Subsistence SystemsSubsistence Systems

Introduction and Food CollectorsIntroduction and Food Collectors

Introduction to Subsistence SystemsIntroduction to Subsistence Systems

When Christ said man cannot live by bread alone, he did When Christ said man cannot live by bread alone, he did not not say man can live without bread.say man can live without bread.

If we were plants, we could just feed ourselves by going to the If we were plants, we could just feed ourselves by going to the beach and catching a few rays; the chlorophyll would take care beach and catching a few rays; the chlorophyll would take care of the restof the rest

But we’re animals; we have to feed on plants and/or other But we’re animals; we have to feed on plants and/or other animals.animals.

In anthropology, we are not only what we eat, but we are also In anthropology, we are not only what we eat, but we are also what we produce, and how we produce.what we produce, and how we produce.

So anthropology is about adapting to the environment by So anthropology is about adapting to the environment by extracting energy from the environment.extracting energy from the environment.

It’s a technological question (how to get food), but its also an It’s a technological question (how to get food), but its also an ecological question.ecological question.

Subsistence Systems? What Are Subsistence Systems? What Are We Talking About Anyway?We Talking About Anyway?

Subsistence systems is about ways of making a living, in Subsistence systems is about ways of making a living, in most cases, directly from the earth, in the form of edible most cases, directly from the earth, in the form of edible plants and animals.plants and animals.

But they are systems in that how we produce determines But they are systems in that how we produce determines what kind of a social organization we will have, from what kind of a social organization we will have, from economy to social control to—yes, religion and the economy to social control to—yes, religion and the supernaturalsupernatural

For example, to the Mayan peoples in Chiapas and For example, to the Mayan peoples in Chiapas and Guatemala, corn is not only the main staple, but it is also a Guatemala, corn is not only the main staple, but it is also a sacred object, their cosmic father and mother rolled up sacred object, their cosmic father and mother rolled up into oneinto one..

Subsistence Systems and Subsistence Systems and AdaptationAdaptation

Culture is largely adaptive, as you learned Culture is largely adaptive, as you learned from day onefrom day one

The main locus of adaptation is food gettingThe main locus of adaptation is food getting As subsistence systems become more As subsistence systems become more

complex, societies become more complex; complex, societies become more complex; empires have always relied on intensive empires have always relied on intensive agriculture—including our own. agriculture—including our own.

Therefore societies tend to evolve from the Therefore societies tend to evolve from the simple to the complex—with exceptionssimple to the complex—with exceptions

Subsistence Systems: Food Collectors Subsistence Systems: Food Collectors

There are five broad types in all in two categories: There are five broad types in all in two categories: food collectorsfood collectors and and food producersfood producers

The The food collectorsfood collectors are those who hunt and gather food where they are those who hunt and gather food where they find it, with no modification of the environment. They consist of find it, with no modification of the environment. They consist of two broad types:two broad types:

Simple Foraging/Hunting and GatheringSimple Foraging/Hunting and Gathering , which involves hunting , which involves hunting animals and gathering seeds, roots, berries, leafy greens, and much animals and gathering seeds, roots, berries, leafy greens, and much else. Examples are the !Kung of the Southern African Kalahari else. Examples are the !Kung of the Southern African Kalahari Desert and the Inuit (Eskimo) of Arctic North AmericaDesert and the Inuit (Eskimo) of Arctic North America

Complex Foragers:Complex Foragers: They comprise equestrian hunters, such as the They comprise equestrian hunters, such as the Plains Indians who used horses to hunt bison, and fishers, such as Plains Indians who used horses to hunt bison, and fishers, such as the Northwest Coast Indians, who produce enough salmon, game, the Northwest Coast Indians, who produce enough salmon, game, and plant foods to stay in one place. There were others in the and plant foods to stay in one place. There were others in the Mesolithic.Mesolithic.

Subsistence Systems: Food Subsistence Systems: Food ProducersProducers

Food producers Food producers are those peoples who have are those peoples who have domesticated edible plants and/or animals and so domesticated edible plants and/or animals and so control their food sources, often modifying the control their food sources, often modifying the environment. They involve the following technologies:environment. They involve the following technologies:

Horticulture, Horticulture, which involves small-scale agriculture which involves small-scale agriculture using a hoe, digging stick, and/or other hand tools.using a hoe, digging stick, and/or other hand tools.

