Stylistics Lecture

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Stylistics (N): The study of styles of language. The study of that variation in language which is dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or hearer. It is the study of the grammatical, phonological and practical aspects of style in language. It is the study or practice of the art of using linguistic devices to make communication more precise, connotative or personal. Although stylistics sometimes includes investigations of spoken language, it usually refers to the study of written language, including literary texts. Stylistics is concerned with the choices that are available to a writer and the reasons why particular forms and expressions are used rather than others. Stylistician:

Transcript of Stylistics Lecture

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Stylistics (N):The study of styles of language. The study of that variation inlanguage which is dependent on the situation in which thelanguage is used and also on the effect the writer or speakerwishes to create on the reader or hearer. It is the study of thegrammatical, phonological and practical aspects of style inlanguage. It is the study or practice of the art of using linguisticdevices to make communication more precise, connotative orpersonal. Although stylistics sometimes includes investigations ofspoken language, it usually refers to the study of writtenlanguage, including literary texts. Stylistics is concerned with thechoices that are available to a writer and the reasons whyparticular forms and expressions are used rather than others.Stylistician:One who makes a methodical study of the principles of style.Style:(1) The particular identifying characteristic of something, aswriting style, acting style, baroque style.(2) A way of living or dressing, etc. as living in style; one'slifestyle.

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(3) The particular way in which a person uses language in agiven social environment; idiolect.(4) The manner in which something is said or done in contrast toits message.(5) An author's use of language, its effects, and itappropriateness to the author's intent and theme. Style is thedress of thoughts.(6) The characteristic way in which a person conceives andexpresses ideas through language. Style usually varies fromcasual to formal according to the type of situation, the personor persons addressed, the location, the topic discussed,etc. A particular style, e.g. formal style or colloquial style, issometimes referred to as a stylistic variety.3(7) Style can also refer to a particular person's use of speech orwriting at all times or to a way of speaking or writing at aparticular period of time, e.g. Dickens' style, the style ofShakespeare, an 18th century style of writing.The element of style exists on the level of all meaningfullinguistic units from word to text, and in all kinds of writingwhether literary or non-literary.Stylist:

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(1) A speaker or writer who cultivates an artful literary style.(2) A designer or consultant on styles in decorating, dress, orbeauty.Stylistic variation:Differences in the speech or writing of a person or group ofpeople according to the situation, the topic, the addressee(s)and the location. Stylistic variation can be observed in the use ofdifferent speech sounds, different words or expressions, ordifferent sentence structures.Style Marker:It is a linguistic element in the text which signals a feature ofstyle. It is also called style feature or stylistic device. It can beof any size: a single-word phrase, a multi-word phrase, a clause,a sentence, a paragraph, a grammatical category, a particulartransformation, a set of verbs, a semantic feature. It is recognizedintuitively.Text:A piece of spoken or written language. A text may be considered

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from the point of view of its structure and or its functions, e.g..:warning, instructing, carrying out a transaction. A fullunderstanding of a text is often impossible without reference tothe context in which it occurs. A text may consist of just oneword, e.g.: DANGER on a warning sign, or it may be ofconsiderable length, e.g.: a sermon, a novel or a debate.4Genre:A particular class of speech events (a particular instance whenpeople exchange speech, e.g. an exchange of greetings, aninquiry, a conversation) which are considered by the speechcommunity as being of the same type. Examples of genres are:prayers, sermons, conversations, songs, speeches, poems,letters, and novels. They have particular and distinctivecharacteristics. A group of several genres are called a complexgenre.Discourse:A general term for examples of language use, language whichhas been produced as the result of an act of communication.

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Whereas grammar refers to the rules a language uses to formgrammatical units such as clause, phrase, and sentence,discourse refers to larger units of language such as paragraphs,conversations, and interviews. The study of both written andspoken discourse is known as discourse analysis.Discourse analysis:The study of how sentences in spoken and written language formlarger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations,interviews, etc. for example, discourse analysis deals with:(a) how the choice of articles, pronouns, and tenses affectsthe structure of the discourse .(b) the relationship between utterances in a discourse(adjacency pairs, coherence).(c) The moves made by speakers to introduce a new topic,change the topic, or assert a higher role relationship to theother participants.Some Kinds of Texts:- Literary texts: novels, short stories, tales, biographies,essays, diaries, plays, poems, nursery rhymes.- Social letters (invitations, thank-you notes), postcards,telegrams.5- Newspapers, magazines (headlines, articles, editorials,letters to the editor, classified ads, weather forecasts,radio/TV./ theater programs.

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- Specialized articles, reports, reviews, essays, businessletters, summaries, accounts, pamphlets, term papers,research papers, documentaries.- Handbooks, textbooks, guidebooks.- Advertisements, travel brochures, catalogues.- Recipes, instructions (warnings), directions (how to use...),notices, rules & regulations, posters, (road signs), forms(application forms, landing cards), menus, tickets.- Comic strips, jokes & riddles, cartoons & caricatures.Text Types According to Purpose:Narrative, expository (descriptive, persuasive, informative).Text types According to Register:Journalese, legal, business, military, radio broadcasts,technical, literary, telephone, broadcasting, games, publicspeaking, commercial, advertisement, recipe, personalletter, business letter.Communication:The exchange of ideas, information, etc. between two or morepersons. In an act of communication there are 5 elements:A. The sender = speaker or writer.B. A message = What is conveyed in speech or writing fromone person to one or more other people. The message maynot always be stated in verbal form but can be conveyed byother means, e.g.: a wink, gestures. A distinction can bemade between message form and message content. In

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spoken requests, for example, the message form is how therequest is made (e.g.: type or sentence structure, use ornon-use of courtesy words, type of intonation) and themessage content is what is actually requested (e.g.: theloan of some money).6C. The channels through which the message is transmitted.The channel may be verbal, visual, pictorial, aural. Theverbal channel = the code, i.e., a system of symbolsinvolving sounds, letters, words, or other oral or graphicdevices used in transmitting the message.D. The receiver = the person or persons for whom themessage is intended.E. The situation = the physical setting and social context inwhich the communication occurs.The sender, receiver, message or code may be dominant ina text in order to fulfill the purpose of communication. Hence,texts can be classified into:(1) A. Sender-dominant texts = expressive function like lyricpoems, personal letters, autobiographies, personalexplanationsB. Receiver-dominant texts = conative function such aspublic speeches, advertisements, sermons. These tryto make an impact on the receiver.C. Message-dominant texts = cognitive function like

