1General Notes on Styles and StylisticsStylistics - branch of general linguistics. It has mainly with two tasks: St-s is regarded as a lang-ge science which deals with the results of the act of communication. There are 2 basic objects of st-s: - stylistic devices and figures of speech; - functional styles. Branches of st-s: - Lexical st-s studies functions of direct and figurative meanings, also the way contextual meaning of a word is realized in the text. L.S. deals with various types of connotations expressive, evaluative, emotive; neologisms, dialectal words and their behavior in the text. - Grammatical st-s is subdivided into morphological and syntactical. Morph-l s. views stylistic potential of gram-l categories of dif-t parts of speech. Potential of the number, pronouns- Syntactical s. studies syntactic, expressive means, word order and word combinations, dif-t types of sentences and types of syntactic connections. Also deals with origin of the text, its division on the paragraphs, dialogs, direct and indirect speech, the connection of the sentences, types of sentences. - Phonostylistics phonetical organization of prose and poetic texts. Here are included rhythm, rhythmical structure, rhyme, alliteration, assonance and correlation of the sound form and meaning. Also studies deviation in normative pronunciation. - Functional S (s. of decoding) deals with all subdivisions of the language and its possible use (newspaper, colloquial style). Its object - correlation of the message and communicative situation.

There is a widely held view that style is the correspondence between thought and expression. The notion is based on the assumption ; that of the two functions of language, (language is said to have two functions: it serves as a means of communication and also as a means of shaping one's thoughts). The first function is called communicative, the second - expressive, the latter finds its proper materialization in strings of sentences especially arranged to convey the ideas and also to get the desired response.we may distinguish the following styles within the English literary language: 1) the belles- letters style; 2) the publicistic style; 3) the newspaper style; 4} the scientific prose style; 5) the style of official documents and presumably some others

2Expressive Means and stylistic devicesStylistics studies the special media of language which are called stylistic devices and expressive means. Expressive means and stylistic devices form three large groups of phonetic, lexical, syntactical means and devices. Each group is further subdivided according to the principle, purpose and function of a mean or a device in an utterance. Stylistics studies the types of texts which are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication and are called functional styles of language. Expressive means of a language are those phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical and/or emotional intensification of the utterance. These intensifying forms have special functions in making the utterances emphatic. A stylistic device is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and/or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to a generalized status and thus becoming a generative model. A stylistic device is an abstract pattern, a mould into which any content can be poured.

3.The problem of English literary language4.A brief outline of the development of the English vocabulary There is no hard and fast division between the literary and non-literary language. They are interdependent. The literary language constantly enriches its vocabulary and forms from the non-literary (vernacular, colloquial). It also adopts some of its syntactical peculiarities and by doing so gives them the status of norms of the literary language. The norm of usage is established by the language community at every given period in the development of the language.Thus literary language is a historical category. I.R. Galperin defines the literary language as "that elaborated form (variety) of the national language which obeys definite morphological, phonetic, syntactical, lexical, phraseological, and stylistic norms recognized as standard and therefore acceptable in all kinds and types of discourse. It allows modifications but within the framework of the system of established norms." The literary language greatly influences the non-literary language. Many words, constructions and particularly phonetic improvements have been introduced through it into the English colloquial language. The English literary language was particularly regulated and formalized during the XVII and XVIII centuries. The influence over the non-literary language had its greatest effect in the XIX century with the spread of general education, in the XX century with the introduction of radio and TV.It is difficult to specify the characteristic features of the non-literary variety because it does not present any system. Thus the best way to understand it is to contrast the non-literary form to the existing form of the literary English. The publication of dictionaries does much to establish the literary language norms, but at the very moment the norm is established it begins to fluctuate. Sometimes we may say that two norms co-exist, but one of them will give way to its rival and either vanish from the language completely or remain on its outskirts. This is particularly the case with pronunciation norms.