Intensive CultivationIntensive Cultivation or or Agriculture, Agriculture, which involves which involves large-scale cultivation, using higher technology, such as large-scale cultivation, using higher technology, such as irrigation and animal- (or tractor-) driven plowirrigation and animal- (or tractor-) driven plow

Pastoralism, Pastoralism, which is animal herding, usually which is animal herding, usually exclusively; animals range from goats and sheep to horses exclusively; animals range from goats and sheep to horses and cattle.and cattle.

Foraging: Main Features IForaging: Main Features I

In foraging, food is where you find it. That In foraging, food is where you find it. That means that human populations are directly means that human populations are directly dependent on naturally available edible dependent on naturally available edible plants and game animalsplants and game animals

Plant foods (like these mongongo nuts Plant foods (like these mongongo nuts gathered by !Kung women, top photo) form gathered by !Kung women, top photo) form 80% of the diet among most foragers80% of the diet among most foragers

Near total reliance on hunting is rare (one Near total reliance on hunting is rare (one exception is the seal-hunting Inuit depicted exception is the seal-hunting Inuit depicted in the lower photo)in the lower photo)

Foraging: Main Features IIForaging: Main Features II Fluctuation of food sources occur by place, season, and year; Fluctuation of food sources occur by place, season, and year;

there may be an abundance of water, edible plants, and there may be an abundance of water, edible plants, and animals one year or season or even location, and practically animals one year or season or even location, and practically none the next. none the next.

Because of this fluctuation, foragers are typically Because of this fluctuation, foragers are typically nomadicnomadic, as , as they search for new resources as their current one run out.they search for new resources as their current one run out.

Means of meat storage is rare or nonexistent; neither the !Means of meat storage is rare or nonexistent; neither the !Kung of Southern Africa nor the Aborigines of Australia have Kung of Southern Africa nor the Aborigines of Australia have any way to prevent their meat from spoilage. any way to prevent their meat from spoilage.

Again the Inuit are exceptions: they do have an icy Again the Inuit are exceptions: they do have an icy environment that preserves their seal and other forms of meat.environment that preserves their seal and other forms of meat.

Foragers enjoy a wider variety of food—both plants and Foragers enjoy a wider variety of food—both plants and animals—than intensive cultivators.animals—than intensive cultivators.

Foraging: Carrying CapacityForaging: Carrying Capacity

Foragers are the most directly Foragers are the most directly dependent on the limitations of their dependent on the limitations of their food sourcesfood sources

The foraging population is limited The foraging population is limited by the carrying capacity of their by the carrying capacity of their environment, or the amount of environment, or the amount of resources available to support that resources available to support that populationpopulation

This usually means that the This usually means that the population will tend to be small: population will tend to be small: between 40 and 100 people.between 40 and 100 people.

Liebig’s Law of the MinimumLiebig’s Law of the Minimum In addition, population relies on some In addition, population relies on some

critical resource, so that the abundance critical resource, so that the abundance of other resources will not matter.of other resources will not matter.

Justus Von LiebigJustus Von Liebig, an agronomist, , an agronomist, made this observation for critical made this observation for critical nutrients for cropsnutrients for crops

Liebig’s LawLiebig’s Law: Populations may not : Populations may not increase beyond the minimum amount increase beyond the minimum amount of critical resources that an of critical resources that an environment yieldsenvironment yields

Here, fishermen are facing a water Here, fishermen are facing a water shortage and fish stocks at Lake shortage and fish stocks at Lake Victoria in Kenya, Africa—no water, Victoria in Kenya, Africa—no water, no fish. no fish.

Liebig’s Law of the Minimum Liebig’s Law of the Minimum IllustratedIllustrated

The point is made with a barrel The point is made with a barrel with staves of unequal lengthwith staves of unequal length

The lowest stave of a barrel limits The lowest stave of a barrel limits its capacity; you can’t fill a barrel its capacity; you can’t fill a barrel with more than that..with more than that..

To von Liebig, crops can yield To von Liebig, crops can yield only as much as the amount of a only as much as the amount of a critical nutrientcritical nutrient

This principle applies to the limits This principle applies to the limits to carrying capacity.to carrying capacity.

Foraging: SharingForaging: Sharing When game is scarce, hard to come by, and When game is scarce, hard to come by, and

requires cooperation, there is a strong sharing requires cooperation, there is a strong sharing ethic governed by rules of distribution ethic governed by rules of distribution

Among the Netsilik Inuit (top photo) hunters Among the Netsilik Inuit (top photo) hunters form partnerships according to the anatomical form partnerships according to the anatomical parts of the seal. parts of the seal.

