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Successful Writingfor the Social Studies

A Student’s Guide to Better Writing Skills

Developed byGloria E. Vital-Valdés

ForWorld History Honors

A Student’s Guide to Better Writing Skills G. E. Vital-Valdes

Taking NotesTaking complete, well-organized notes helps you remember what you hear in class and what you read. Effective note-taking involves locating and grouping related ideas. Use a graphic organizer such as a chart, Venn diagram, or time line to organize your notes. Look for key words, such as names, important ideas, and main points. To save time and space, use abbreviations and symbols.

SummarizingWhat Is Summarizing?Summarizing is how we take larger selections of text and reduce them to their bare essentials: the gist, the key ideas, the main points that are worth noting and remembering. Webster's calls a summary the "general idea in brief form"; it's the distillation, condensation, or reduction of a larger work into its primary notions.

What Are We Doing When We Summarize?We strip away the extra verbiage and extraneous examples. We focus on the heart of the matter. We try to find the key words and phrases that, when uttered later, still manage to capture the gist of what we've read. We are trying to capture the main ideas and the crucial details necessary for supporting them.

When I Ask My Students to Summarize, What Usually

Happens?What do I Want them to do?

They write down everything

They write down next to nothing

They give me complete sentences

They write way too much

They don't write enough

They copy word for word

pull out main ideas

focus on key details

use keywords and phrases

break down the larger ideas

write only enough to convey the gist

take succinct but complete notes

Summarizing Techniques: Selective Underlining

Newspaper Mantra: have them use the keywords or phrases to identify only Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How.


Sentence and Paragraph Writing

There are typically two types of questions in Social Studies — scaffolding questions and essay questions. Scaffolding questions can usually be answered in one or two sentences. Occasionally, you might want to write three or four sentences to answer a scaffolding question completely. Essay questions require longer answers. You may need to write four to five paragraphs to answer an essay question. In this lesson, you will learn how to write good sentences and the paragraphs that make up essays. In the following lesson you will learn about the parts of a good essay.

Writing SentencesA sentence is a group of words that expresses a single complete idea. A sentence must contain at least one subject (what the sentence is about) and one verb (an action word that tells what the subject is doing or a state-of-being word such as am, are, is, was, were, or be).

The following chart explains some important rules to keep in mind when writing sentences:

Guidelines for Writing Sentences

1. Every sentence must contain a subject and a verb.

2. Every sentence must begin with a capital letter.

3. Every sentence must end with an end mark – a period, a question mark, or an exclamation mark.

4. Keep your sentences interesting by starting them in different ways and by writing sentences of different lengths.

DULL: Jane Addams was a quiet, kind woman. She wanted to help newly arrived immigrants in Chicago’s poorest neighborhoods. She opened Hull House to provide a refuge for them. She started a kindergarten. She opened a boy’s club. She took care of old people.

MORE INTERESTING: Jane Addams was a kind, gentle woman who showed great sympathy for the plight of immigrants in Chicago’s poorest neighborhoods. She was particularly concerned with helping the young and the very old. She founded Hull House, a settlement house that was used as a school, club, and refuge for newly arrived immigrants from all over Europe.

5. Writing in the social studies contains lots of proper nouns – names of people, places and events. Such writing also often contains proper adjectives – descriptive words made from


proper nouns. Make sure that you capitalize proper nouns and adjectives when writing your sentences.

INCORRECT: european immigrants arriving in the united states in the late nineteenth century faced many new challenges.

CORRECT: European immigrants arriving in the United States in the late nineteenth century faced many new challenges.

6. Avoid sentence fragments – groups of words that do not contain a subject and a verb or that do not express a complete idea.

FRAGMENT: Settled in Chicago’s poorest neighborhoods. (The group of words is missing a subject.)

COMPLETE SENTENCE: Many European immigrants settled in Chicago’s poorest neighborhoods.

7. Avoid run-on sentences – ones in which two sentences are run together without an end mark to separate them.

RUN-ON: Life was difficult for newly arrived immigrants they had to make many adjustments.

CORRECTED: Life was difficult for newly arrived immigrants. They had to make many adjustments.

8. Use quotation marks around words quoted directly from a source.

EXAMPLE: Jane Addams wanted to provide opportunities for all newly arrived immigrants. In her book, Twenty Yeats at Hull-House, she noted, “[We} were very insistent that the Settlement should not be primarily for the children, and that it was absurd to supposed that grown people would not respond to opportunities for education and social life.”


Writing Paragraphs

An essay will be made up of several paragraphs (usually four or five). Therefore, it is a good idea for you to learn about proper paragraph form.

