ArtistconceptofaSMBHconsumingmatterfromanearbystar.

Thisartistsimpressionshowsthesurroundingsofasupermassiveblackhole,typicalofthatfoundattheheartofmanygalaxies.Theblackholeitselfissurroundedbyabrilliantaccretiondiscofveryhot,infallingmaterialand,furtherout,adustytorus.Therearealsooftenhighspeedjetsofmaterialejectedattheblackholespolesthatcanextendhugedistancesintospace.ObservationswithALMAhavedetectedaverystrongmagneticfieldclosetotheblackholeatthebaseofthejetsandthisisprobablyinvolvedinjetproductionandcollimation.

SupermassiveblackholeFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Asupermassiveblackhole(SMBH)isthelargesttypeofblackhole,ontheorderofhundredsofthousandstobillionsofsolarmasses(M),andisfoundinthecenterofalmostallmassive

galaxies.[1][2]InthecaseoftheMilkyWay,theSMBHisbelievedtocorrespondwiththelocationofSagittariusA*.[3][4]

Supermassiveblackholeshavepropertiesthatdistinguishthemfromlowermassclassifications.First,theaveragedensityofasupermassiveblackhole(definedasthemassoftheblackholedividedbythevolumewithinitsSchwarzschildradius)canbelessthanthedensityofwaterinthecaseofsomesupermassiveblackholes.[5]ThisisbecausetheSchwarzschildradiusisdirectlyproportionaltomass,whiledensityisinverselyproportionaltothevolume.Sincethevolumeofasphericalobject(suchastheeventhorizonofanonrotatingblackhole)isdirectlyproportionaltothecubeoftheradius,thedensityofablackholeisinverselyproportionaltothesquareofthemass,andthushighermassblackholeshaveloweraveragedensity.Inaddition,thetidalforcesinthevicinityoftheeventhorizonaresignificantlyweakerformassiveblackholes.Aswithdensity,thetidalforceonabodyattheeventhorizonisinverselyproportionaltothesquareofthemass:apersononthesurfaceoftheEarthandoneattheeventhorizonofa10millionMblackholeexperienceaboutthesametidalforcebetweentheirheadandfeet.Unlikewithstellarmassblackholes,onewouldnotexperiencesignificanttidalforceuntilverydeepintotheblackhole.

Contents

1Historyofresearch2Formation3Dopplermeasurements4IntheMilkyWay5OutsidetheMilkyWay6Infiction7Seealso8References9Furtherreading10Externallinks

Historyofresearch

Anartist'sconceptionofasupermassiveblackholeandaccretiondisk

ArtistsimpressionofthehugeoutflowejectedfromthequasarSDSSJ1106+1939[9]

DonaldLyndenBellandMartinReeshypothesizedin1971thatthecenteroftheMilkyWaygalaxywouldcontainasupermassiveblackhole.SagittariusA*wasdiscoveredandnamedonFebruary13and15,1974,byastronomersBruceBalickandRobertBrownusingthebaselineinterferometeroftheNationalRadioAstronomyObservatory.[6]Theydiscoveredaradiosourcethatemitssynchrotronradiationitwasfoundtobedenseandimmobilebecauseofitsgravitation.Thiswas,therefore,thefirstindicationthatasupermassiveblackholeexistsinthecenteroftheMilkyWay.

Formation

Theoriginofsupermassiveblackholesremainsanopenfieldofresearch.Astrophysicistsagreethatonceablackholeisinplaceinthecenterofagalaxy,itcangrowbyaccretionofmatterandbymergingwithotherblackholes.Thereare,however,severalhypothesesfortheformationmechanismsandinitialmassesoftheprogenitors,or"seeds",ofsupermassiveblackholes.Themostobvioushypothesisisthattheseedsareblackholesoftensorperhapshundredsofsolarmassesthatareleftbehindbytheexplosionsofmassivestarsandgrowbyaccretionofmatter.Anothermodelinvolvesalargegascloudintheperiodbeforethefirststarsformedcollapsingintoaquasistarandthenablackholeofinitiallyonlyaround~20M,andthenrapidlyaccretingtobecomerelativelyquicklyanintermediatemassblackhole,andpossiblyaSMBHiftheaccretionrateisnotquenchedat