5Varieties of a languageThere are two varieties of language - the spoken and the written within standard (literary) language. This differentiation is predetermined by two distinct factors, namely, the actual situation in which the language is being used and the aim of communication. Of the two varieties of language, diachronically the spoken is primary and the written is secondary. The spoken language is mostly maintained in the form of a dialogue, the written - in the form of a monologue. The spoken language has a considerable advantage over the written because of such factors as human voice, all kinds of gestures, which give additional information. The written language has to seek means to compensate for what it lacks. This is the reason why the written language is more carefully organized, more explanatory, the word choice is more deliberate. The spoken language is spontaneous, momentary. It vanishes after having fulfilled its purpose, which is to communicate the thought, no matter trivial or important. The idea remains, the language disappears. The written language is able to live forever with the idea it expresses. The spoken language widely uses intensifying words. These are interjections and words with strong emotive meaning, as oaths, swear-words and adjectives which have lost their primary meaning (He put my goddam paper down. I am pretty sure.). The spoken language is characterized by the insertion into the utterance of words without any meaning, which are called "fill-ups" or empty words (as well, and all, so to say, whatever). The essential difference between the two varieties of language is evidently reflected in the syntactical structure. The syntactical peculiarities of the spoken language are 1. omission of the part of utterance easily supplied by the situation in which the communication takes place (Who you with? Tell you what?)1. tendency to use the direct word-order in questions or omit auxiliary verb, leaving it to the intonation to indicate the grammatical meaning (He knew she was dead?)1. unfinished sentences (If I were you)1. usage of a construction with two subjects (a tautological subject) (Helen, she was there.)1. absence of connecting words (Came home late. Had a cup of tea. Went to bed soon after that.)1. syntactical structures, expressing definite emotions, which can be understood only knowing a proper intonation design (Isn't she cute! Don't you tell me that!)The written language is characterized by 1. the exact nature of the utterance (the abundance of all kinds of connecting words)) 1. the bookish "space-wasters" (despite the fact; reach a decision)1. the use of complicated sentence-units (long periods are more frequent than short utterances)

6Types of Lexical MeaningLexical meaning is a means by which a word-form is made to express a definite concept. Lexical meaning refers the mind to some concrete concept, phenomenon, or thing of objective reality, whether real or imaginary. Lexical meaning of any word presents a very complicated unity consisting of connotative and denotative meanings. Denotative (logical) meaning is connected with the extralinguistic reality. It is the precise naming of a feature of the idea, phenomenon, or object, the name by which we recognize the whole of the concept. Connotative meaning is connected with the conditions and participants of communication. Connotation comprises four components: emotive, appraising, expressive and stylistic. If denotation is obligatory in any word, connotation is optional. All four components of connotation can be acting together, or in different combinations or can be entirely absent.

7Stylistic Classification of English vocabularyIn order to get a more or less idea of the word stock of any language, it must be presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet independent. The word stock of a language may be represented as a definite system in which different aspects of words may be singled out as interdependent. A special branch of linguistic science-lexicology - has done much to classify vocabulary. For our purpose, i. e. for linguistic stylistics, a special type of classification, stylistic classification is the most important.An accordance with the division of language into literary and colloquial, we may represent the whole of the word stock of the English language as being divided into three main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property, which unites the different groups of words within the layer may be called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. It is this that makes the layer more or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character. It is this that makes it unstable, fleeting.The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialectal character. The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English or American dictionaries is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or confine to a special locality where it circulates. The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words: 1) common literary; 2) terms and learned words; 3) poetic words; 4) archaic words; 5) barbarisms & foreign words; 6) literary coinages including nonce words. The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1) common colloquial words; 2) slang; 3) jargonisms; 4) professional words; 5) dialectal words; 6) vulgar words; 7) colloquial coinages.The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary.

8Special literary vocabularya) TermsTerms i.e. words denoting objects, processes, phenomena of science, humanities, technique.The function of terms, if encountered in other styles, is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make some reference to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions, to create the environment of a special atmosphere.b) Poetic and highly literary words First of all poetic words belong to a definite style of language and perform in it their direct function. Poetic language has special means of communication, i.e. rhythmical arrangement, some syntactical peculiarities and certain number of special words. The specific poetic vocabulary has a marked tendency to detach itself from the common literary word stock and assume a special significance. Poetic words and ser expressions make the utterance understandable only to a limited number of readers. c) Archaic words The word stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. In every period in the development of a literary language one can find words which will show more or less apparent changes in their meaning or usage, i.e. complete disappearance of the unit from the language. Well distinguish 3 stages in the aging process of words: 1) the beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent, i.e. they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use; 2) The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English speaking community. These words are called obsolete. 3) The third group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognized in modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable.d) Barbarisms and foreign wordsBarbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language. These words, which are called barbarisms, are, like archaisms, also considered to be on the outskirts of the literary language.Most of them have corresponding English synonyms; e. g. chic (=stylish); en passant (= in passing); ad infinitum (= to infinity) and many other words and phrases.Foreign words do not belong to the English vocabulary. In printed works foreign words and phrases are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value. There are foreign words which fulfill a terminological function. (kolkhoz, ukase, udarnik)e) literary coinages Every period in the development of a language produces an enormous number of new words or new meanings of established words. Most of them do not live long. They are coined for use at the moment of speech, and therefore possess a peculiar property that of temporariness. The given word or meaning holds only in the given context and is meant only to serve the occasion. However, a word or a meaning once fixed in writing may become part and parcel of the general vocabulary irrespective of the quality of the word.There are 2 types of newly coined words: 1) those which designate new-born concepts, may be named terminological coinages or terminological neologisms; 2) words coined because their creators seek expressive utterance may be named stylistic coinages or stylistic neologism. Neologisms are mainly coined according to the productive models for word-building in the given languages. Most of the literary coinages are built by means of affixation and word compounding.