What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a group of sentences about a single main idea. Read the following example:

Topic Sentence

Body Sentences

Clincher Sentence

[There are several reasons why Spain controlled large amounts of territory in the Americas by 1700.] Spain had skilled sailors and experienced soldiers, who came to the Americas to conquer land for Spain. The weapons used by the Spanish soldiers were more sophisticated than those of native peoples, and the horses and ships of the Spanish enabled them to move their troops quickly. The Spanish, along with other European explorers, often carried diseases that wiped out millions of Native Americans, who had no immunities to these illnesses. The Spanish also forged alliances with some native peoples in order to conquer others. [Thus it was not surprising that by the end of the 18 th

century, Spain had conquered territory ranging from southern North America to the northern part of South America.]

A well-written paragraph contains several parts, as follows:

Parts of a Paragraph• The topic sentence gives the main idea of the paragraph.• The body sentences provide details that support the main idea of the paragraph.• The clincher sentence sums up the paragraph.


Writing a Paragraph, Step by StepStep 1: Create a rough outline of your paragraph on scrap paper. Jot down the main idea that will be your topic sentence. Then, beneath the main idea, use dashes to introduce your supporting details.

Reasons why Spain controlled large amounts of territory in the Americas by 1700 —skilled sailors —experienced soldiers —carried diseases —sophisticated weapons —fast horses and ships —Native Americans had no immunities —forged alliances pitting native peoples against one another

This paragraph happens to contain a lot of supporting details. Often, however, three or four supporting details will be enough.

Step 2: Look over your rough outline. Make sure that your supporting details are in a sensible order, such as time order or order of importance. If necessary, rearrange your details.

Step 3: Write the body sentences, following your outline. Try to vary the beginnings and the lengths of your sentences, and make sure that every sentence begins with a capital letter. If you wish to do so, quote directly from one or more of your source documents. Make sure to put any such quotations in quotation marks.

Step 4: Write a clincher sentence that restates the main idea of the paragraph in other words.

Step 5: Proofread the paragraph for errors. Reread it carefully. Make sure that you have• indented the first line of the paragraph• used complete sentences• spelled each word correctly• used a capital letter at the beginning of each sentence• used a capital letter at the beginning of each proper noun or adjective• used an end mark, such as a period, question mark, or exclamation mark, at the

end of each sentence.


Essay WritingWhat Is an Essay?An essay is a group of paragraphs that together support a single main idea, or thesis. A good essay contains the following parts:

The Parts of an EssayAn essay contains three parts, as follows:

1. The introduction is the first paragraph and contains a thesis statement, or a concise, general answer to the essay question. This paragraph is also used to catch the reader's attention.

2. The body, which can be one or more paragraphs long, presents ideas and details that support the thesis. Most essays contain at least two or three body paragraphs.

3. The conclusion is the final paragraph of the essay. Its purpose is to sum up the ideas presented in the body.

You can think of an essay as being like a building. The topic is what the essay is about. The thesis statement is the main idea of the essay. Together, the topic and the thesis statement are like the roof of the building. The body paragraphs in the essay are like the pillars or walls that hold up the roof. The conclusion is like the base or foundation of the building.


Use the following graphic organizer to plan an essay.


Understanding Essays: PurposeAn essay should accomplish a specific purpose, or goal. The chart below gives some examples of purposes that an essay can accomplish. Some essays have more than one of these purposes:

The Purpose of an EssayAn essay can accomplish any of these purposes:

To inform. An essay written to inform provides facts about the topic of the essay. To persuade. An essay written to persuade presents an opinion and supports it. To entertain. An essay written to entertain creates an enjoyable experience for the reader. To narrate. An essay written to narrate is one that tells a true story.

The essays that you write for Social Studies will almost always be informative essays, ones that present facts about a topic.

Understanding Essays: AudienceRegardless of its purpose, an essay should be written with a particular group of readers, or audience, in mind. Write as though your audience were a group of intelligent adults who nonetheless do not have much information about the topic you are writing about.

Understanding Essays: OrganizationThe body paragraphs in an essay should be well organized. That is, they should be presented in an order that makes sense. The following are some common ways to organize ideas in an essay:


Organizing an Essay1. Time order. Information about events are presented in the order in which the events

occurred. For example, an essay about Abraham Lincoln might begin with information about his childhood and his law practice, then present his rise as a politician, and then deal with his leadership of the United States during the Civil War.

2. Order of importance. The ideas are presented in order of their significance, either f rom most important to least important or from least important to most important. F or example, an essay about the high cost of the Civil War might deal first with the lumber of lives lost, second with the value of the property destroyed, and third with the rift created between Northerners and Southerners.

3. Spatial order. Details are presented according to their location. For example, an essay about America's radar defense might deal first with ground-based radar systems and second with airborne radar systems.

These are not the only acceptable methods of organization, though. Any ordering of ideas that is reasonable—in which the ideas follow one another in a sensible, logical way—is permitted.


Writing the Introduction of an EssayThe introduction, or opening paragraph, of an essay should do two things. It should grab the attention of the reader so that he or she becomes interested in the piece. It should also present the main idea, or thesis statement of the essay.