highermasses.[7]Theinitialquasistarwouldbecomeunstabletoradialperturbationsbecauseofelectronpositronpairproductioninitscore,andmaycollapsedirectlyintoablackholewithoutasupernovaexplosion,whichwouldejectmostofitsmassandpreventitfromleavingablackholeasaremnant.Yetanothermodel[8]involvesadensestellarclusterundergoingcorecollapseasthenegativeheatcapacityofthesystemdrivesthevelocitydispersioninthecoretorelativisticspeeds.Finally,primordialblackholesmayhavebeenproduceddirectlyfromexternalpressureinthefirstmomentsaftertheBigBang.Formationofblackholesfromthedeathsofthefirststarshasbeenextensivelystudiedandcorroboratedbyobservations.Theothermodelsforblackholeformationlistedabovearetheoretical.

Thedifficultyinformingasupermassiveblackholeresidesintheneedforenoughmattertobeinasmallenoughvolume.Thismatterneedstohaveverylittleangularmomentuminorderforthistohappen.Normally,theprocessofaccretioninvolvestransportingalargeinitialendowmentofangularmomentumoutwards,andthisappearstobethelimitingfactorinblackholegrowth.Thisisamajorcomponentofthetheoryofaccretiondisks.Gasaccretionisthemostefficientandalsothemostconspicuouswayinwhichblackholesgrow.Themajorityofthemassgrowthofsupermassiveblackholesisthoughttooccurthroughepisodesofrapidgasaccretion,whichareobservableasactivegalacticnucleiorquasars.ObservationsrevealthatquasarsweremuchmorefrequentwhentheUniversewasyounger,indicatingthatsupermassiveblackholesformedandgrewearly.Amajorconstrainingfactorfortheoriesofsupermassiveblackholeformationistheobservationofdistantluminousquasars,whichindicatethat

Artistsillustrationofgalaxywithjetsfromasupermassiveblackhole.[10]

supermassiveblackholesofbillionsofsolarmasseshadalreadyformedwhentheUniversewaslessthanonebillionyearsold.ThissuggeststhatsupermassiveblackholesaroseveryearlyintheUniverse,insidethefirstmassivegalaxies.

Currently,thereappearstobeagapintheobservedmassdistributionofblackholes.Therearestellarmassblackholes,generatedfromcollapsingstars,whichrangeuptoperhaps33M.Theminimalsupermassiveblackholeisintherangeofahundredthousandsolarmasses.Betweentheseregimesthereappearstobeadearthofintermediatemassblackholes.Suchagapwouldsuggestqualitativelydifferentformationprocesses.However,somemodels[11]suggestthatultraluminousXraysources(ULXs)maybeblackholesfromthismissinggroup.

Dopplermeasurements

SomeofthebestevidenceforthepresenceofblackholesisprovidedbytheDopplereffectwherebylightfromnearbyorbitingmatterisredshiftedwhenrecedingandblueshiftedwhenadvancing.Formatterveryclosetoablackholetheorbitalspeedmustbecomparablewiththespeedoflight,sorecedingmatterwillappearveryfaintcomparedwithadvancingmatter,whichmeansthatsystemswithintrinsicallysymmetricdiscsandringswillacquireahighlyasymmetricvisualappearance.Thiseffecthasbeenallowedforinmoderncomputergeneratedimagessuchastheexamplepresentedhere,basedonaplausiblemodel[12]forthesupermassiveblackholeinSgrA*atthecentreofourowngalaxy.Howevertheresolutionprovidedbypresentlyavailabletelescopetechnologyisstillinsufficienttoconfirmsuchpredictionsdirectly.