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technical reports, newspaper reports, textbooks,treatise, scientific discourse.(2) Code-dominant texts = textual functionThey are texts in which the organization of ideas is coherentand sentences and paragraphs are cohesive.2. APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF STYLEStyle can be studied in different ways:- According to the subject-field: literary, sociological social,psychological and linguistic study of style.- According to linguistic levels, i.e. linguistic units.- According to language functions.72.1. Approaches According to Linguistic Levels:2.1.1 Microstylistics:It is the study of style features at the word, phrase, clauseand sentence levels. It is subdivided into:A. Phonostylistics:Study of style features at the phonological level.B. Morphostylistics:Study of style features at the morphological level.C. Lexicostylistics:Study of style features at the lexical level, i.e., lexical itemsand patterns of vocabulary.D. Syntacticostylistics:Study of style features at the sentence level, i.e., study ofsentence structures at the clause, phrase and word level(verbal style, nominal style).2.1.2 Macrostylistics:It is the study of style features above the sentence level, i.e.,

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paragraphs, stanzas, sections, chapters, and whole book. Thetext may be of any length and any form.2.2 Approaches According to Language Functions:Function is the purpose for which an utterance or languageunit is used. Language functions have been classified in differentways according to the approach and the purpose of theinvestigation. According to Buhler, language may be used as asymptom, a symbol or a signal. Symptom is self-expression andis speaker-centered. Symbol is information and is text-centered.Signal is persuasion and is hearer-centered.8A. Expressive Stylistics:It investigates texts in which symptom is dominant like lyricpoetry, personal letters, diary writing, biographies. In suchtexts the focus is on the author or speaker's personality.B. Cognitive Stylistics:It is appropriate for studying texts where symbol is dominantas in technical, technological, scientific, social, historicaltexts. Here the focus is on information.C. Affective Stylistics:It is appropriate for studying texts in which signal is dominantas in public speeches, sermons, advertisements. In such

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texts the hearer or speaker tries to persuade, affect, appealto, or exhort the reader or hearer into believing in a certainthing or taking some kind of action.One language function or more (symbol, symptom andsignal) may be dominant in the same text. A text may beinvestigated for symbol, symptom and signal at the sametime.3. DISCURSIVE VS EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGEDiscursive Language:It is the language of science. It is used to transmitinformation, and knowledge. It is code-centered. It is cognitive.Texts are concerned with the real world. It is denotative, monodimensional,and unambiguous.Expressive Language:It is the language of literature. It is the language used toexpress emotions, feelings, and attitudes. It is message-centered.It is understood through the components of the message. Textsare concerned with the author's inner world (his feelings,9emotions and experiences). It is connotative, multi-dimensional,and ambiguous.4. OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING STYLEEnglish is the common core or nucleus which is realized inthe different forms of the language we actually hear of read.

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Through his use of language such as vocabulary, a person mayreveal facts about his age, his sex, his educational level, hisoccupation, his social class, and his geographical andcultural origin. The following are some factors that affect style:a. Region = dialectGeographical dispersion is a basis for linguistic variation.This dispersion resulted in different dialects. Every one speaks aregional dialect. Regional variations (dialects) are realizedpredominantly in phonology, i.e., we tend to recognize adifferent dialect from a speaker's pronunciation before we noticethat his vocabulary is also distinctive. Grammatical variationtends to be less distinctive. But all types of linguistic organizationcan readily enough be involved.- l, r, often, matter, water, box, interstate, territory- Flat/apartment; rent/hire; lift, elevator; post, mail.- I never saw; I’ve never seen.b. Education and Social Standing:There is an important polarity of uneducated and educatedspeech in which the former can be identified with the regionaldialect most completely and the latter moves away fromdialectical usage. Educated speech tends to be given theadditional prestige of government agencies, the learned

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professions, the political parties, the press, the law-court.Educated English is referred to as "Standard English". Upperclass English has more in common with Standard English thanhas lower-class English. Forms that are associated withuneducated use are often called "substandard". Here thespeech or writing of the person or group does not conform to the10standard variety of the language in pronunciation, grammar orvocabulary and is therefore thought to be undesirable. A moreneutral term that is used by linguists for forms that do not belongto the standard variety of a language is "non-standard".e.g.:I don't know nothing. (substandard)telly, chocs (chocolate), advert (advertisement),comfty (comfortable), veggy (vegetables)c. Subject-matter = registerA speech variety used by a particular group of people ,usually sharing the same occupation (e.g. doctors, lawyers) orthe same interests (e.g. stamp collectors, baseball fans).Aparticular register often distinguishes itself from other registers byhaving a number of distinctive words, by using words or phrases

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in a particular way (in tennis: deuce, love, tramlines, van), andsometimes by special grammatical constructions (e.g.: legallanguage).Most people have a repertoire of registers. The samespeaker would switch to the appropriate register as the occasionarises. The switch involves nothing more than turning to theparticular set of lexical items habitually used for handling thesubject matter in question: law, cookery, engineering, football.d. Medium:Refers to spoken vs. written language. Most of thedifference arise from 2 sources: one is situational in which theuse of a written medium normally presumes the absence of theperson to whom the piece of language is addressed. Thisimposes the necessity of a careful and precise completion of asentence rather than the odd word supported by gesture, andterminating when the speaker is assured by word or look that hishearer has understood.The second source of difference is that many of the deviceswe use to transmit language by speech (stress, rhythm,

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intonation, tempo) are impossible to represent in a written text.11e. Attitude:The choice of a linguistic form may proceed from ourattitude to the hearer or reader, to subject matter, or to thepurpose of our communication. The essential aspect of the nonlinguisticcomponent is the gradient between stiff, formal, cold,impersonal and relaxed, informal, warm, friendly styles. We candistinguish sentences containing features that are markedlyformal or informal.Formal speech is a style of speaking used to inform anaudience in impersonal terms, marked by careful attention toorganization of content and to grammatical structure andpronunciation. Professional lectures are delivered in a formalstyle.5. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF STYLEEXAMPLESMonosyllabic words: I, one, streets, straight, what, where.Disyllabic words: problems, classrooms, subjects, passageTrisyllabic words: proportion, beautiful, frequently, separate.Imperative verbs:Come here!.