The thesis statement is probably the most important sentence in the essay because it sets forth what the rest of the essay will be about. After grabbing the attention of your reader, state your main idea, or thesis. This is the idea that you will support in the rest of your essay.

Openers for Introductory ParagraphsBegin with an interesting question:

What would life be like if the Allies hadn't prevailed in World War I? If you had to choose between your allegiance to your country and your allegiance to

your family, what would you do?

Begin with a quotation: John F. Kennedy said, "And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do

for you; ask what you can do for your country." This statement made a lasting impact on those interested in public service.

Begin with a brief story:

The Great Chicago Fire of 1871 is rumored to have been started when a cow, owned by a woman named Mrs. O'Leary, knocked over a lantern. From there, the fire spread quickly through the city. The actual origins of the fire are still not known, but Mrs. O'Leary's cow has earned a place in Chicago's history.

Begin with a startling or fascinating fact: The yo-yo is one of the oldest toys in the world. Everyone from ancient Greeks to

French soldiers played with them before they became popular in the United States.


Examples of Introductory Paragraphs:

Which of these do you think is the most analytical?1. Though the War of 1812 was claimed to be fought in defense of national honor,

Americans were only after the acquisition of more land for the country. The WarHawks true motive for war followed the theory of expansionism as stated by Pratt.

2. War had been brewing between the two great nations of Europe, Britain andFrance, on the supremacy of the continent. The troubles of Europe had overflowedonto America where their maritime and neutrality rights had been disrespected. Tryingto protect their national honor, America tried peaceful coercion but it turned outunsuccessful. America joined the war because of the urging of the war hawks, with thereasons of maritime and neutrality rights being ignored. Their underlying reason wasto acquire Canada. America joining the War of 1812 wasn't for national honor ormaritime rights as proposed, but for the capturing of land.

3. The War of 1812 was another war for independence from Great Britain.America warred with the greatest world power once again to be recognized as a truecountry, an honor we never gained in the Revolutionary War. If we could win anotherwar against the world's superpower, then not only would we be recognized as a greatnation by all other nations, we would gain control of new lands acquired from Britain'sterritories.

4. The beginning of the 18th century was a troubled time for America. As much asthe country tried to remain neutral, the rest of the world began to encroach on theirenlightened experiment. In an attempt to unlock their stalemate in Europe, bothFrance and England began seizing American ships, ships that were laden withsupplies for their enemy. More distressingly Britain had begun impressing Americansailors. By 1812 these actions had continued for more than a decade. It seemsobvious that America embarked on a war for national honor. And yet, the factremained that these actions had been continuing for over a decade. Something wasnow different in America: something that could push the fragile country into a war. Thenew presence was war hawks, a new generation of Patriots eager to prove theirpatriotism. Yet these war hawks seemed to be pushing war for a very different reason.It is the presence of these war hawks that shows that the war of 1812 was not a war forNational Honor, but a war to increase the land holdings of the US


Writing the Body Paragraphs of an Essay

The body of an essay is its main part. It is the part of an essay in which one presents ideas and details that support the thesis. Each body paragraph should present one main idea that supports the thesis. This main idea is presented in the topic sentence of the paragraph. The rest of the paragraph should present details that support or develop the topic sentence.

Writing the Conclusion of an EssayThe conclusion, or final paragraph, of the essay should be a single paragraph. In this paragraph, you should restate the main ideas from your body paragraphs in other words. Then end by restating, using other words, the main idea, or thesis, of the essay.


These are suggested ideas to assist you when writing an historical essay. They move from the lowest level of rote memory to the highest level of synthesis on Bloom's taxonomy.

What do I know about the subject (topic) of the question?

1. Brainstorm and write down as many facts that pertain to the question as possible. List.

2. Briefly note their causes and effects .

3. What significant effects did these events have on the course of history?

What do I know about the facts that I've written down that show a direction for my thesis?

1. Do you see any pattern that leads you to take a certain position either for oragainst?

2. Do the majority of historical facts show more of one side of the argument?

3. Qualify your thesis so that it is not an all-encompassing generalization?

When dealing with evidence that opposes your thesis…

1. What are the most important arguments against your thesis?

2. Accept and present them but bring them forth and minimize them in comparison

Bring forth the reason why it is not as valid as your assertion.

Present the limits to the opposing arguments

Use rhetorical questions.

Compare and Contrast words:

They show sound analysis if used appropriately

In contrast to

In addition to

The opposite position

Similarly

However

Likewise

Although

Additionally

Yet

Contradicting this


What you say is as important as how you say it. Sophistication of thought(complex sentences) is very important for purposes of impression

The following types of stems are usually found in historical essay questions:

Analyze the impact of an event or concept on some aspect of American History/World History

Analyze the relative importance of various factors on an event or concept

Analyze the extent to which a historical stereotype is true for a given period

Analyze the reasons which cause a particular movement to develop

Comparing and Contrasting differing attitudes toward a general concept

Analyze means to explain How and Why (to what extent)

Name Drop: specific people, places, events, acts, actions. The more the better, but remember to tie

Use past tense verbs throughout your essay. It occurred in the past so keepit there.