Whatalreadyhasbeenobserveddirectlyinmanysystemsarethelowernonrelativisticvelocitiesofmatterorbitingfurtheroutfromwhatarepresumedtobeblackholes.DirectDopplermeasuresofwatermaserssurroundingthenucleiofnearbygalaxieshaverevealedaveryfastKeplerianmotion,onlypossiblewithahighconcentrationofmatterinthecenter.Currently,theonlyknownobjectsthatcanpackenoughmatterinsuchasmallspaceareblackholes,orthingsthatwillevolveintoblackholeswithinastrophysicallyshorttimescales.Foractivegalaxiesfartheraway,thewidthofbroadspectrallinescanbeusedtoprobethegasorbitingneartheeventhorizon.Thetechniqueofreverberationmappingusesvariabilityoftheselinestomeasurethemassandperhapsthespinoftheblackholethatpowersactivegalaxies.

GravitationfromsupermassiveblackholesinthecenterofmanygalaxiesisthoughttopoweractiveobjectssuchasSeyfertgalaxiesandquasars.

Anempiricalcorrelationbetweenthesizeofsupermassiveblackholesandthestellarvelocitydispersionofagalaxybulge[13]iscalledtheMsigmarelation.

IntheMilkyWay

AstronomersareconfidentthatourownMilkyWaygalaxyhasasupermassiveblackholeatitscenter,26,000lightyearsfromtheSolarSystem,inaregioncalledSagittariusA*[15]because:

ThestarS2followsanellipticalorbitwithaperiodof15.2yearsandapericenter(closestdistance)of17lighthours(1.8 1013mor120AU)fromthecenterofthecentralobject.[16]

Sideviewofblackholewithtransparenttoroidalringofionisedmatteraccordingtoaproposedmodel[12]forSgrA*.Thisimageshowsresultofbendingoflightfrombehindtheblackhole,anditalsoshowstheasymmetryarisingbytheDopplereffectfromtheextremelyhighorbitalspeedofthematterinthering.

Inferredorbitsof6starsaroundsupermassiveblackholecandidateSagittariusA*attheMilkyWaygalacticcentre[14]

FromthemotionofstarS2,theobject'smasscanbeestimatedas4.1millionM,[17][18]orabout8.2 1036kg.Theradiusofthecentralobjectmustbelessthan17lighthours,becauseotherwise,S2wouldcollidewithit.Infact,recentobservationsfromthestarS14[19]indicatethattheradiusisnomorethan6.25lighthours,aboutthediameterofUranus'orbit.However,applyingtheformulafortheSchwarzschildradiusyieldsjustabout41lightseconds,makingitconsistentwiththeescapevelocitybeingthespeedoflight.Noknownastronomicalobjectotherthanablackholecancontain4.1millionMinthisvolumeofspace.

TheMaxPlanckInstituteforExtraterrestrialPhysicsandUCLAGalacticCenterGroup[20]haveprovidedthestrongestevidencetodatethatSagittariusA*isthesiteofasupermassiveblackhole,[15]basedondatafromESO'sVeryLargeTelescope[21]andtheKecktelescope.[22]

On5January2015,NASAreportedobservinganXrayflare400timesbrighterthanusual,arecordbreaker,fromSagittariusA*.TheunusualeventmayhavebeencausedbythebreakingapartofanasteroidfallingintotheblackholeorbytheentanglementofmagneticfieldlineswithingasflowingintoSagittariusA*,accordingtoastronomers.[23]

DetectionofanunusuallybrightXRayflarefromSagittariusA*,asupermassiveblackhole

Supermassiveblackholetearingapartastar.Below:supermassiveblackholedevouringastaringalaxyRXJ124211Xray(left)andoptical(right).[24]

HubbleSpaceTelescopephotographofthe4,400lightyearlongrelativisticjetofMessier87,whichismatterbeingejectedbythe6.4 109

Msupermassiveblackholeatthecenterofthegalaxy

inthecenteroftheMilkyWaygalaxy[23]