For example, if you are my shoulder, I give For example, if you are my shoulder, I give you a shoulder from the seal I have killed, and you a shoulder from the seal I have killed, and you give me a shoulder if you kill a sealyou give me a shoulder if you kill a seal

!Kung: Hunters and owner of arrow “own” !Kung: Hunters and owner of arrow “own” the game, which is only stewardship; it’s the game, which is only stewardship; it’s yours only to distribute to others according to yours only to distribute to others according to rules of kinship and other obligations.rules of kinship and other obligations.

Foraging: Derived Foraging: Derived CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Other characteristics are derived from the uncertainty of Other characteristics are derived from the uncertainty of the environment:the environment:

The property form is The property form is communalism: communalism: in most cases, in most cases, hunting and gathering territory is open to all foragers of a hunting and gathering territory is open to all foragers of a groupgroup

There is no incentive to hoard; meat usually will not keep. There is no incentive to hoard; meat usually will not keep. Social class differences are minimal.Social class differences are minimal. However, status differences may exist between the genders However, status differences may exist between the genders

(Inuit women are lower in status than !Kung women) and (Inuit women are lower in status than !Kung women) and the ages. the ages.

Work Time: And You Thought the Work Time: And You Thought the 40-Hour Week is a Big Deal40-Hour Week is a Big Deal

Hunters and gatherers do not engage in intensive Hunters and gatherers do not engage in intensive labor; labor is more intensive among cultivators and labor; labor is more intensive among cultivators and even herdsmen.even herdsmen.

Average work time varies 15-20 hours/week, and Average work time varies 15-20 hours/week, and usually it is combined with non-production activities; usually it is combined with non-production activities; foragers do other things besides hunting and foragers do other things besides hunting and gathering when they go out foraging.gathering when they go out foraging.

Domestic mode of production refers to the practice of Domestic mode of production refers to the practice of working only until their needs are met. working only until their needs are met.

Try that in your workplace and see how long you last! Try that in your workplace and see how long you last!

Reciprocity: Source of Integration Reciprocity: Source of Integration among Simple Foragersamong Simple Foragers

All simple foragers rely on exchange for their survivalAll simple foragers rely on exchange for their survival Reciprocity refers to gift giving between two individuals and, Reciprocity refers to gift giving between two individuals and,

more often, groupsmore often, groups Within the family and local band, generalized reciprocity is Within the family and local band, generalized reciprocity is

the norm; a person or group receives a gift from another with the norm; a person or group receives a gift from another with no expectation in exchangeno expectation in exchange

A !Kung hunter down on his luck will still receive meat from A !Kung hunter down on his luck will still receive meat from other hunters.other hunters.

But there is always the obligation to repay; when he finally But there is always the obligation to repay; when he finally bags a large animal, he will distribute his meat and so repay bags a large animal, he will distribute his meat and so repay those who have supported him in lean times. those who have supported him in lean times.

Simple Foragers: Contemporary Simple Foragers: Contemporary Ancestors?Ancestors?

We We Homo sapiensHomo sapiens foraged for up to 200,000 years; does that make today’s foraged for up to 200,000 years; does that make today’s foragers our ancestors who live in the present. foragers our ancestors who live in the present.

There are drawbacks to this interpretation: There are drawbacks to this interpretation: Foragers could be Foragers could be deculturated deculturated agriculturalists or even herdsmen who agriculturalists or even herdsmen who

lost their former skills lost their former skills For example, the !Kung of South Africa may have been herdsmen once, For example, the !Kung of South Africa may have been herdsmen once,

but were forced out of their original habitat when the Bantu expanded but were forced out of their original habitat when the Bantu expanded southward from their place of origin and so took up hunting and gathering. southward from their place of origin and so took up hunting and gathering.

The Australians have been foragers for nearly 40,000 years.The Australians have been foragers for nearly 40,000 years. Foragers do occupy margins of earth, those that other peoples do not want. Foragers do occupy margins of earth, those that other peoples do not want.

They include desert areas (Southwest Africa, most of Australia’s outback, They include desert areas (Southwest Africa, most of Australia’s outback, and the Nevada basin), extremely cold regions of the Arctic), and tropical and the Nevada basin), extremely cold regions of the Arctic), and tropical rain forests such as the central Congo. rain forests such as the central Congo.