No "happy ever after” cliche endings “And thus the United States is the greatnation it is today.” This hurts impression for it is not sophisticated.

Do you show an understanding of multi-causation and multi-effect? How sophisticated a knowledge of history have you shown?


Suggested Essay Outline

First paragraph: Introduction

A. Begin with broad general statements on the topic of the question. Thequestion: The Civil War was caused by slavery: To what extent is this a truestatement?

B. Follow with a thesis; a thesis is usually one or two sentences stating theposition the writer wants to prove in the paper. Be specific and authoritative.For example, a simple thesis might be: Although slavery was one of the causesof the Civil War, many other important factors also helped to bring on thatterrible conflict.

C. Continue with an organizational statement— points the writer is going to useto prove his/her thesis: Political, economic, and social differences of opinionbetween the "North " and the "South " all lead to the Civil War.

Transition: In addition, on the other hand, moreover, however (often overused) are examples of transition words.

Second paragraph: Body of the paper

A. Begin this paragraph with a topic sentence, the first area or point in theorganizational statement. Whatever it is, be certain that it is fully explained,defined, and described so that the reader understands how it supports thethesis. Then go on to prove what has been said by using specific historicalfacts. Remember, a fact is ah-event, person, date, place, name, example usedto prove the writer's argument. Use as many facts as you know and have timefor. Also, in every paragraph there must be analysis. The analysis can be ofthe individual facts as presented or of the c'oncept presented in the paragraphas a whole.

B. Fact

C. Fact

D. Fact

Transition


Third paragraph: Body of the paper

A. Here the writer goes on with a topic sentence with the second area or point inthe organizational statement followed by supporting factual information (Donot forget the analysis).

B. Fact

C. Fact

D. Fact

E. Fact

Transition

Fourth paragraph (or as many as are needed): Body of the paper

A. Continue the process with paragraphs that start with topic sentences until allareas in the organizational statement have been used (Do not forget theanalysis).

B. Fact

C. Fact

Last paragraph: Conclusion

A. Summarize the paragraphs in the body of the essay (one or two sentences each). Do not introduce a new idea in the conclusion.

B. Be consistent in the interpretation. Do not contradict the thesis in the conclusion!

C. The last sentence should be compelling enough to sustain the reader's attention. Make the reader wish the writer had said more. Let the reader know that the writer knows much more, but what has been written is enough to answer the question well.

D. The conclusion does not need to be very long. The reader has already decided the fate of the paper by this time. If there is a glaring error, however, such as a contradiction of the thesis, the score can go down considerably.


One Student’s Finished Essay

Header Pablo Torres

March 1

Title Underage Boys and the Civil War

Paragraph 1, Introduction

Thesis Statement

First Body Paragraph

Second Body Paragraph

“I appeal to all loyal citizens to favor, facilitate, and aid this effort to maintain the honor, the integrity, and the existence of our National Union, and the perpetuity of popular governments; and to redress wrongs already long enough endured.” Abraham Lincoln wrote these words in 1861 in a proclamation calling for the state militia to fight against the South. Union recruits were supposed to be 18 to join, but in fact many boys under 18 enlisted. [Political persuasion, recruiting tactics that glamorized war, and the belief that war would be over quickly and easily all contributed to motivating many young boys to join the army.] Some of these boys would serve in noncombat roles as drummers and musicians, but all of them would experience the harsh realities of army life and war.

When Lincoln wrote his proclamation, he believed that the conflict with the South would be over quickly and easily. He asked for seventy-five thousand militiamen to be mustered to “repossess the forts, places, and property which [had] been seized from the Union” and called upon troops to avoid devastation, any destruction of, or interference with property” owned by “peaceful citizens.” This statement shows that Lincoln believed the North would easily put down the South. He also stated that the volunteers would only need to serve for twenty days, which showed that he felt the conflict would be over quickly. The belief that the South could be put down quickly and easily may have motivated many men and boys to want to join the Union army.

Other methods used to motivated volunteers were political persuasion and recruiting tactics that glamorized warfare. Abraham Lincoln’s Proclamation calls on “loyal citizens….to maintain the honor, the integrity, and the existence of our National Union.” This statement appeals to a person’s sense of duty to his or her country. Likewise, a political cartoon by Currier and Ives from 1861 sends a message that the Union needs young, brave volunteers to fight. The young soldier in the cartoon is holding the American flag, a symbol of the Union, while stepping on a broken Confederate flag. He is also holding a sword, which symbolizes fighting. This cartoon would probably impress a young boy. He would want to be like the soldier in the picture and do his duty for his country. An 1862 New York cavalry recruiting poster promised $300 cash and the chance to ride beautiful horses and be a member of one of the best equipped units in the Union. These methods of persuasion were powerful. It was probably hard for some boys to resist doing the honorable thing and joining such a glamorous and exciting army.


