on the topic, and carrying out an elaboration and an analysis of the available data. The result was the creation, in 2003, of a monitoring network on 37 main hydrogeological complexes, with 53 sampling stations, subsequently brought up to 101. A further result was to define at a regional level the intrinsic vulnerability and vulnerable areas due to agricultural nitrates (RAS, 2006b).

According to the Article 117 of D. Lgs. 152/06 (subsequent modifications, amendments, and supplements) complied with Water Framework Directive (WDF-2000/60/EC) and Groundwater Daughter Directive (2006/118/EC), and the Regional Government of Sardinia adopted the River Basin Management Plan (RBMP) in 2010. The Plan will be reviewed and updated in 2015. RBDM has several functions, but primarily it monitors the current status of water bodies within the River Basin District and determines, in general, what measures should be taken to achieve the environmental objectives established by the WFD. For groundwater, the RBMP of Sardinia draws on the background milestone documents, previously quoted, and on the results of the “Progetto POR Sardegna 2000-2006 – Asse I misura 1.7. Azione C “Rete di monitoraggio qualitativa e quantitativa delle acque sotterranee al fine della definizione dello stato ambientale dei corpi idrici significativi ai sensi del D. Lgs 152/06” [Qualitative and quantitative monitoring groundwaters network design for the definition of the environmental condition of significant water bodies according to the WFD] (RAS, 2011; RAS, 2014). Article 7 of the WFD requires the identification of all the groundwater bodies used, or intended to be used, for the abstraction of more than 10 m3 of drinking water a day, on average. By implication, this volume could be regarded as a significant quantity of groundwater. Geological strata capable of permitting such levels of abstraction (even only at a local level) would therefore qualify as aquifers. According to WFD CIS Guidance (Document No. 2) and D. Lgs 30/2009, groundwater bodies were delineated so as to allow an appropriate description of the quantitative and chemical status of groundwater. In this way, 38 main hydrogeological complexes were determined, 83 aquifers and 114 groundwater bodies (Figure 4.1). The monitoring network for the 114 ground-water bodies comprises 567

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sampling sites, including 560 for chemical status monitoring and 553 for quantitative status monitoring. However this subdivision of groundwater bodies is still suffering from knowledge gaps, i.e. geometry of aquifer, hydrogeological balance and boundary conditions.

The climatic trend in these last years has highlighted how significant an accurate picture of the amount of groundwater resources of the region might be. For instance, the years between 1997 and 2000 were the driest of the available 78-year-long series in Sardinia. In particular, the hydrologic year 1999-2000 was one of the most critical - after the hydrologic years 1994-95, 1988-89, and 1989-90 - reaching drought levels never experienced in the past 70 years. In this context, groundwater resources turned out to be an important strategic supply, but also their dramatic fragility was pointed out in relation to the lack of management that can cause severe damages in groundwater supplies, usually irretrievable ones. It is necessary to point out that, as opposed to surface water resources which are controlled by regional institutions that gather data with space and time continuity (though with severe organizational limitations which ought to be overcome), groundwater resources were given little consideration in the past, therefore nowadays there are no comprehensive characterizations on which models can be built and management tools implemented.

The annual average rainfall of Sardinia is 780 mm, thus Sardinia is not listed among the arid and sub-arid areas in the classification of the World Meteorological Organization. However, it is not immune from recurring and long droughts, often prolonged during the year and more frequent on the flat lands and on the hills.

Winter rains characterize the island, mostly in December, and abundant rainfalls, particularly on the western mountain areas. Then there is a remarkable gap between rainfalls on the coastline and on the flat lands, usually lower than 500 mm per year, and rainfalls on higher mountain tops, amounting to 1000-1300 mm (with the highest values at around 1400 mm on the Gennargentu massif); both rainfall values can vary significantly from one year to the other.