9Special colloquial vocabularySlang - language peculiar to a particular group: as a: the special and often secret vocabulary used by a class (as thieves, beggars) and usu. felt to be vulgar or inferior: Slang words, used by most speakers in very informal communication, are highly emotive and expressive and as such, lose their originality rather fast and are replaced by newer formations. So, the idea of a "pretty girl" is worded by more than one hundred ways in slang.In only one novel by S. Lewis there are close to a dozen synonyms used by Babbitt, the central character, in reference to a girl: "cookie", "tomato", "Jane", "sugar", "bird", "cutie", etc.

b) Jargonisms Jargonism is a recognized term for a group of words that exists in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. Thus the word grease means 'money'; loaf means 'head'; a tiger hunter is 'a gambler'; a lexer is 'a student preparing for a law course'.the jargon of thieves and vagabonds, generally known as cant; the jargon of jazz people; the jargon of the army, known as military slang; the jargon of sportsmen, and many others.c) ProfessionalismsProfessionalisms are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home. Professionalisms are correlated to terms. Terms, as has already been indicated, are coined to nominate new concepts that appear in the process of, and as a result of, technical progress and the development of science. In distinction from slang, jargonisms and professionalisms cover a narrow semantic field, for example connected with the technical side of some profession.d) Dialectal wordsDialectal words are those which in the process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is generally confined to a definite locality. Dialectal words are normative and devoid of any stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but used outside of them, carry a strong flavour of the locality where they belong. DW has application limited to a certain group of people or to certain communicative situations.e) Vulgar words or vulgarismsVulgarisms are expletives and swear words which are of an abusive character, like 'damn', 'bloody', 'to hell', 'goddam' and, as some dictionaries state, used now, as general exclamations;The function of expletives is to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger, vexation and the like. They are not to be found in any functional style of language except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the characters.f) Colloquial coinages (words and meanings) Colloquial coinages (nonce-words), unlike those of a literary-bookish character, are spontaneous and elusive. Not all of the colloquial nonce-words are fixed in dictionaries or even in writing and therefore most of them disappear from the language leaving no trace in it.Unlike literary-bookish coinages, nonce-words of a colloquial nature are not usually built by means of affixes but are based on certain semantic changes in words that are almost imperceptible to the linguistic observer until the word finds its way into print.

10Lexical expressive means and stylistic devicesWords in a context may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in the dictionaries, what we have called contextual meanings. The latter may sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such a degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of the primary meaning. What is known in linguistics as transferred meaning is practically the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual. e. g. She is sly like a fox (simile).

There are 3 groups.1. The interaction of different types of lexical meaning.a) dictionary and contextual (metaphor, metonymy, irony);b) primary and derivative (zeugma and pun);c) logical and emotive (epithet, oxymoron);d) logical and nominative (autonomasia);

2. Intensification of a feature (simile, hyperbole, periphrasis).3. Peculiar use of set expressions (cliches, proverbs, epigram, quotations).

11Interaction of different types of lexical meaning. Metaphor. Metonymy. Irony.The relation between dictionary and contextual meanings may be maintained along different lines: on the principle of affinity, on that of proximity, or symbol - referent relations, or on opposition. Thus the stylistic device based on the first principle is metaphor, on the second, metonymy and on the third, ironyA metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts. Metaphor can be embodied in all the meaningful parts of speech, in nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and sometimes even in the auxiliary parts of speech , as in prepositions. Metaphor as any stylistic devices can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors which are absolutely unexpected, are quite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors. e. g. Through the open window the dust danced and was golden. Those which are commonly used in speech and are sometimes fixed in the dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite metaphors or dead metaphors e. g. a flight of fancy, floods of tears.Metonymy is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on affinity, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent on a proximityThe proximity may be revealed:1) between the symbol and the thing it denotes;2) in the relations between the instrument and the action performed with this instrument;e.g. His pen is rather sharp.3) in the relation between the container and the thing it contains; e.g. He drank one more cup.4) the concrete is put for the abstract;e. g. It was a representative gathering (science, politics).5) a part is put for the whole;e.g. the crown - king, a hand - worker.Metonymy represents the events of reality in its subjective attitude. Metonymy in many cases is trite.e.g.:" to earn one's bread", "to keep one's mouth shut".Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings are in opposition to each other. The literal meaning is the opposite of the intended meaning. One thing is said and the other opposite is implied.e.g. Nice weather, isn't it? (on a rainy day).