Third Body Paragraph

Paragraph 5, Conclusion

Many young boys would run away from home to enlist in the army. An article appearing in The Century in 1886 talks about a sixteen year old who approached a sergeant and was “desperately in earnest” to join the fight. The boy was “determined to fight the rebels whether enrolled as a soldier or not.” The Voltz family letters show how a headstrong Felix Voltz ran away after having met some recruiters, causing his family great sadness. However, the letters also reveal that Voltz soon regretted what he did as the difficult reality of army life same in. A pie chart of the age distribution in the Michigan 22nd Infantry Company C, gives an idea of how young the soldiers in the Union army actually were. One quarter of the men in this company were teenagers, and five percent were underage! The youngest member of this company was Johnny Clem, who served as a drummer boy at age 13. Drummer boys played an important role in the war and were often underage. A photo of three drummer boys from the 2 nd

Rhode Island Infantry shows that some were just teenagers.

There were many factors that motivated underage boys to join the Union army. Among these were government beliefs that the war would end quickly and easily, political persuasion, and recruiting tactics that made life in the army seem glamorous and exciting. Even though many underage boys joined units in less dangerous roles such as drummer boys or musicians, many of them would soon experience the harsh reality of army life and the brutality of the Civil War.


PlagiarismWhat Is Plagiarism?Plagiarism is the intellectual theft of someone else’s ideas and words. When you plagiarize, you are taking someone else’s work and attempting to pass is off as your own. When writing, it may be difficult to tell what is unique enough that it must be cited. If you are in doubt, ask yourself the following: Are these words unique to the author? Have I seen these ideas anywhere else? Have I really put this into my own words?

Different Kinds of Plagiarism and CheatingPlagiarism comes in all sizes and colors, sometimes blatant and sometimes more subtle. Several different types of plagiarism are described below:World-for-Word Transcription: This example is the easiest to define. Plagiarism rules are very explicit on this point. It is forbidden to copy someone else’s work, word for word, and present it as your own. If only one sentence in the paper contains a word-for-word transcription, the paper is plagiarized. Word-for-word transcriptions must be placed within quotation marks and the source cited.

Unique Terms: Authors often invent their own terms to make a given point. If you do not see this term in another article or book, you can assume that it is unique to the author. You must cite the source of any such terms.

Paraphrasing: A common misconception is that if you change a few words in a text, the text is now your own. This is not true.

1. If you copy the same basic sentence structure as the original text, you are plagiarizing, regardless of how many nouns and verbs you change.

2. If you present your evidence in the same order as the original text, you are plagiarizing.

In other words, if you retain the same stylistic and analytical framework of the original text, you are paraphrasing.

Papers on the Web: Thousands of web sites selling and giving away prewritten papers have been created. Without a doubt, it is plagiarism to copy or buy an essay or paper from the Internet and present it as your own work.


Papers Written by Your Friends: Students keep old essays and papers. Copying any of these represent plagiarism because you did not do the work and the words are not your own.

Papers You Wrote for Another Class: Many students have an interest in a particular topic, so they may find themselves writing essays and papers on similar subjects. You are cheating if you submit an essay or paper to more than one class.

Citing Works You Have Never Read or Data You Haven’t Collected: The following group of offenses are loosely connected and constitute cheating:

Padding your bibliography with materials you have never read. Changing the result of your data to better fit your thesis. Citing a source you did not actually consult.

How to Avoid PlagiarismSeveral options for avoiding plagiarism are available to you. Some of these are descrived below.

1. Conduct sufficient research to have an understanding of what material is unique to a particular author and what information is not.

2. Never write your paper with a book or an article open in your lap or propped on the desk.

3. Don’t copy and paste information from the Web.

Kinds of Information that Must be CitedThe following list describes several kinds of information that must be cited in a scholarly work, including your essays and research papers.

1. Quotes: By citing quotes, you’re acknowledging the uniqueness of people’s words2. Ideas, analyses, and opinions: Identifying a unique idea, analysis, or opinion is

probably the hardest aspect of deciding what to cite. The goal of most authors is to present a unique analysis of a given event.

3. Unique words or phrases created by the author: Cite any words or phrases that seem a little strange to you because they’re used in a unique way or it they seem to be a combination of two or more words.

4. Disputed facts: If you encounter a debate about a given date, then cite the different sources and explain, why the date is disputed.

5. Paraphrasing: You may paraphrase another author’s words if you don’t identify the author, by stating their name in the text and by citing his work and the end of the


passage.