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Open the window, please!Finite verbs = All forms of verbs except infinitives andparticiples (-ing and -ed forms), are called finite verbs.Main clauses contain finite verb phrases. Non-finite verbphrases are generally found only in subordinate clauses:Kicking the ball, he injured his foot. (non-finite, finite)He kicked the ball, he injured his foot. (finite, finite)Finite verbs can normally be changed from Present Tense toPast Tense, or from Past Tense to Present Tense:12He kicked the ball === He kicks the ball.In a finite verb phrase, the first verb is the only one which isfinite. The other words cannot change:He (may / might ) have kicked the ball.True Adjectives: can be rendered in the comparative degree andcan be used attributively and predicatively, e.g.:tall , taller; interesting, more interesting.An interesting bookThe book is interesting.Untrue Adjectives = noun adjunct constructions (a noun thatpremodifies another noun in a noun compound). They cannotbe rendered in the comparative degree and cannot be usedpredicatively.income tax, water bird, gold watch, silver spoon, water bottle,

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home economics, window shade, police car, kitchen sink,kitchen table.Adjectives modified by Adverbs:very quickly, completely full, definitely right6. LEXICAL ASPECTS OF STYLE1. General:- Is the vocabulary simple or complex?- Is the vocabulary formal or informal?- Is the vocabulary descriptive or evaluative?- Is the vocabulary general or specific?- How far does the author make use of emotive and otherassociations of words as opposed to their referentialmeaning?- Does the text contain idiomatic phrases?- With what kind of dialect or register are these idiomsassociated13- Is there any use of rare or specialized vocabulary?- Are any particular morphological categories noteworthy(compound words, words with particular suffixes)?- To what semantic fields do words belong?2. Nouns:- Are the nouns abstract or concrete?- What kind of abstract nouns occur (nouns referring toevents, perceptions, processes, moral qualities,social qualities)?- What use is made of proper nouns?- what use is made of collective nouns?3. Adjectives:- Are the adjectives frequent?- To what kind of attributes do adjectives refer (physical,

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psychological, visual, auditory, color, referential,emotive, evaluative)?- Are adjectives restrictive or non-restrictive?- Are adjectives gradable or non-gradable?- Are adjectives attributive or predicative?4. Verbs:- Do verbs carry an important part of the meaning?- Are they stative or dynamic?- Do they refer to movements, physical acts, speechacts, psychological states or activities, perceptions?- Are they transitive, intransitive, linking- Are they factive or non-factive?5. Adverbs:- Are adverbs frequent?- What semantic functions do they perform (manner,place, direction, time, degree?- Is there any significant use of sentence adverbs(conjuncts and disjuncts)?14EXAMPLESSimple vs. complex =number of morphemes in the word, e.g.:un-friend-li-ness, sleep-less, un-pro-duct-iveFormal: pray (please); beget (produce) ; behind hand (late)Informal: get (receive) ; beggar (fellow)Descriptive & Evaluative:thin, slim, skinny, slender, round, boring.General: animal, food, sports, vehicles, country.Specific: mammal, fast food, water sports, lorry, Egypt.Very specific: cow, hamburger, French fries, swimming.

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Referential:The relationship between words and the things, actions,events and qualities they stand for. Reference in its wider sensewould be the relationship between a word or phrase and an entityin the external world. for example, the word tree refers to theobject "tree" (the referent). Reference in its narrower sense is therelationship between a word or phrase and a specific object, e.g.:a particular tree or a particular animal. e.g., Peter's horse wouldrefer to a horse which is owned, ridden by, or in some wayassociated with Peter.Denotative = Conceptual = Cognitive meaningIt is the part of the meaning of the word that relates it tophenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible world,e.g.: the denotation of the English word bird is a two-legged ,winged, egg-laying, warm-blooded creature with a beak. In ameaning system, denotative meaning may be regarded as the"central" meaning or 'core" meaning of a lexical item.- dog chair tree car train15Emotive = Affective meaning = Connotation

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The additional meanings that a word or a phrase has beyondits central meaning. These meanings show people's emotionsand attitudes towards what the word or phrase refers to. e.g.:child could be defined as a young being but there are manyother characteristics which different people associate with child ,e.g., affectionate, amusing, lovable, sweet, mischievous, noisy,irritating. Some connotations may be shared by a group ofpeople of the same cultural or social background, sex, or age;others may be restricted to one or several individuals and dependon their personal experience, i.e., connotations vary from age toage, from society to society, from individual to individual withinthe same speech community.e.g.: candy - swing - dress - football - money - EnglishIdiomatic = an expression which functions as a single unit andwhose meaning cannot be worked out from its separate parts.She washed her hands of the matter. (means She refused tohave anything more to do with the matter)make up one's mind

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Dialectical:lift (elevator), hire (rent),Register:lambent (lit ... having soft light)scapula (med ...shoulder blade)larceny (law... stealing)quark (tech... the smallest possible piece of material)Specialized:river bed , river mouth (Geography)base (math, architecture, tech, chem, pol, geometry)system (medicine, astronomy, education)wing (bio, politics, hotel, house, air force, aircraft, sport)Compounds: two words used as one unit.16separate: United Stated, Post office, Atlantic Oceanhyphenated: swimming-pool, self-confidence.agglutinated: flashback, manpower, sunflowerConcrete Nouns = refer to something that you can see & touch,& which has a position in time and space. They refer tothings, animals, places, gases, liquids, substances, e.g.:house,car, table, man, Spain, Henry, water, sugar, oxygen, iron.Abstract Noun = stand for general feelings, ideas or concepts.happiness, beauty, health, honesty, whiteness, unity,education, manhood, childhood, difference, weakness.events (actions): act, answer, change, fight, laugh, shout,victory, start, examination.perception: smell, taste, vision, touch,

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process: changes of state that happen to people or things,such as: change, aging, growing, deterioration,weakening, dehydration, recovery,moral quality: honesty, truth, goodness,social quality: helpfulness, friendliness, sociable, loneliness,selfishness,Proper Nouns: Names of specific people, places, countries,lakes, mountains, rivers, universities, months, days, holidays,magazines, festivals such as:Shakespeare, Chicago, Australia, Ontario, Amazon,University of London, January, Sunday, Christmas, Time,Thanksgiving.Collective Nouns = group nounsteam, crowd, people, committee, staff, class,Adjectives referring to attributes:physical attributes: tall, short, slim, round, blonde,psychological: excited, aggressive, depressed, upsetvisual attribute: rough sea, windy,auditory attribute: noisy, loud, soft.17color: red, brown, greenish , dark.referential: thin, fat, bigemotive : sad, excited, aggressive, depressed, angry.evaluative: difficult, careless, interesting, bad, beautiful.Gradable Adjectives:can be modified by an adverb which convey the degree ofintensity of the adjectives:

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very tall; so young, extremely interestingtaller, younger, more interestingNon-gradable Adjectives: Technical adjs are not gradable, e.g:atomic, hydrochloric, enormous, American, annual, mental,physical, final, various, electric, unemployed, particular.Attributive Adjectives:An interesting bookThe tall boyPredicative Adj.:The book is interesting.The boy is tall.Transitive Verbs = take a direct object and sometimes anindirect object, e.g.: write, play, give, show, take.Intransitive Verbs = do not take an object:walk, come, run, sleep, stand, sit,Linking Verbs = expresses condition or status. It takes noobject. e.g.: be, seem, become, appear, feel.Stative Verbs= V of inert perception and cognition.believe, desire, dislike, doubt, feel, forgive, guess, hate,hear, imagine, impress, intend, know, like, love, mean, mind,prefer, perceive, realize, recall, recognize, regard,18remember, satisfy, see, smell, suppose, taste, think, want,wish, understand.Dynamic Verbs: can form the progressive.ask, beg, call, drink, eat, help, learn, listen, look at , play,rain, say, throw, work, write, change, grow, mature, slowdown, widen, ache, feel, hurt, itch, arrive, die, fall, land,

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lose, hit, jump, kick, knock, nod, tap.Movement:walk, run, enter, leave, fly, land, move, go.Physical act:cut, dig, eat, drink, wrap, bend, stand, sit, work.Speech act:say, state, announce, report, declare, request, refuse,Psychological state:annoy, amuse, astonish, calm, concern, disgust, excite,frighten, horrify, humiliate, hurt, impress, grieve, impress,satisfy, offend, relax, scare, satisfy, sadden,Perception Verbs:feel, hear, notice, observe, see, smell, watch.Factive Verbs:believe, admit, agree, answer, declare, deny, expect, hope,insist, know, report, say, see, suggest, suppose, think,understand, ascertain, discover, realize, regret.Semantic function of Advs:manner: actively, calmly, carefully, gladly, quickly, sincerely,late, anyhow, together, still, how.direction: towards, out, inside, up, along, across, by.19time: always, never, often, seldom, sometimes, already,before, immediately, lately, once, presently, shortly, soon,still, today, tomorrow, tonight, when, yet.degree: absolutely, thoroughly, extremely, greatly, deeply,completely, much, entirely.Sentence Adverbs:Adjuncts = part of the clause

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They are waiting outside.I can now understand it.He spoke to me about it briefly.Disjuncts: certainly, obviously, frankly.Fortunately, I remembered in time who he was.Indeed, I won't do it.conjuncts: so, therefore, however, yet, though.We have complained several times about the noise, andyet he does nothing about it.6. Use of Slang:Casual, very informal speech, using expressive but informalwords and expressions. for some people, slang is equivalentto "colloquial speech" but for others, it means "undesirablespeech". Usually, 'colloquial speech' refers to a speechvariety used in informal situations with colleagues, friends orrelatives, and 'slang' is used for a very informal speechvariety which often serves as an 'in-group' language for aparticular group of people such as teenagers, army recruits,pop-groups etc. Most slang is rather unstable as its wordsand expressions can change quite rapidly: Beat it! Scram!Rack off! (for leave)fag (cigarette)fed up (bored with)207. Use of Euphemisms:The use of a word that is thought to be less offensive orpleasant than another word. e.g.:

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indisposed instead of sickto pass away instead of to diesenior citizen instead of old personlaid to rest instead of buriedsanitary engineer instead of janitor8. Use of clichés:A word or expression that has lost its originality oroffensiveness because it has been used too often. Soon theybecome trite and lose their force.e.g.: impacted on; viable, upbeat, be into (I'm into dieting)9. Use of Standard vs non-standard Wordsknowhow (nonstandard)don't (nonstandard)10. Use of rare words:wireless (means of sending messages in sound)11. Use of obsolete & archaic words = words that are nolonger usedverily (bibl, old use ....truly)thine (bibl, old use & poetic ....yours)thou art (bibl, old use ....you are)to thee (bibl, old use .... to you)beget (bibl, old use ....become the father of)behold (lit & old use ... to havee in sight)ort (fragment of food)yestreen (last evening)12. Tautology = wordinessuse of different words to say the same thing:- Commuters going back and forth to work or schoolformed carpools. (wordy)21

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Commuters formed carpools. (concise)- Each writer has a distinctive style, and he or she usesthis in his or her own works. (wordy)Each writer has his own style. (concise)Needless repetition:This interesting instructor knows how to make auninteresting subject interesting.Using unnecessary words:- In the event that the grading system is changed, expectcomplaints on the part of the students.- The reason why we honor Lincoln in these various waysis because he saved the Union.13. High, Middle and Low Styles:High style aims at loftiness and grandeur. It was used morefreely in the past, but nowadays it is considered too ornate andceremonious. It is characterized by its solemnity, its resoundingrhythms and its elaborate sentence structures. It uses unfamiliarwords and is thus difficult for the general reader.Middle style aims at clarity and simplicity. It sounds likeconversation. It relies on familiar wording. It is the style in whichmost of the world's writing gets done. Sometimes it ischaracterized by use of foreign expressions or vogue words (onethat becomes popular that it is used too freely and with too little

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regard for its meaning), use of jargon which specialists use towrite for other specialists more clearly and concisely. However,the writer must keep the jargon to a minimum, replacing it witheveryday English. If he must use a jargon term he should defineit.Low style is plain and ordinary like the wording of casualconversation. It is appropriate for notes to the milkman or baby22sitter, letters to friends, and letters or articles for a campusnewspaper. It sounds like casual talk. The characteristics of lowstyle are: use of colloquial or informal diction, use of slangwords, use of first and second-person pronouns, use ofcontractions.GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS OF STYLEGrammatical Analysis and Description1. Sentence types:- Does the author use statements, questions, commands,exclamations?2. Sentence complexity:- Are sentences simple or complex?- What is the average sentence length?- Ratio of independent to dependent clauses?- Are their any anticipatory structures (subjects precedingverbs, dependent clauses preceding subject of mainclause)?3. Clause types:

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- What type of dependent clauses are used (relativeclauses, adverbial clauses, nominal clauses)- Are reduced or non-finite clauses commonly used?4. Clause structure:- Frequency of objects, complements, adverbials.- Frequency of transitive and intransitive verbs.- Are there any initial adverbials, fronting of object orcomplement?- Use of preparatory it or there?5. Noun phrases:- Are they simple or complex?23- Is premodification by adjective or postmodification byprepositional phrases complex?- Are there any listings (sequences of adjectives),coordination, or apposition.6. Verb phrases:Is there any special uses of the progressive aspect,perfective aspect, modal auxiliaries.7. Other phrase types:Is there any special uses of prepositional phrases, adverbphrases, adjective phrases.8. Word classes:- Which function words like prepositions, conjunctions,pronouns, determiners, auxiliaries, interjections are used?- Are any function words used for particular effect?9. General:- Are any general types of grammatical constructionsused to special effect (comparative or superlative,coordinative or listing, appended or interpolated structures(putting in additional words).

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EXAMPLESParts of speech:nouns: London, Peter, sugar, people, team, tree.verbs: go, come, give, stay, seem, like.be, can, will, shall, may, might, have, do, ought .adjectives: small, beautiful, circular, polite.adverbs: quickly, slowly, definitely.pronouns: I, we, you, he, she, it, they.prepositions: in, on, to, up, into.articles: the (definite), a, an (indefinite).conjunctions: and, but, or, although, yet, however.interjections: Oh! Oh dear! Oops, Hooray! Wow!24Sentence types:statements:I bought a grammar book at the book store.questions:What did I buy?Where did I buy the book?Who bought the book?Did I buy a book?commandsClose the window, please!exclamatory:What an exciting movie!How interesting the trip was!She is such a good friend!Clause Structure:clause = any group of words that has a subject and a predicate.

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There 2 kinds of clauses: independent or main clauses anddependent and subordinate clauses.The officer blew his whistle and the cars stopped.independent independentThe cars stopped when the officer blew his whistle.main subordinateobjects:I read a book. (direct obj)I gave her a present. (indirect obj)Don't chop down that old tree! (clause)I want to feed the dog. (obj of infinitive)I gave the book to Sally. (obj of prep)I heard of the story. (obj of prep)25Complements:The girl is happy.She is a teacher.The cat appears confused.We are pleased that you could come.They elected him president.Initial adverbials = adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts.Sentence complexity:simple = it has one subject and one predicate.I spent my summer holiday in Alaska.John and Fred played football.Mary cooked and ate dinner.John and Mary cooked and ate dinner.compound: contains 2 or more independent clauses. Theindependent clauses are joined by a coordinate conjunction

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or a semicolon to indicate that the independent clauses formone sentence. It must be the equivalent of 2 complete simplesentences:I went to Alaska and Ivisited an Eskimo village.John joined the navey; Harry joined the marines.I went to Alaska, but I could not swim.I came; I saw; I conquered.I know it; you know it; she knows it; but does anybodycare?complex: consists of one independent clause and one ormore dependent clauses. The dependent clause isintroduced by a subordinate conjunction or a relativepronoun.This is the book that I bought yesterday.The boy who won the prize is my younger brother26Australia, a country of great distances and widelyseparated centers of population, has a veryimportant network of internal air lines.Clause types:a. Relative (adjective) clause: functions as an adjective.The man whom we all met last week lost all his money inthe stock market crash.keeping up a house that you really love is no real problem.b. Adverbial clause: functions as an adverb, modifying a verb,adjective, or another adverb.Although he is alone, he's never lonely.I will buy your ticket, unless you want to use it.

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We always stop working when the bell rings.We listened to the radio because we wanted to hear thenews.c. Nominal clause: functions as a noun.We know how he did it.That Fred kept pigeons is well-known.I believe that the boy is honest.What the chairman proposed was not practical.Reduced Clauses:- The bus we were waiting for never arrived.- The bus (which) we were waiting for never arrived.- Do you remember the day we first met.- Do you remember the day (when) we first met.- When angry, she blushed.When (she is) angry, she blushed.- Although horribly embarrassed, he somehow gotthrough the speech.27Although (she was) horribly embarrassed, hesomehow got through the speech.Sentence constituents:noun phrase (NP),verb phrase (VP), prepositional phrase (PP).The Hausas wear flowing white garments.Iron is the most important industrial metal.Many large cities depend on lakes for their water supply.In the less dense forest the people combine primitiveagriculture with their hunting activities.Most of the capital cities of Europe have become the centersof networks that connect them with other key towns.

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Simple & complex NPJohn bought the house.An old man bought the houseThe boy on the bicycle is my brother.The thin, tall , blonde boy is my brother.an old man, a woman and their son bought the house.That the French revolted in 1789 was news to Eric.We want everything you can possibly get.The belief that volcanoes have their origin in a hot liquidinterior of the earth is now considered to be wrong.Anticipatory structures:The form it used to displace the real or original subject of asentence (subjects preceding verbs, dependent clausespreceding subject of main clause)?Running a railroad can be troublesome.it can be troublesome running a railroad.Having a day off from work is nice.It is nice having a day off from work.Mary saved the baby's life.28It was Mary who saved the baby's life.Preparatory it or there = (used as a dummy or filler subject)There is nothing left for us to do.There were twenty of them all together.It looks as if it will rain today.It is going to rain.AppositionThe guests angry at their hosts' rude behavior, left withoutsaying good-bye.Too ill to get out of bed, he asked his wife to call a doctor.