Low- and medium-permeability complexes (granite, Palaeozoic schist, metamorphics, volcanic rocks and clastic sediments between the Permian and Quaternary) have greater thickness and cover about 80% of the Sardinian territory, whereas the highly permeable hydrogeological complexes (Mesozoic and Cambrian limestone and dolostone, Quaternary alluvial deposits and some scoriaceous basalts) represent about 17%; those totally impermeable (mostly marls) are considerably on a lesser extent. Such distribution of permeability conditions, with a prevalence of granitic-schistose-metamorphic bedrock is reflected especially in the number and

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discharges of springs. There are more than 30,000 springs in the island, of which around 6,000 have a lean period discharge higher than 0.10 l/s. Altogether, the water of all the Sardinian springs might amount to 6,000 l/s in lean period discharge, i.e. approximately to 200 Mm3/year. This resource is used only in a small part (Manfredi, 1934). In comparison with the high number of small springs, those with water flow higher than 2 l/s are just around 250, 24 of which have a discharge higher than 20 l/s, excluding the known thermal springs. Springs with a discharge higher than 50 l/s are only 12, but they lone provide 27% of the spring water volume of the whole island; those with water flow higher than 100 l/s are 7, among which in 3 cases discharge exceeds 200 l/s (Gologone, San Pantaleo, and Pubusinu). The most productive springs occur from permeable dolomitic-calcareous complexes and scoriaceous basalts.

According to the Water Safeguard Plan, around 938 Mm3/year have been estimated; however, in our opinion, this value is largely underestimated. Indeed, for instance, recent researches carried out by the two universities of the island showed that the average yearly natural aquifer recharge calculated for only the Nurra district amounts to 37 Mm3/year (Ghiglieri et al. 2006; 2007; 2008; 2009a, b). Another area of Sardinia that is particularly rich in groundwater resources is the aquifer of Mount Albo and the karstic system connected to the Fruncu ’e Oche spring (Murgia, 2013). Other productive aquifers (Montiferru, Iglesiente and Sulcis) are on the western side of the island, because of its favourable hydrogeological conditions.

Concluding (to now) remarks

Strategies for a correct management of water resources within dry and semi-dry environments must be preceded and accompanied by multidisciplinary studies, mainly aimed at defining hydrogeological conceptual models, which are necessary to quantify and qualify available resources and supplies for an ongoing development.

In most developed countries the belief prevails that water resources must be managed in an integrated way, considering surface and groundwater part of an interrelated system, also in terms of the global balance of quantity and quality that are compatible with soil and environment preservation. In such a balance the role of wastewater discharge should be considered. Therefore, under an integrated management of water resources, the role of groundwater resources has to be taken into adequate consideration. Water resource management plans must pursue not only strict economic aims and goals, which can be

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evaluated in terms of cost-benefits. They should also consider social needs and political will; but there are no doubts that a managing policy naturally implies the rationalization of consumptions.

At present, water resource management in Sardinia is suffering from

the difficulty, or even impossibility, of coordinating the activities and harmonizing the interests, usually conflicting ones, of the various institutions which over time have acquired jurisdiction over water management. In particular, no problem of groundwater management can be solved without first solving the problem of aquifer identification (in-depth geometrical reconstruction, hydrogeological parameters, base quality of groundwater circulating in the aquifer, etc.), and therefore the issue of anticipating (even in terms of protection from pollution) applicable decisions, from which the best solution can be chosen. The two issues related to anticipation and management have to be solved at the same time. In other words, it is necessary to concentrate more on protection and safeguard policies for the aquifers, fixing past wrongs and conforming management procedures to local situations.

The practical question that is to be asked is: which problems can arise in case of degradation of supplied water quality?

Experience teaches that the costs of preliminary surveys and monitoring programmes are far lower (10-20 times) than those of even minor remediation interventions.

Moreover, the term remediation is too abstract, as, even though it is expensive, such intervention will not restore the aquifer to its state prior to contamination in reasonable time and on a human lifetime scale.

The attitudes of stakeholders (either public or private) toward these surveys can vary significantly: from “let’s do nothing” as long as the water has a good quality, to investing hundreds of thousands of euros in “heavy” reports and “animated” presentations, but of little use.

As usual, the right attitude is found in the middle.

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