Kinds of Information that Does Not Need to be Cited1. Generally, you do not have to provide a citation for a date.2. Generally, information you find in your textbooks can be considered “common

knowledge” and so it does not need to be cited.3. Many analyses that appear in your sources can be considered “common knowledge”

because historians do not question them.4. Avoid citing every sentence in a given paragraph. You can state near the beginning

of the paragraph that you will be discussing a person’s words and then you can put one citation at the end of the paragraph.

5. You don’t have to cite your own words. You shouldn’t be afraid to present your own analyses in an essay or paper.

What Citation System Should I Use?Various citation systems have been devised. The most familiar being the Chicago Manual of Style and the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (MLA). Ask your teacher which system she prefers. Your options include footnotes, endnotes, or parenthetical citations. You must also include a full bibliography at the end of each essay/paper, unless otherwise directed by the professor.

For an exact list of citations and examples, you can access these two works on the Web.

You must also cite the source of any information you find on the Web.


GrammarWhat Is Grammar Important?Grammar is a tool for communication. It helps writers express themselves clearly and it helps readers follow what is being said. It eliminates barriers to understanding between the two. So that often-asked question, “Why do I have to correct my grammar?” really translates into “Why do I have to worry about being understood?”

Most Common Grammatical ErrorsHere is a list of do’s and don’ts, including some of the most common grammatical errors and problems of style.

1. Avoid the passive tense. Make the subject of your sentence a “doer” not someone or something “done to”.

2. Don’t leave the participles dangling.3. Don’t split those infinitives.4. Make certain the noun and verb agree.5. Do not fall into the habit of calling a country “they”6. Don’t shift point of view.7. Make certain each sentence is a complete sentence, not a phrase.8. Don’t construct a sentence that is really several sentences combined.9. Don’t shift tenses suddenly.10. Have you used the correct word?11. Don’t end a sentence with a preposition.12. Use your apostrophes properly.13. Are you repeating yourself?14. Pronouns and nouns


Understanding Document-Based Questions

What Are Document-Based Questions?A document is a printed or written source that provides facts or information. Examples of documents include contracts, tables, maps, letters, and photographs . A document-based question (DBQ) is a question that pertains to one or more of these printed or written source materials. Some document-based questions ask for specific information and can be answered in one or two sentences. Others require you to take information from several documents and use it in an extended piece of writing called an essay.A document based question is designed to:

1. Discern whether you are capable of interpreting documents.2. Discern whether you are capable of using these documents to support your position (thesis)3. Determine whether you have outside information that can be presented on this question.4. Determine how well you can express and substantiate your opinion concerning the question. 5. Sophistication of writing is the key.

DocumentsThere are two types of document — primary sources and secondary sources. Primary sources are original documents from a particular time period. Examples of primary sources include cartoons, illustrations, letters, newspaper articles, posters, maps, and political documents like the Declaration of Independence. Secondary sources are documents that are created from primary sources and are not from the era that they cover. Examples include a graph made from historical data and an article based on facts taken from primary sources .

How to Analyze DocumentsMany of the following examples will illustrate the different forms of documents-based questions. These will show that the principles of how to analyze documents apply to any document.

I. VISUALSA. Pictures and photographs

1. Subject: What person, event, or subject is represented?

2. Time and place: When and where is the subject taking place?

3. Point of view: Is the artist or photographer trying to convey a particular point of view?

4. Emotional impact: What is the general impression?

5. Form of expression: What kind of picture-drawing, painting, etc. is it?A Student’s Guide to Better Writing Skills G. E. Vital-Valdes

6. Any symbolism present?

B. Cartoon1. Who are the characters in the cartoon? Are they realistic or exaggerated? What are

their impressions? Are the characters or other things labeled?

2. What symbols-flags, Uncle Sam, unemployed, etc. are there?

3. What is the overall idea or impression of the cartoon?

4. Note the title or caption

C. Posters or Broadsides1. Who published it, for what possible reasons? (It may reflect a biased view.)

2. Title of the item.

3. Intended for what audience?

4. Purpose of the poster or the evidence presented.

D. Diagrams and flow charts1. They are used to summarize an important idea and to illustrate the ideas' parts or

components.

2. Check the title.

3. Examine the parts.

4. Check and understand the labels.

E. Maps1. Maps deal with a specific time period.

2. A map focuses on a specific topic, event, or development in history, often a change-over-time illustration.

3. Places the subject in a specific location.

4. Check the title of the map.

5. Check the key or legend.

6. Remember the differences between geographic map sand electoral vote maps.

F. Charts1. They usually illustrate a relationship between two subjects. Decide what those two

subjects or ideas are (time and voting, residence and prohibitionists leadership, population and money supply) and their relationship (increases, decreases, no change, directly or indirectly related).