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The man, aware that he made a mistake, tried to correct it.Ellipsis:We do not know whether to go (or not).We desire the work (to be) done immediately.I bought some books and a computer.Although (she was) in a hurry, she stopped to help theold lady.Most people don't work hard but a person who doesgets ahead.Ellipsis exercise:Fronting of object = thematic frontingHis name is Joe.Joe, his name is.I like coffeeCoffee, I like itI was born in London and I'll die in London.In London I was born and in London I'll die.Ten further items of importance may be added to this list.To this list may be added ten further items of importance29Sam can solve most of these problems in a second.Most of these problems Sam can solve in a second.Focus and theme:He did walk, I tell you. (emph. aux)He really did sell his house. (emph. aux)Do please sit down. (emph. aux)I myself will see that it is done on time. (emph. appos.)You yourself are responsible. (emph. appos.)What a time we've had today! (exclamation)a certain winner (intensifier)a great mistake (intensifier)

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She is so pretty. (intensifier)She is highly intelligent. (intensifier)Red was my face as I explained the embarrassing situation.(extraposition)To keep good time is what I expect from my clocks.It is the girl that I was complaining about.It was because he was ill that we decided to return.What you need most is a good rest.Who was it who interviewed you?A good rest is what you need most.It is a good rest what you need most.intensifiers: actually, definitely, indeed, certainly, clearly,obviously, really, surely, honestly.certain, complete, extreme, entire, great.EmphasisSome ideas vary in importance, expression of them shouldvary in emphasis. Ideas may be emphasized through thefollowing:A. By placing important words at the beginning or at the end ofthe sentence.30- Total deafness however is, in many ways, worse thantotal blindness.- An underground blast rocked the whole area.The colon and the dash often precede an emphatic ending.- We have developed something new in politics: theprofessional amateur.- Most commercial television stations talk about helping

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their communities, but it is in the main just like that - talk.Since the semicolon, sometimes called a weak period, is astrong punctuation mark when used between main clauses,words placed before and after a semicolon have animportant position.A penny saved used to be a penny earned; now, after fiveyears, it is only half a penny.B. By using loose sentences instead of periodic ones.In loose sentences, the main idea comes first; less importantideas or details follow. In a periodic sentence, the main ideacomes last, just before the period.- Such sticky labels do not accurately describe anygeneration - for example, labels like lost, beat, now,silent, unlucky, or found. Loose- Such sticky labels as lost, beat, now, silent, unlucky,or found do not accurately describe any generation .periodicC. By arranging ideas in the order of climax (order ofimportance with the strongest idea last)- Summing up for the defense of the small diesel, one cansay that it offers excellent fuel consumption, it is longlasting,it has no ignition system to cause trouble, and itslevel of pollution is low.31Anticlimax - an unexpected shift from the dignified to thetrivial or from the serious to the comic - is sometimes used

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for special effect.- But I still fear it will all end badly, this ProtectiveSyndrome. I see a future in which the government hasstripped us of all worldly goods worth having; clotheshangers, toothpaste, Alka-Seltzer, toasters, pencilsharpeners, and maybe even thumb tacks.D. By using active voice instead of passive voice.- Little attention is being paid to cheap, nutritious foods bythe average shopper- The average shopper is paying little attention to cheap,nutritious foods.E. By repeating important words:It is impossible to be simultaneously blasted by a revolution inenergy, a revolution in technology, a revolution in family life, arevolution in sexual roles, and a worldwide revolution inrecommendations without also facing -sooner or later- apotentially explosive political revolution.It is impossible to be simultaneously blasted by a revolutionin energy, in technology, in family life, in sexual roles, and inworld recommendations without also facing -sooner or later- apotentially explosive political insurrection.F. By putting a word or phrase out of its usual order.Only recently has this human deficiency been turned intolaw.Basic to all achievement was freedom.G. By using balanced sentence structure.

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A sentence is balanced when grammatically equal structuresare used to express contrasted or similar ideas. Itemphasizes the contrast or similarity between parts of equallength and movement.32- To be French is to be like no one else; to be Americanis to be like everyone else.- Love is positive; tolerance negative. Love involvespassion; tolerance is humdrum and dull.H. By abruptly changing sentence length.In the last two decades there has occurred a series ofchanges in American life, the extent, durability, andsignificance of which no one has yet measured. No one can.SuccessWe can learn by doing - by doing anything. Even if we fail -repeatedly- there's something to be learned from the failures. Ofcourse, one of the lessons we can learn is, "I want to learn somenew ways of doing things so I don't have to fail so much".Perhaps you already are a successful doer and, like allsuccessful doers, you know there is always more to learn aboutsuccessfully doing. You will notice, however, that most tools canbe used for either inner or outer learning. The same commitment

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that allows you to make a million dollars can be used forachieving happiness. The same discipline that allows you tofocus on your self-worth can also be used to master scuba diving.The inner mirrors the outer. The outer mirrors the inner.HealthHealth is more than just the lack of illness - health isaliveness, energy, joy. By always focusing on eliminating illness,few of us learn how to enhance health - or even that enhancinghealth is possible. It is. You don't have to be sick to get better.Health is not just for the body. Health includes the mind, theemotions, the whole person. Health is the amount of vibrant,peaceful, loving energy flowing through your being. The moreenergy, the greater the health.Let that energy flow in you, through you.health is not heavy. Health is light work.Wealth33Unlike money, wealth is not just what you have. Wealth is whatyou can do without. who is wealthier, the person who is addictedto something and has plenty of money to buy it, or the person

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who doesn’t desire the addictive substance at all? Wealthypeople carry their riches within. The less they need of thisphysical world, the wealthier they are. They may or may not havelarge sums of money. It matters not. Whatever they have is fine.Wealth is health, happiness, loving, caring, sharing, learning,knowing what we want, opportunity, enjoying, and balance.Wealth is enjoying one's own company.Wealth is being able to love oneself fully.Sentence Variety:Too many sentences of the same size and structure can leadto boring prose, even when the message is far from boring. Thepower of style comes from its emphatic variations. Good style ischaracterized by using a variety of sentence structures, sentencetypes, sentence length, sentence beginnings, by avoiding loosesentences,a. Varying sentence length = avoiding choppy sentences (aseries of short sentences):Douglas wrote a quick note. It was to Nora. She is his formeremployer. (choppy)Douglas wrote a quick note to Nora, his former employer.