OutsidetheMilkyWay

Unambiguousdynamicalevidenceforsupermassiveblackholesexistsonlyinahandfulofgalaxies[25]theseincludetheMilkyWay,theLocalGroupgalaxiesM31andM32,andafewgalaxiesbeyondtheLocalGroup,e.g.NGC4395.Inthesegalaxies,themeansquare(orrms)velocitiesofthestarsorgasrisesas~1/rnearthecenter,indicatingacentralpointmass.Inallothergalaxiesobservedtodate,thermsvelocitiesareflat,orevenfalling,towardthecenter,makingitimpossibletostatewithcertaintythatasupermassiveblackholeispresent.[25]Neverthelessitiscommonlyacceptedthatthecenterofnearlyeverygalaxycontainsasupermassiveblackhole.[26]ThereasonforthisassumptionistheMsigmarelation,atight(lowscatter)relationbetweenthemassoftheholeinthe~10galaxieswithsecuredetections,andthevelocitydispersionofthestarsinthebulgesofthosegalaxies.[27]Thiscorrelation,althoughbasedonjustahandfulofgalaxies,suggeststomanyastronomersastrongconnectionbetweentheformationoftheblackholeandthegalaxyitself.[26]

ThenearbyAndromedaGalaxy,2.5millionlightyearsaway,containsa(1.12.3)108(110230million)Mcentralblackhole,significantlylargerthan

theMilkyWay's.[28]ThelargestsupermassiveblackholeintheMilkyWay'svicinityappearstobethatofM87,weighinginat(6.40.5)109(~6.4billion)Matadistanceof53.5million

lightyears.[29][30]On5December2011astronomersdiscoveredthelargestsupermassiveblackholeinthenearbyuniverseyetfound,thatofthesupergiantellipticalgalaxyNGC4889,weighinginat2.1 1010(21billion)Matadistanceof336

millionlightyearsawayintheComaBerenicesconstellation.[31]Meanwhile,thesupergiantellipticalgalaxyatthecenterofthePhoenixClusterhostsablackholeof2.0 1010(20billion)Matadistanceof5.7billionlightyears.Blackholesinquasarsaremuchlarger,duetotheiractivestateofcontinuousgrowingphase.ThehyperluminousquasarAPM08279+5255hasasupermassiveblackholewithamassof2.3 1010(23billion)M.LargerstillisatanotherhyperluminousquasarS50014+81,

thelargestsupermassiveblackholeyetfound,whichweighsinat4.0 1010(40billion)M,or10,000timesthesizeoftheblackholeattheMilkyWayGalacticCenter.Bothquasarsare12.1billionlightyearsaway.

AgascloudwithseveraltimesthemassoftheEarthisacceleratingtowardsasupermassiveblackholeatthecentreoftheMilkyWay.

Somegalaxies,suchasGalaxy0402+379,appeartohavetwosupermassiveblackholesattheircenters,formingabinarysystem.Iftheycollided,theeventwouldcreatestronggravitationalwaves.[32]Binarysupermassiveblackholesarebelievedtobeacommonconsequenceofgalacticmergers.[33]ThebinarypairinOJ287,3.5billionlightyearsaway,containsthemostmassiveblackholeinapair,withamassestimatedat18billionM.[34]AsupermassiveblackholewasrecentlydiscoveredinthedwarfgalaxyHenize210,whichhasnobulge.Thepreciseimplicationsforthisdiscoveryonblackholeformationareunknown,butmayindicatethatblackholesformedbeforebulges.[35]

OnMarch28,2011,asupermassiveblackholewasseentearingamidsizestarapart.[36]Thatis,accordingtoastronomers,theonlylikelyexplanationoftheobservationsthatdayofsuddenXrayradiationandthefollowupbroadbandobservations.[37][38]Thesourcewaspreviouslyaninactivegalacticnucleus,andfromstudyoftheoutburstthegalacticnucleusisestimatedtobeaSMBHwithmassoftheorderofamillionsolarmasses.Thisrareeventisassumedtobearelativisticoutflow(materialbeingemittedinajetatasignificantfractionofthespeedoflight)fromastartidallydisruptedbytheSMBH.AsignificantfractionofasolarmassofmaterialisexpectedtohaveaccretedontotheSMBH.SubsequentlongtermobservationwillallowthisassumptiontobeconfirmediftheemissionfromthejetdecaysattheexpectedrateformassaccretionontoaSMBH.