2. Check title and category titles.

3. Are the numbers percentages or absolute? Don't re-figure the numbers. (It is stupid to claim that twins born to a family of four represent a 100% in the number of children in the family. The chart-


makers used the numbers, either absolute or percent to convey an idea, not to teach mathematics.

4. Be careful: large money and population figures are often given in abbreviated format as thousands. Thus, a 62,000 population figure may really be 62,000,000.

5. Were the changes illustrated significant? (65% to 67% is not).

6. Remember that the chart illustrates a trend for only a specific period.

7. Remember the possible influence of major events on the time period indicated.

8. Be aware of the chart with a collapsed X or Y axis. It is intended to indicated that an insignificant period was purposely left out of the chart.

G. Graphs1. Read the key.

2. Notice the title.

3. Look for dates.

4. Graphs use statistical data to present historical comparisons or changes over time.

5. Circle or pie graph: Each circle represents the total quantity, e.g. 10% of the population. Note that the portions of the circle represent a percentage.

6. Bar graphs: Read both axes. One usually represents a percentage or quantity and the other usually a time period. Note that the bars re drawn to scale to make a comparison. Be alert that the bars in a graph may represent different subgroups; check the legend.

7. Line graph: Read both axes. Unlike a bar graph, which shows a subject at a specific time, a line graph can show trends over every part of the time period, and often shows several trends at once.

II. PRINTED MATERIALSA. Newspapers

1. Editorial or article (abolitionist sympathizer Horace Greeley on John Brown's raid). You should be aware that before the 20th century it is hard to differentiate between an article and editorial opinion.

2. Is it an interview?

3. Evidence of the newspaper's economic or political bias (urban, rural, South, Wall Street Journal).

4. Letter to the editor?

5. Be aware that an editorial or article may either reflect mass opinion or be an attempt to influence or to create mass opinion.

B. Magazine or pamphlet1. Same checks as under newspapers.


2. What is the normal audience of the magazine (McCall’s, Field and Stream)?

C. Book1. It is contemporary or not, an eyewitness to an event or second-hand comment.

2. A disinterested observer (Uncle Tom's Cabin ; James B. Weaver, A Call to Action)

3. Politically partisan, based on evidence or opinion?

4. Remember that the preface is a personal statement

5. Novels can be symbolic.

6. A review of a book is the reviewer's opinion, not the author's.

7. A recollection of an event long after it happened, Eisenhower recalling a meeting with President Truman three years earlier.)

8. Memoirs-a selective and person view that is rarely self-critical.

9. Is the author a foreign observer?

D. Poem1. Poems are meant to use language as art rather than to give information.

2. They usually illustrate a spiritual or symbolic view of a period, event, or idea.

III. PERSONAL DOCUMENTSA. Speech

1. To what audience? What office or position does the speaker hold?

2. Rough draft (It may be more truculent).

3. Official speech or informal (inaugural address, State of the Union Address).

4. Campaign speech (FDR versus Hoover).

5. Ask yourself, based on what you know about the speaker, is this a view you would expect him to take, such as Andrew Carnegie's opposition to the Treaty of 1989?

B. Letter1. Is the letter official or personal?

2. Is the letter to a subordinate or a superior?

3. What is the relationship between the two people?

4. Is the letter private or public.

5. Is it from an organization?

6. Is the date significant?

C. Diary1. Is it a personal diary?

2. Was it written before the fact or after the fact?


3. Remember that a diary is usually not self-critical.

4. Is it merely observations or evidence of partisan viewpoints?


IV. POLITICAL DOCUMENTSA. Party platform

1. A presidential candidate may or may not agree with the platform of the party.

2. A political platform is often a compromise document although third-party platforms are more truculent.

3. A convention declaration such as Seneca Falls, 1848, may describe present conditions, indicate a degree of stridency, or show the organization's goals and expectations, such as the Populist Party platforms are more truculent.

B. List of groups supporting legislation1. What organizations are represented?

2. Any pattern to support or opposition, any common characteristics.

3. Any surprises or unusual alliances.

V. PUBLIC RECORDSA. Laws, proclamations, executive orders

1. Why was the law passed; what does it represent? Remember, laws are passed as solutions to a problem, as the representation of a groups' ideal (prohibition), as a guide for future behavior (Puritan laws on church attendance), or as a response to public pressure for what is perceived as a problem (Sherman Antitrust Act). Is it a veto message? What reasons are given for the veto?

2. Some laws are more symbolic in their passage than in their enforcement.

3. Commentary on the laws similar to a textbook on laws (Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England).

4. It is a federal, state, or local law?

Legislative resolutions are not binding; they just express a sentiment.