12Interaction of primary and derivative logical meaning. Polysemy. Zeugma. Pun.There are special SDs which make a word materialize distinct dictionary meanings. The word is the most changeable of all language units. In the result of the gradual development of the meaning of the word new meanings appear alongside the primary one derivative meanings. All of them are interconnected with the primary one and create a network polysemantic effect. Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being literal and transferred. Zeugma always creates a humorous effect. Have a Coke and a smile! Have is realized in two different meanings: in the word combination have a Coke its direct (literal), in have a smile its transferred. The pun is another S.D. based on the interaction of two wellknown meanings of a word or a phrase. It is difficult to draw a hard and fast distinction between zeugma and pun. The only reliable distinguishing feature is a structural one: zeugma is the realization of two meanings with the help of a verb which is made to refer to different subjects or objects ( direct and indirect). The pun is more independent. Like any S.D. it must depend on a context. But the context may be of a more expanded character, sometimes even as large as a whole work of emotive prose.e.g.- Did you miss my lecture ?- Not at all.

13Interaction of logical and emotive meanings. Interjections and exclamatory words. The epithet. The oxymoron.There are words with the function of arousing emotions in the reader. In such words emotiveness prevails over intellectuality. There are also words inwhich logical meanings is almost entirely lost. These words express feelings which have passed trough out mind. Emotiveness is a category of our minds, feelings are expressed indirectly. Thats why it is natural that some emotive words have become symbols of emotions. Interjections are words which we use to express our feelings strongly and which exist in language in the form of conventional symbols of human emotions. Derivative interjections retain some degree of logical meaning suppressed by emotive one. Hush! Alas! Gosh! These interjections had once their logical meanings and the shades of them are presented. Primary interjections. They dont have logical meaning. Oh! Ah! Wow! There are neutral interjections (bah, oh) and colloquial ones (well). Exclamatory words words that dont lose their logical meaning and thus function as interjections. Heavens! Look out!

Oxymoron is a combination of 2 words in which the meanings of the 2 clash, being opposite in sense. terribly beautiful. One of the two members of oxymoron illuminates the feature observed while the other one offers a purely subjective individual perception of the object. In it the primary logical meaning of the adj. or adverb is capable of resisting the power of semantic change which words undergo in combination. It can be realized in several models: adj. + noun, adverb + adj.

Epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meanings in an attributive word, emotionally colored attitude of the speaker to the object he describes. careful attention. heart-burning smile. Another structural variety of epithet is called reversed two nouns liked in an of-phrase. The evaluating, emotional element is in the noun described. A doll of the baby.

14.Intensification of a certain feature of a thing or phenomenon. Simile. Hyperbole.The feature of the object which is picked out seems unimportant and frequently transitory. But for a special reason its elevated to the greatest importance and made into a telling feature. Simile: imaginative comparison of two unlike objects which belong to different classes. It excludes all the properties of the compared objects except one which is made common to them. The girl is like a bird. Trite simile points out the analogy between the human being and the animals which have stereotyped traits of character, states. As wet as a fish. Hyperbole: is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature of a thing or phenomenon. If it is used frequently it may become trite hyperbole. Ive told you thousand times!

15Syntactical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices. Stylistic inversion. Detached construction. Chiasmus. Repetition. ClimaxThey include: stylistic inversion, detached constructions, parallel constructions , chiasmus, suspense, climax, antithesis.Stylistic Inversion. The English word order is fixed. Any change which doesn't influence the meaning but is only aimed at emphasis is called a stylistic inversion. Stylistic inversion aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the utterance. Therefore a specific intonation pattern is the inevitable satellite of inversion.The following patterns of stylistic inversion are most frequently met in both English prose and English poetry.1. The object is placed at the beginning of the sentence.2. The attribute is placed after the word it modifies, e. g. With fingers weary and worn.3. The predicate is placed before the subject, e.g. A good generous prayer it was.4. The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence.e.g. My dearest daughter, at your feet I fall.5. Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject, e. g. In went Mr. Pickwick.Detached constructions. Sometimes one of the secondary members of the sentence is placed so that it seems formally inderpendent of the word it refers to. Being formally inderpendent this secondary member acquires a greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation. e.g. She was gone. For good.Chiasums is based on repetition of syntactical patterns, but it has a reversed order in one of the utterances.e.g. She was a good sport about all this, but so was he.Climax (gradation) - an ascending series of words or utterances in which intensity or significance increases step by step.e. g. Every racing car, every racer, every mechanic, every ice - cream van was also plastered with advertising.