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(better)Two days passed. Then helicopters headed for themountain top. The blizzard had stranded several climbers.(choppy)After two days, helicopters headed for the mountain top,because the blizzard had stranded several climbers.(better)b. Varying the beginning of the sentences:c. avoiding loose stringy sentences:d. varying subject-verb sequences:e. using questions, commands and exclamatory sentencesinstead of statements.34ASPECTS OF STYLE: FIGURES OF SPEECHA figure of speech (figure of speech or imagery) is a word orwords in an imaginative rather than literal sense. The two chieffigures of speech are the simile and metaphor. A simile is anexplicit comparison between two things of a different kind orquality, usually introduced by like or as. A metaphor is an impliedcomparison of dissimilar things. In a metaphor, words ofcomparison, such as like or as, are not used. Single words areoften used metaphorically. Similes and metaphors are especiallyvaluable when they are concrete and tend to point up essential

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relationships that cannot otherwise be communicated.Sometimes writers extend a metaphor beyond a sentence.The first thing that people remember about failing atmath is that it felt like sudden death. (a simile)The Bowie knife is as American as a half-ton pickup truck.(a simile)Successful living is a journey toward simplicity and atriumph over confusion. (a metaphor)The wolf pups make a frothy ribbon of sound like fatbubbling. (a metaphor & a simile)A man's feet must be planted in his country, but hiseyes should survey the world. (a single word metaphor)Some women have managed to shape up and ship out intothe mainstream of life, handling the currents and the rapidsand the quiet pools with gracious, confident ease. Others aretrapped in one eddy after another, going nowhere at all, hungup in swirling pockets of confusion.Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration.Personification is the attribution to the non-human (objects,animals, ideas) of characteristics possessed only by humans.35I, for one, don't expect till I die to be so good a man as Iam at this minute, for just now I'm fifty thousand feethigh-a tower with all the trumpets. (hyperbole)Time talks. It speaks more plainly than words... It can

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shout the truth where words lie. ( personification)Clichés:A word or expression that has lost its originality oreffectiveness because it has been used too often. e.g.:It' s a crying shame.I'm here to tell you...In this day and age...from the frying pan into the fireto the bitter endget it all togetherclean as a hound's toothASPECTS OF STYLE: COHESION AND COHERENCECOHESION:- relationship between meanings.- ties between sentences.- it is independent of sentence or grammatical boundaries.- it is achieved through relationships in which the interpretationof one idea in the text depends on successful interpretationof another.cohesive ties: links that establish cohesion.Types of Cohesion:1. Cohesion by conjunction:it supplies the logical connection between parts of the text.It marks the way one sentence follows the other and how thetext as a whole is moving forward.2. Lexical cohesion:36an individual word that refers back to another word in the

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development of the text.Lexical set: words of similar meaning that form a stitch workthrough the text and can be set out as a set.general commanding operations, Indianskilling ,war, Indians, negotiate, General Cook,command, escort, ammunition train, command, escort,dangerous, Camp Bowie3. Reference = anaphoraThe way in which speakers refer back to another part of thetext. It is achieved through pronouns & demonstratives.4. Ellipsis: part of the utterance is left unsaid.EXAMPLELieutenant Blueberry Adventure(1) BLUEBERRY: So I have to see the General commandingoperations against the Indians and tell him the truthabout the Stanton Ranch, sir...(2) COLONEL: Hm... I reckon you're over optimistic,Blueberry. We're too far in to stop the killing now!(3) BLUEBERRY: We must try, sir.(4) COLONEL: There's a lot of people in favor of this war ...and the Indians themselves won't negotiate with anyone.(5) BLUEBERRY: Let me try.(6) COLONEL: Obstinate, eh? Well. General Cook is incommand. He's at Camp Bowie.(7) BLUEBERRY: And you're in luck! I have to provide anescort for an ammunition train going there from Dallas.(8) COLONEL: I'm short of officers ... so I'll give you

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command of the escort. You take charge of the convoyfrom Pecos onward.(9) BLUEBERRY: Thanks, sir!(10) COLONEL: Don't thank me ... this'll be no picnic! It's along dangerous way from Pecos to Camp Bowie , and I37can't give you many men. You leave for Pecos in twodays' time. May be you don't know the area, but you'llhave an Apache guide . Now, get some rest.(11) BLUEBERRY: Thanks again, sir...COHERENCE:- Factors which help us see the text as a whole.- It relates to general knowledge as to what goes with what,e.g.: knowledge of historical events in which the events aretaking place, the relationship between Indians and whites,how armies worked then, what a "wagon train" is, what"operations" stand for.- cohesion is a text related phenomenon, coherence is a textand a reader related phenomenon.- cohesion is one component of coherence.- to be coherent, a text should have organization.- Parallel structure is an aid to coherence.- Parallel sentence elements appear in lists, series, andcompound structures. Connectives like and, or, but, yet linkand relate balanced sentence elements.Parallel words and phrases:- People began to feel bad, faceless and insignificant.

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- She had no time to be human, no time to be happy.- The two most powerful words in the world are not gunsand money, but wheat and oil.- The reward rests not in the task but in the pay.- We judge our friends both by their words and by theiractions.- It's easier to love humanity as a whole than to loveone's neighbor.- It is the things that we think we know- because they are so elementary or because theysurround us that often present the greatest difficulties.

Parallel clauses:- What to say and what to do seem out of joint.- Top soil, once blown away, can never be returned;virgin prairie, once ploughed, can never be reclaimed.Parallel sentences:The danger of the past was that men became slaves.The danger of the future is that men may become robots.STYLISTIC FEATURES OF ADVERTISEMENTS- The aim of advertisements is to persuade.- The overall effect of press advertisements depends as muchon the design layout, including graphics, different printingfonts, as on the text.- The ad will be fitted with the practical texts which identifya subject and with which the viewer identified as a matter ofeveryday life.

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- The ad is not realistic. The context is imaginary. The voice ofthe narrator, the faces and the gestures, the choice of thenames for the characters are all caricatures.- The narrator speaks in the third person, i.e., from the positionof an observer.- TV. Commercials have greatly increased the use of thespoken word in advertising.- Minor actors in a commercial overact in order to maketheir point in the very short space of time. The chief resultsof this overacting are that changes in intonation are toosudden and facial expressions are too predictable.There is always a "feed" who has the task of expressingastonishment at the low price of the product or whoregisters instant conviction of being assured of its virtues.Speakers are liable to extol their product with emotiondripping from every syllable. Affectation in pronunciationis very common.- The names of the characters are partial descriptions oftheir work and personalities.39- Practical setting of the viewer: the viewer's house, class,party, kitchen.- Advertisements use inflated language to makecommonplace products seem glamorous.rich golden-brown sea-food with superfine Frenchfried potatoes as a side dish.a dwelling house of character.- Advertisements seek to impress the reader by the use oflong words whose meaning he is not likely understood.