B. Court decision1. Does it declare a law unconstitutional, and if so, what new problems does it?

2. Does the decision support the views of a particular section, party, or class (NRA)?

3. Was the decision enforced or obeyed (Brown, Indian removal)?

4. Narrow or broad interpretation in the decision?

5. Note the division in the decisions: 5-4, 9-0, 6-3. Was it close?

6. Trial transcript-Scopes trial. Darrow versus Bryan.

C. Legislative debate, Congressional Record, speech in Congress, testimony before a congressional committee.

1. Was the speech for constituent consumption or for colleagues?

2. Any other evidence of influence of the speaker among his colleagues.

3. Is the person known for other activities?


4. What point of view or organization does a person testifying before Congress represent .

D. Government agency report1. Is it a federal, state, or local agency report?

2. How does it reflect the general tone of government at the time?

3. Be aware that agency reports are rarely critical of themselves.

4. A report may be intended to lay a basis for future expansion in scope or powers or increased funding.

E. Others1. Diplomatic correspondence such as instructions from the secretary of state to treaty

negotiators or correspondence to Congress or an official about ongoing negotiations.

2. Official letters.

3. Treaties-provisions, how do the provisions compare with prior agreements or cause future consequences.

Types of Question on DBQ TestsA typical DBQ test contains documents, scaffolding questions, and an essay question. A scaffolding question asks for a specific piece of information from a document. It usually deals with a single document and can be answered in one or two short sentences. Answering such scaffolding questions helps you gather information that you can use to write an essay.

An essay question requires you to write a response longer than one paragraph. To answer an essay question on a DBQ exam, you have to gather information from several documents. You begin your essay by coming up with a thesis statement—a single sentence that answers the essay question in a general way. Then, you use information from the documents to back up, or support, your thesis statement.


General Strategies for DBQ TestsThe first step to taking a DBQ test is to read the test directions carefully. Read the historical background information and ask yourself, "What do I already know about this subject or time period?" There is a good chance that you have already studied the time period and know something about it. Next, read the task description carefully. This part of the test directions tells what you have to do and what your essay will be about. Pay particular attention to key action words in the task. The following is a list of action words that often appear in test directions.

Analyze: break something into its parts, describe the parts, and show how the parts are related to one another

Compare: tell about the similarities between two things Contrast: tell about the differences between two things Describe: tell about something in detail Interpret: explain or describe the meaning or significance of something Support: provide evidence to back up or to prove your main idea

When you understand the general task for writing your essay, study each of the documents that follow. As you look at each document, ask yourself the reporter's questions: who? what? when? where? why? and how?

Who is pictured in the document? Who wrote or created it? Whom is it about? Who was its original audience? What is the document about? What kind of document is it? What is the purpose of the document? When and where was the document produced? Why was the document made? How does the document relate to its time period?

Remember to pay close attention to any titles and captions, or accompanying notes, that appear with the documents. As you study the documents, take notes about them on scrap paper. Do not use complete sentences in your notes. Use phrases instead.

After you have studied the documents, answer each of the scaffolding questions. Use complete sentences in your answers. By answering these questions, you will gather information that can be used in your essay.

Once you are finished with the scaffolding questions, you can begin to write your essay. Reread the essay question and, on your scrap paper, write a one-sentence answer. This will become the thesis statement, or main idea, of your essay. Next, study the documents and your scaffolding question answers once again to find evidence you need to support your ideas.


How do I remember these strategies: APPARTS

Author: Who created the source? What do you know about the author? What is the author's point of view?

' .

Place and Time: Where and when was the source produced? How might this affectthe meaning of the source?

Prior Knowledge: Beyond information about the author and the context of its creation, what do you know that would help you further understand the primary source? For example, do you recognize any symbols and recall what they represent?

Audience: For whom was the source created and how might this affect the reliability of the source?

Reason: Why was this source produced and how might this affect the reliability of the source?

The Main Idea: What point is the source is trying to convey?.

Significance: Why is this source important? Ask yourself, "So what?" in relation to the question asked.


Grading Rubric

The following grading rubric will be used in the assessment of all History essays. The description under each section indicates the A-level expectations. For each criterion, a grade will be checked based on the extent to which the student has risen to these expectations. The final grade for the essay will be a rough average of these six criteria, with some additional consideration of the overall effectiveness of the essay.

Grading Criteria & Expectations + A + B + C + D F

Introduction & ConclusionThe introduction explains background, arguments, and- themes. The conclusion summarizes the paper and reflects on broader issues addressed within.

Thesis & ArgumentThe thesis is actively and clearly stated, consistent with the research, and well proven through evidence and analysis. If applicable, the thesis is original.

Orqanization & Structure

The paper is argued in an organized, intelligent manner in order to prove the main argument. Quotations are used wisely to advance the thesis.

Sources & Research

Research is thorough and appropriate, and conducted as outlined in the assignment. If applicable, primary materials are consulted.

Grammar & Stvle

Paragraphing, sentence structure, and prose style are clear, concise, and precise. Punctuation is used correctly. The paper is highly readable.

Referencing & Apparatus

Notes are complete and consistent and the proper referencing and essay format has been used throughout.


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