Repetition aims at logical emphasis in order to fix the readers attention on the key-words of the utterance. There are: 1) Anaphora when the repeated unit comes at the beginning. Your cheek, your gluttony, your obstinacy impose respect on me. 2) Epiphora the repeated units is at the end of a sentence. To get into the best society one has either to feed people, amuse people. 3) Framing repetition the initial word is repeated at the end of the unit. Please dont tie me down, please. 4) Linking repetition the last word of one part is repeated at the beginning of the following one. If you have nothing to say, say it. 5) Chain repetition a group of linking repetition used in the same utterance. Now he understood. He understood many things. 6) Synonymic repetition repetition of the same idea with the help of synonyms. 7) Pleonasm the use of more words than are necessary. Usually the fault of style. 8) Tautology repetition of the same statement. Usually in other words the fault of style.

16. Peculiar ways of combining parts of the utterance. Asyndeton. Polysyndeton.Asyndeton is connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign. It becomes a stylistic if there is a deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language. The boys all hated him, he was so good. In this sentence the conjunction because is omitted. Polysyndeton is connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences by using connectives (mostly conjunctions and prepositions) before each component part. She stirred the fire, and shut the door, and sat as near to it as she could, quite on the edge of her chair. Another function of this type is disintegrating.

17Peculiar use of colloquial constructions. Represented speechEmotional syntactical structures typical of the spoken language are often very effectively used by authors to depict the emotional state of the character. They are also used in the narrative of the author. Represented speech is that form of utterance which conveys the actual words of the speaker through the mouth of the writer but which retains the peculiarities of the speakers mode of expression. Uttered represented speech demands that the tense should be switched from present to past and that the personal pronouns should be changed from the 1st and 2nd person to 3rd person as in indirect speech, but the syntactical structure of the utterance isnt changed. Why was she nervous? What was there about a toy to make her grow pale? Why should she be so nervous? uttered represented speech is shown in the Past Indefinite

Unuttered represented speech is the thoughts and feelings going on in ones mind and reflecting some previous experience. It has no communicative function and is very fragmentary, incoherent, isolated and consists of separate units which hint at the content of the utterance but do not word it explicitly. This type of represented speech is often introduced by verbs of mental perception, as think, feel, wonder, occur, ask, tell oneself, understand

18The Belles-letters style. Language of poetry. Emotive prose. Language of the dramaBelles-lettres style (the style of fiction) embraces:1)poetry; 2)drama; 3)emotive prose. B-l style or the style of imaginative literature may be called the richest register of communication: besides its own lan-ge means which are not used in any other sphere of communication, b-l st. makes ample use of other styles too, for in numerous works of literary art we find elements of scientific, official and other functional types of speech. Besides informative and persuasive functions, b-l style has a unique task to impress the reader aesthetically. The form becomes meaningful and carries additional info.

Poetry. Peculiarities - rhythm and rhyme. As a SD rhythm is a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and its variations governed by the standard. Emotive prose. Emotive prose is a combination of literary variant of the language and colloquial, which is presented by the speech of the characters which is stylized that means it has been made "literature like" and some elements of conversational English were made use of. Emotive prose allows the use of elements of other styles but the author changes them and fulfils a certain function. SDs used: in emotive prose style are represented speech, detached constructions, gap - sentence link.Drama - the language of plays mainly consists of dialogues. The author's speech is in the form of stage remarks. Any presentation of a play is an aesthetic procedure. The language of a play has the following peculiarities:- it is stylized (retains the modus of literary English);- it presents the variety of spoken language;- it has redundancy of information caused by necessity to amplify the utterance;- monologue is never interrupted;- character's utterances are much longer than in ordinary conversation;

19Publicistic style. The article. The essayPublicistic style. (oratory, speeches, essays, articles) the style is a perfect ex. Of historical changeability of stylistic differentiation of discourses. In Greece it was practiced in oral form which was named P. in accordance with the name of its corresponding genre. PS is famous for its explicit pragmatic function of persuasion directed at influencing the reader & shaping his views in accordance with the argumentation of the author. We find in PS a blend of the rigorous logical reasoning, reflecting the objective state of things & a strong subjectivity reflecting the authors personal feelings and emotions towards the discussed subject.

2. The essay The essay is a literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social, aesthetic or literary subjects. It never goes deep into the subject. An essay is rather a series of personal and witty comments than a finished argument or a conclusive examination of any matter. Feature articles are generally published in newspapers.3. Articles Irrespective of the character of the magazine and the divergence of subject matter whether it is political, literary, popular-scientific or satirical, all the features of publistic style are to be found in any article. The character of the magazine as well as the subject chosen affects the choice and use of stylistic devices. There are popular scientific articles, satirical articles, political magazine articles, newspaper articles, etc. Literary reviews stand closer to essay both by their content and by their linguistic form. More abstract words of logical meaning are used in them, they more often resort to emotional language and less frequently to traditional set expressions.