Complex ForagersComplex Foragers

Complex Foragers Complex Foragers are hunters, gatherers, and sometime are hunters, gatherers, and sometime fishers who live in an environment rich enough to permit fishers who live in an environment rich enough to permit settled communities or large populations.settled communities or large populations.

One example comprises the One example comprises the equestrian hunters equestrian hunters who used the who used the horse to hunt bison and so increased their food yield.horse to hunt bison and so increased their food yield.

Another example is the fishing complex of the Northwest Another example is the fishing complex of the Northwest Coast Indians, who relied extensively on salmon runs and rich Coast Indians, who relied extensively on salmon runs and rich game and plant resources and so could live in one place year game and plant resources and so could live in one place year around.around.

The The MesolithicMesolithic comprised settled communities, again because comprised settled communities, again because of rich fishing, game, and plant resources that made it of rich fishing, game, and plant resources that made it unnecessary to migrate from place to place. unnecessary to migrate from place to place.

Complex Foraging: Equestrian Complex Foraging: Equestrian HuntingHunting

Equestrian hunting entails the use of animals (horse, reindeer) Equestrian hunting entails the use of animals (horse, reindeer) to hunt other animals (bison, reindeer)to hunt other animals (bison, reindeer)

The Reindeer Tungus rode the shoulders of reindeer to hunt The Reindeer Tungus rode the shoulders of reindeer to hunt other reindeer. other reindeer.

The Plains Indians hunting complex was not indigenous before The Plains Indians hunting complex was not indigenous before 18th century, when they obtained stray horses from the 18th century, when they obtained stray horses from the Spaniards when they invaded what is now the U.S. SouthwestSpaniards when they invaded what is now the U.S. Southwest

There were native horses among prehistoric Paleo-Indians, but There were native horses among prehistoric Paleo-Indians, but these animals died off long before contact with Europeans and these animals died off long before contact with Europeans and Anglos.Anglos.

Several explanations of their extinction include overhunting by Several explanations of their extinction include overhunting by this population.this population.

Equestrian Hunters: Equestrian Hunters:

The Plains Indians hunted the The Plains Indians hunted the buffalo during rutting season, buffalo during rutting season, as in the upper photo of the as in the upper photo of the Cree stampeding a herd.Cree stampeding a herd.

The Tungus (also known as The Tungus (also known as Evenki) hunted Reindeer but Evenki) hunted Reindeer but also used them as beasts of also used them as beasts of burden and maintained large burden and maintained large domesticated herds.domesticated herds.

Equestrian Hunting: Equestrian Hunting: CharacteristicsCharacteristics

The characteristics of equestrian hunters are similar to The characteristics of equestrian hunters are similar to pastoralists (see discussion below)pastoralists (see discussion below)

Environment was grassland, whose sod would have been too Environment was grassland, whose sod would have been too tough for cultivation by hand; only plows could have broken tough for cultivation by hand; only plows could have broken the sod. the sod.

The bison moved seasonally; they massed into large herd in The bison moved seasonally; they massed into large herd in spring and summer, when grass grew in abundance; this was spring and summer, when grass grew in abundance; this was also the rutting season for bison. also the rutting season for bison.

The animals then scattered in late fall and winter. The animals then scattered in late fall and winter. The tribes moved accordingly, forming large multitribal The tribes moved accordingly, forming large multitribal

groups in spring and summer and scattering in fall and winter.groups in spring and summer and scattering in fall and winter.

Equestrian Hunting: Warlike Equestrian Hunting: Warlike AttributesAttributes

Higher mobility using the horse increased military superiority, Higher mobility using the horse increased military superiority, and this might have induced settled people to adopt the horse and this might have induced settled people to adopt the horse in self-defense.in self-defense.

If so, this is a classic example of cultural convergence, where If so, this is a classic example of cultural convergence, where two different cultures come to adopt the same attributes—in two different cultures come to adopt the same attributes—in this case, hunting using the horse. this case, hunting using the horse.

Another contributing factor was the trade with whites, in Another contributing factor was the trade with whites, in which Indians traded buffalo hides for guns and other which Indians traded buffalo hides for guns and other manufactured products. manufactured products.

In that case, different tribes competed for access to the trading In that case, different tribes competed for access to the trading posts, may have overhunted the bison, gave incentive for horse posts, may have overhunted the bison, gave incentive for horse theft, and sought the highly valued guns and ammunitiontheft, and sought the highly valued guns and ammunition..