In2012,astronomersreportedanunusuallylargemassofapproximately17billionMfortheblackholeinthecompact,lenticulargalaxyNGC1277,whichlies220millionlightyearsawayintheconstellationPerseus.Theputativeblackholehasapproximately59percentofthemassofthebulgeofthislenticulargalaxy(14percentofthetotalstellarmassofthegalaxy).[39]Anotherstudyreachedaverydifferentconclusion:thisblackholeisnotparticularlyovermassive,estimatedatbetween2and5billionMwith5billionMbeingthemost

likelyvalue.[40]On28February2013astronomersreportedontheuseoftheNuSTARsatellitetoaccuratelymeasurethespinofasupermassiveblackholeforthefirsttime,inNGC1365,

reportingthattheeventhorizonwasspinningatalmostthespeedoflight.[41][42]

InSeptember2014,datafromdifferentXraytelescopeshasshownthattheextremelysmall,dense,ultracompactdwarfgalaxyM60UCD1hostsa20millionsolarmassblackholeatitscenter,accountingformorethan10%ofthetotalmassofthegalaxy.Thediscoveryisquitesurprising,sincetheblackholeisfivetimesmoremassivethantheMilkyWay'sblackholedespitethegalaxybeinglessthanfivethousandththemassoftheMilkyWay.

Somegalaxies,however,lackanysupermassiveblackholesintheircenters.Althoughmostgalaxieswithnosupermassiveblackholesareverysmall,dwarfgalaxies,onediscoveryremainsmysterious:ThesupergiantellipticalcDgalaxyA2261BCGhasnotbeenfoundtocontainanactivesupermassiveblackhole,despitethegalaxybeingoneofthelargestgalaxiesknowntentimesthesizeandonethousandtimesthemassoftheMilkyWay.Sinceasupermassiveblackholewillonlybevisiblewhileitisaccreting,asupermassiveblackholecanbenearlyinvisible,exceptinitseffectsonstellarorbits.

Infiction

Seealso

ActivegalacticnucleusCentralmassiveobjectGalacticcenterGeneralrelativityHypercompactstellarsystemListofmostmassiveblackholesMsigmarelationSpinflip

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31. Overbye,Dennis(20111205)."AstronomersFindBiggestBlackHolesYet"

Furtherreading

FulvioMelia(2003).TheEdgeofInfinity.SupermassiveBlackHolesintheUniverse.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN9780521814058.LauraFerrarese&DavidMerritt(2002)."SupermassiveBlackHoles".PhysicsWorld15(1):4146.arXiv:astroph/0206222(https://arxiv.org/abs/astroph/0206222).Bibcode:2002astro.ph..6222F(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002astro.ph..6222F).FulvioMelia(2007).TheGalacticSupermassiveBlackHole.PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN9780691131290.Merritt,David(2013).DynamicsandEvolutionofGalacticNuclei.PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN9780691121017.JulianKrolik(1999).ActiveGalacticNuclei.PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN0691011516.

31. Overbye,Dennis(20111205)."AstronomersFindBiggestBlackHolesYet"(http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/06/science/space/astronomersfindbiggestblackholesyet.html).TheNewYorkTimes.

32. Major,Jason."Watchwhathappenswhentwosupermassiveblackholescollide"(http://io9.com/5948688/watchwhathappenswhentwosupermassiveblackholescollide).Universetoday.Retrieved4June2013.

33. D.MerrittandM.Milosavljevic(2005)."MassiveBlackHoleBinaryEvolution."http://relativity.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrr20058/

34. Shiga,David(10January2008)."Biggestblackholeinthecosmosdiscovered"(http://space.newscientist.com/article/dn13166biggestblackholeinthecosmosdiscovered.html).NewScientist.comnewsservice.

35. Kaufman,Rachel(10January2011)."HugeBlackHoleFoundinDwarfGalaxy"(http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/01/110110dwarfgalaxyblackholesuniversesciencespace/).NationalGeographic.Retrieved1June2011.

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