Substyles: The oratory essays, journalistic articles, radio and TV commentary. Oratory. It makes use of a great hummber of expressive means to arouse and keep the public's interest: repetition, gradation, antithesis, rhetorical questions, emotive words, elements of colloquial speech. Radio and TV commentary is less impersonal and more expressive and emotional. The essay is very subjective and the most colloquial of the all substyles of the publicistic style. It makes use of expressive means and tropes. The journalistic articles are impersonal.

20Newspaper style. Brief new item. The headline. Advertisements and announcements. The editorialThe basic communicative function of this style is to inform people about all kinds of events and occurrences which may be of some interest to them. Newspaper materials may be classified into three groups: brief news reviews, informational articles and advertisements. The vocabulary of the newspaper style consists mostly of neutral common liter-ary words, though it also contains many political, social and economic terms. There are lots of abbrevia-tions. One of unattractive feature of the newsp. st. is the overabundance of cliches.

Brief items: its function is to inform the reader. It states only facts without giving comments. The vocabulary used is neutral and common literary. Specific features are:a) special political and economic terms;b) non-term political vocabulary;c) newspaper clichms;d) abbreviations;e) neologisms.Headlines. The main function is to inform the reader briefly of what the news is to follow about. Syntactically headlines are very short sentences, interrogative sentences, nominative sentences, elliptical sentences, sentences with articles omitted, headlines including direct speech.Advertisements and announcements. The function of advertisements and announcements is to inform the reader. There are two types of them: classified and non-classified. In classified the information is arranged according to the subject matter: births, marriages,

21The scientific prose styleThe style of scientific prose has 3 subdivisions:1) the style of humanitarian sciences; 2) the style of "exact" sciences; 3) the style of popular scientific prose. Its function is to work out and ground theoretically objective knowledge about reality. The aim of communication is to create new concepts, disclose the international laws of existence. The peculiarities are: objectiveness; logical coherence, impersonality, unemotional character, exactness. The scientific prose style consists mostly of ordinary words which tend to be used in their primary logical meaning. Emotiveness depends on the subject of investigation but mostly scientific prose style is unemotional. Grammar: The logical presentation and cohesion of thought manifests itself in a developed feature of scientific syntax is the use of established patterns. - postulatory; - formulative; - argumentative; The impersonal and objective character of scientific prose style is revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions, impersonal sentences. Personal sentences are more frequently used in exact sciences. In humanities we may come across constructions but few. Some features of the style in the text are: - use of quotations and references; - use of foot-notes helps to preserve the logical coherence of ideas. Scientific popular style has the following peculiarities: emotive words, elements of colloquial style.

22The style of official documents1) Language of business letters;2) Language of legal documents;3) Language of diplomacy;4) Language of military documents; The aim:1. to reach agreement between two contracting parties;2. to state the conditions binding two parties in an understanding. Each of substyles of official documents makes use of special terms. Legal documents: military documents, diplomatic documents. The documents use set expressions inherited from early Victorian period. This vocabulary is conservative. Legal documents contain a large proportion of formal and archaic words used in their dictionary meaning. In diplomatic and legal documents many words have Latin and French origin. There are a lot of abbreviations and conventional symbols.The most noticable feature of grammar is the compositional pattern. Every document has its own stereotyped form. The form itself is informative and tells you with what kind of letter we deal with.Business letters contain: heading, addressing, salutation, the opening, the body, the closing, complimentary clause, the signature. Syntactical features of business letters are - the predominance of extended simple and complex sentences, wide use of participial constructions, homogeneous members.Morphological peculiarities are passive constructions, they make the letters impersonal. There is a tendency to avoid pronoun reference. Its typical feature is to frame equally important factors and to divide them by members in order to avoid ambiguity of the wrong interpretation.

23The phonetic expressive means and stylistic devicesA phoneme has a strong associative and sound-instrumenting power. Due to its articulatory and acoustic properties certain ideas, feelings, images are awaken. Its vivid in poetry. Onomatopoeia (sound imitation) is a combination of speech sounds which imitate sounds produced in nature (wind) by things (tools), by people (laughing), by animals (barking). plink, plink, fizz.Direct onomatopoeia: words which imitate natural sounds. buzz. Indirect: combination of sounds which makes the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. . Alliteration: repetition of similar consonant sounds in close succession. Functional, fashionable, formidable. Assonance: repetition of similar vowel sounds, usually in stressed syllables. Grace, space,pace.Euphony: produced by alliteration or assonance. Sense of ease and comfort in producing or hearing. Favors unused are favors abused. Euphony is created by the assonance of the vowels [ei, u:] and alliteration [zd] frequent in proverbs. Rhyme: repetition of identical or similar terminal sounds or sound combinations in words. One, two, three, four, five. I caught a fish alive. Assonance of vowel [ai]. Rhythm: complex unit defined as a regular recurrence of stressed and unstressed syllables (strong and weak elements) which determine the meter in poetry or the measured flow of words in prose. One, two, three, four. Mary at the cottage door.