Complex Foraging: The Northwest Coast Complex Foraging: The Northwest Coast Indians Indians

The Northwest Coast starts in The Northwest Coast starts in northern California and runs northern California and runs through Oregon, Washington, through Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and southern British Columbia, and southern AlaskaAlaska

The best known tribes are the The best known tribes are the Kwakiutl, Haida, and Tlingit, but Kwakiutl, Haida, and Tlingit, but numerous others lived on or near numerous others lived on or near the coastthe coast

All tribes relied on annual All tribes relied on annual salmon runs and preserved their salmon runs and preserved their meat by smokingmeat by smoking

Northwest Coast Fishing Complex and Northwest Coast Fishing Complex and Settled CommunitiesSettled Communities

The primary staple was salmon, large The primary staple was salmon, large quantities of which were caught by quantities of which were caught by net on their annual runs (upper left). net on their annual runs (upper left). They could be smoked and kept for They could be smoked and kept for several months. This artwork reflects several months. This artwork reflects the importance of salmon (both the importance of salmon (both photos)photos)

Game and other fish were in Game and other fish were in abundance in a moderate rainforestabundance in a moderate rainforest

Wood, also in abundance, was used Wood, also in abundance, was used in house construction, woodcrafts in house construction, woodcrafts such as totem poles and boxes, and in such as totem poles and boxes, and in boat building. boat building.

Complex Foraging: Northwest Complex Foraging: Northwest Settled CommunitiesSettled Communities

The salmon complex meant that The salmon complex meant that settled communities, like this settled communities, like this Haida village, were commonplaceHaida village, were commonplace

The societies were chiefdoms, and The societies were chiefdoms, and ranking among families, clans, and ranking among families, clans, and villages were importantvillages were important

The so-called totem poles The so-called totem poles represented the clans’ founders and represented the clans’ founders and their successorstheir successors

Complex Foraging: Mesolithic Complex Foraging: Mesolithic

The latter years of the Paleolithic and the Mesolithic The latter years of the Paleolithic and the Mesolithic saw the rise of complex foragingsaw the rise of complex foraging

At first, the main staples were large game At first, the main staples were large game (megafauna), such as bison, horse, mastodon and (megafauna), such as bison, horse, mastodon and mammothsmammoths

When they became extinct, rich sources of game and When they became extinct, rich sources of game and plant food became commonplaceplant food became commonplace

Therefore, settled communities began to spread in the Therefore, settled communities began to spread in the Old World and later in the New WorldOld World and later in the New World

A Mesolithic Village: Sannai A Mesolithic Village: Sannai MaruyamaMaruyama

Projectile points, fishhooks, and net weights Projectile points, fishhooks, and net weights indicate the people were both hunters and fishersindicate the people were both hunters and fishers

Food sources were available year round: wild pigs Food sources were available year round: wild pigs and elk in winter and spring, fish and seal in and elk in winter and spring, fish and seal in summer and fall, plant foods in fall, and fiddleheads summer and fall, plant foods in fall, and fiddleheads in spring.in spring.

Pottery (above) of the Jomon tradition was used for Pottery (above) of the Jomon tradition was used for storagestorage

A settled community is indicated by these A settled community is indicated by these reconstructed housesreconstructed houses

This and other cases (Vedbaek, Denmark, Mount This and other cases (Vedbaek, Denmark, Mount Sandel, Ireland; Monte Verde, Chile) show that Sandel, Ireland; Monte Verde, Chile) show that stable food sources were sufficient for settled stable food sources were sufficient for settled communities without agriculturecommunities without agriculture

Foragers: ConclusionForagers: Conclusion Foragers rely on what nature can provide; they have Foragers rely on what nature can provide; they have

no control over sources of foodno control over sources of food Simple foragers rely on unstable sources and so must Simple foragers rely on unstable sources and so must

migrate whenever their source runs outmigrate whenever their source runs out It is possible for foragers to form settled communities It is possible for foragers to form settled communities

if their food supply is abundant and stable, as in the if their food supply is abundant and stable, as in the Northwest Coast and in Mesolithic villages like Northwest Coast and in Mesolithic villages like Sannai MaruyamaSannai Maruyama

Equestrian hunting allows for a large population for Equestrian hunting allows for a large population for at least part of the year; this was the case of the Plains at least part of the year; this was the case of the Plains Indians who congregated in the spring and summer, Indians who congregated in the spring and summer, then dispersed in the fall and winter. then dispersed in the fall and winter.