24The graphic expressive means and stylistic devicesGraphical EMs serve to convey in the written form those emotions which in the oral speech are expressed by intonation and stress, in written form they are shown mostly with the help of punctuation and deliberate change of a spelling of a word.. Marks of punctuation: hyphen, dash, comma, period (full-stop), colon, semicolon, exclamation, interrogation, series of dots. They are used not only for the division of speech into its logical parts, but also for emphatic purposes which suggest a definite semantic interpretation of the utterance. , , . Another group of graphical means is based on the violation of type: italics, bold type, capitalization. Not only words but separate syllables, morphemes may be emphasized by italics (). Spaced type is also included into this group of graphical means though it is not so frequent as italics. N o w! spaced letters are used for

25Break-in-the-narrative. Litotes.

Break-in-the narrative is a stylistic device based on a sudden breaking off in the midst of a sentence as if from inability for private communication. Martin didnt shoot himself. Martin didnt - . Of course, he didnt. I shoot him. Expresses the surprise of the character.

In the spoken variety of the l-ge a br-in-the-nar is usually caused by unwillingness to proceed; or by the supposition that what remains to be said can be understood by the implication embodied in what has been said; or by uncertainty as to what should be said. In the written variety a br-in-the-nar is always a stylistic device used for some stylistic effect. In writing it is the context which suggests the adequate intonation, that is the only key to decoding the aposiopesis. A-s is a stylistic syntactical device to convey to the reader a very strong upsurge of emotions. The idea of it is that the speaker cannot proceed, his feelings depriving him of the ability to express himself in terms of l-ge. Smt a br-in-the-nar is caused by euphemistic considerations. Here the role of the intonation implied cannot be overestimated.

Litotes - is a device - an affirmation is expressed by denying its contrary. Usually litotes presupposes double negation. One through a negative particle (no, not) the other - through a word with negative meaning. Its function is to convey doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristics of the object or a feeling. The stylistic effect of litotes depends mainly on intonation. A variant of litotes is a constr-n with 2 negations, as in not unlike, not unpromising, not displeased & the like. Litotes is used in different styles of speech excluding official style & scientific prose.

e.g. It's not a bad thing - It's a good thing.e.g. He is no coward. He is a brave man.

26 Represented speech. Rhetorical question.

Represented speech There is also a device which coveys to the reader the unuttered or inner speech of the character, his thoughts and feelings. This device is also termed represented speech. To distinguish between the two varieties of represented speech we call the representation of the actual utterance through the author's language "uttered represented speech", and the representation of the thoughts and feelings of the character unuttered or inner represented speech.A rhetorical question is asked just for effect or to lay emphasis on some point discussed when no real answer is expected. A rhetorical question may have an obvious answer but the questioner asks rhetorical questions to lay emphasis to the point. In literature, a rhetorical question is self-evident and used forstyleas an impressive persuasive device. Broadly speaking, a rhetorical question is asked when the questioner himself knows the answer already or an answer is not actually demanded. So, an answer is not expected from the audience. Such a question is used to emphasize a point or draw the audiences attention.

31Brief new itemBrief new items: its function is to inform the reader. It states only facts without giving comments. The vocabulary used is neutral and common literary. Specific features are:a) special political and economic terms;b) non-term political vocabulary;c) newspaper clichms;d) abbreviations;e) neologisms.The following grammatical peculiarities of brief news items are of paramount importance, and may be regarded as grammatical parameters of newspaper style: 1. complex sentences with a developed system of clauses; 2. verbal constructions; 3. syntactical complexes; 4. attributive noun groups; 5. specific word order.32. Oratory and speech Oratorical style is the oral subdivision of the publicistic style. Direct contact with the listeners permits the combination of the syntactical, lexical and phonetic peculiarities of both the written and spoken varieties of language. Certain typical features of the spoken variety of speech present in this style are: direct address to the audience (ladies and gentlemen, honorable member(s), the use of the 2nd person pronoun you, etc.), sometimes constractions (Ill, wont, havent, isnt and others) and the use of colloquial words. The stylistic devices employed in oratorical style are determined by the conditions of communication. Repetition can be regarded as the most typical stylistic device of English oratorical style. Almost any piece of oratory will have parallel constructions, antithesis, suspense, climax, rhetorical questions and questions-in-the-narrative.

33Advertisements and announcementsThe function of advertisement and announcement is to inform the reader. There are 2 basic types of advertisements and announcements in the modern English newspaper: classified and non-classified(separate). In classified advertisements and announcements various kinds of information are arranged according to subject-matter into sections, each bearing an appropriate name. As for the separate advertisements and announcements, the variety of language form and subject-matter is so great that hardly any essential features common to all be pointed out.

34.The editorial Editorials are an intermediate phenomenon bearing the stamp of both the newspaper style and the publistic style. The function of the editorial is to influence the reader by giving an interpretation of certain facts. Emotional coloring in editorial articles is also achieved with the help of various stylistic devices(especially metaphors and epithets), both lexical and syntactical, the use of which is largely traditional

35compositional patterns of rhythmic arrangement The most observable and widely recognized compositional patterns of rhythm making up classical verse are based, on:1) alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, x2) equilinearity, that is, an equal number of syllables in the lines,3) a natural pause at the end of the line, the line being a more or less complete semantic unit,4) identity of stanza pattern,5) established patterns of rhyming.

Rhythm is a periodicity, which requires specification as to the type of periodicity. Inverse rhythm is regular succession of weak and strong stress. A rhythm in language necessarily demands oppositions that alternate: long, short; stressed, unstressed; high, low and other contrasting segments of speech.

Academician V.M. Zhirmunsky suggests that the concept of rhythm should be distinguished from that of a metre. Metre is any form of periodicity in verse, its kind being determined by the character and number of syllables of which it consists. The metre is a strict regularity, consistency and unchangeability. Rhythm is flexible and sometimes an effort is required to perceive it. In classical verse it is perceived at the background of the metre. In accented verse - by the number of stresses in a line. In prose - by the alternation of similar syntactical patterns. Rhythm in verse as a S. D. is defined as a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and the variations of it, variations which are governed by the standard. There are the following rhythmic patterns of verse:iambusdactulumphibrachanapaest.Rhythm is not a mere addition to verse or emotive prose, which also has its rhythm. Rhythm intensifies the emotions. It contributes to the general sense. Much has been said and writhen about rhythm in prose. Some investigators, in attempting to find rhythmical patterns of prose, superimpose metrical measures on prose. But the parametres of the rhythm in verse and in prose are entirely different.

36Unuttered or inner represented speechRepresented speech is that form of utterance which conveys the actual words of the speaker through the mouth of the writer but which retains the peculiarities of the speakers mode of expression. Uttered represented speech demands that the tense should be switched from present to past and that the personal pronouns should be changed from the 1st and 2nd person to 3rd person as in indirect speech, but the syntactical structure of the utterance isnt changed. Why was she nervous? What was there about a toy to make her grow pale? Why should she be so nervous? uttered represented speech is shown in the Past Indefinite

Unuttered represented speech is the thoughts and feelings going on in ones mind and reflecting some previous experience. It has no communicative function and is very fragmentary, incoherent, isolated and consists of separate units which hint at the content of the utterance but do not word it explicitly. This type of represented speech is often introduced by verbs of mental perception, as think, feel, wonder, occur, ask, tell oneself, understand

The thoughts & feelings going on in ones mind & reflecting some previous experience are called inner speech. Inner speech is a psychological phenomenon. But when it is wrought into full utterance it ceases to be inner speech, acquires a communicative function & becomes a phenomenon of the l-ge. The reader is presented with a complete l-ge unit capable of carrying inf-n. This device is called inner represented speech. In.rep.sp retains the most characteristic features of inner sp. It is also fragmentary, but only to an extent which will not hinder the understanding of the communication. Inn.rep.sp unlike uttered rep.sp expresses feelings & thoughts of the character which were not materialized in spoken or written l-ge by the character. That is why it abounds in excl.words & phrases, elliptical constr-ns, breaks & other means of conveying feelings & psychological states. The tense forms are shifted to the past; the 3rd person personal prns replace the 1st & the 2nd. 39Question in the narrative. Changes the real nature of a question and turns it into a stylistic device. A question in the narrative is asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the author. It becomes akin to a parenthetical statement with strong emotional implications. e. g. For what is left the poet here? For Greeks a blush - for Greece a tear.As is seen from these examples the questions asked, unlike rhetorical questions do not contain statements.Question in the narrative is very often used in oratory. This is explained by one of the leading features of oratorical style - to induce the desired reaction to the content of the speech.

43Gap-sentence link is a way of connecting two sentences seemingly unconnected and leaving it to the readers imagination to grasp the idea implied. She says nothing but its clear that she is harping on this engagement, and

The functions of GSL are the following: 1) it signals the introduction of inner represented speech; 2) it indicates a subjective evaluation of the facts; 3) it displays an unexpected coupling of ideas. The Gap-SentenceLink aims at stirring up in the readers mind the suppositions, associations and conditions under which the sentence can exist.