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They give an air of glamour by using long words to describeproperties of the product that are either commonplace ordisadvantageous.A farmer bought a field on being assured that "it wasrichly megalithic is no doubt untrue".- We should distinguish between what is actually said andwhat is merely suggested.- Words are often misused in advertisements. But the motivefor their misuse is not necessarily an attempt to deceive.More often a word that has become a glamour-word isadopted without any clear idea of its meaning:An advertisement described a car polish by saying:"comes in genuine simulated alligator grain case forcompact storage".- Advertisers choose a name that is easy to pronounce inmany languages like: nylon, Kodak, Canon.- Reduction in price for quantities is a generally acceptedcommercial principle which the advertiser uses topersuade customers to buy larger packets of the goodsoffered."buy one, get one free! buy one get one 50% off."large economy size"40- The words of an advertisement need to be chosen withcare if a ludicrous effect is to be avoided.no dissatisfied customer is ever allowed to leavethese premises.- Love of euphemism is an advertisement feature.The fuller figure is no longer a problem.

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- There is an appeal to the English love of animals inadvertisements (pets seeking new homes):Dear little Jack Russell dog, 3.5, having lost devotedlady owner, seeks another.- Use of vogue words. One of the vogue words inadvertisements for secretaries seems is "top":top secretary / top typist / top shorthandtop flight secretary / top people- The text as a whole is one clause complex or one longwritten sentence. Grammar and cohesion arecoextensive.- Free structures are composed in such a way as to avoidthis kind of complexity. They are economically worded.The ad as a whole is limited in length. Economy isachieved through ellipsis, which allows the writer to avoidrepetition. Ellipsis is a form of cohesion.- The text is divided into written sentences marked withcapitals and full stops, but some sentences do notcontain a full complement of elements which make up a"complete sentence". They can be corrected by changing thepunctuation or by adding some deleted words. There are severalparagraphs marked by indentation, but some of them contain onlytwo or three words. The stylistic effect of this deviant method ofpunctuating and paragraphing is to convey the impression of41

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spoken rather than written language, because the sentences infact correspond to the tone units of a spoken reading of the text.- You will notice parallelism in the text.- The vocabulary belongs to the ordinary informal talk ofcar enthusiasts.One thing Europe seems to agree about From Strasbourg toBrussels, London to Paris, Madrid to Rome, it was all smiles,hand-shakes, pleasantries all round.The reason for this communal chumminess?Our new golf.Fifty-nine top motoring writers from eighteen Europeancountries had just voted it Car of the Year. a welcome win, forsure. though to be frank, not entirely unexpected.It just goes to show that everything comes to he whoimproves. and improves.And anticipates.Already, our new Golf is designed to meet ever-toughersafety standards set for 1994.Already, over 80% of its parts are re-cyclable.all good stuff. But what about performance? any torquier? Maisoui.The drag factor. Any lower? Naturlich.The handling. Any sharper? Certo.And the fuel consumption. Still generous? What, moregenerous? Claro que si.

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As many a European knows, such things are commoncurrency with every new Volkswagon.- punctuation. - what is actually said- paragraphing. - what is suggested- capitalization - misused words- sentence length. - adjectives used- sentence type. - intensifiers- clauses - vogue words- parallelism. - emphasis.- imagery - ellipsis- euphemism - word length42STYLISTIC FEATURES OF NEWSPAPER ENGLISH- The chief characteristic of newspaper English is that it is bothwritten and read by people who are in a hurry.- The wording of a headline is affected by: the ideas to beexpressed, the technology of printing and the kind of readerassociated with a particular reader.- There are 3 criteria for good headline writing: simplicity,informality and impact. It should be a clear signal, swiftlyreadable, economical in reading in time and space.- Newspaper headlines have a familiar and conventionallinguistic structure like telegrams in their brevity.- All good headlines follow certain rules in what they say andhow they say it.- Sometimes there is a combination of main headline andoverline (strapline):Police at Longbridge as anger mounts over 500 layoffs

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Trouble flares as BL workers demonstrate- Headlines use nouns not verbs for actions.Edwardes tells BL unions that strike would bring closure- Two linguistic conventions that have grown up inheadlines are: the use of the infinitive in place of thefuture and the use of the comma when there is no roomfor the conjunction "and":film star to wed .Netanyahu, Arafat to meet in Washington.- Use of surname only is usual in headlines:43- Newspaper headlines use block language i.e., alanguage of their own:bid = attempt trek = journeyban = to forbid rap = to rebukeprobe = investigation pact = treatyTory = Conservative- Headlines can be ambiguous, having two possiblemeanings. A word can have more than one meaning andcan function as more than one part of speech.Students Plan Grants Cuts Protest March.$1,900,000 paid to attack victims.Blind man expected to leave goal.- Initials are used in headlines to describe companies:U.M.B. = United Builders Merchants.M.E.P.C. = Metropolitan Estate and Property Co.- Use of passive clauses with no agent:Imports influx feared as Post Office profits are creamed off- Use of words with emotive associations (connotationsof important lexical items):mounting anger at silence.

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tight-lippeda bespectacled figure (if a man on trial wearsspectacles- Much of the subject matter of newspapers is repetitivematerial in which the journalist takes little interest. He hasdescribed similar events a hundred times before, and hetherefore uses the phrases he has used a hundred times.- Journalists often have to be vague because they are notfree to specify the exact source of information or becausethey have very little real news with which to fill up thespace.44a spokesman says .....well-informed sources in Paris ...- Journalists are fond of irrelevant detail, such as the ages ofminor participants in an incident or the tonnage of largesteamships.said 50-year old ex-army captain- The most excessive features of journalese are: excessiveuse of clichés, fondness for short paragraphs, inversion of normalword-order, fondness of irrelevant detail, sometimesexpressed by the piling-up of adjectives and adjectivalphrases, and occasional bad grammar.- The article is usually deleted in openings:Newsagent John Smith ...- Certain parts of the newspaper such as the Sports pageuse a special language:bulls bears stags

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- The idiomatic use of words and phrases:the stock went firmly ex-growth the same year.- There is a certain monotony about the events described insport journalism which the journalist is tempted to disguiseby finding new synonyms for such words:football = the leathercricket-bat = the willowgoal-posts = uprights45STYLISTIC FEATURES OF TECHNICAL TEXTS- Some types of technical texts are: scientific papers,reports, instruction sheets, advertisement, patents.- Technical language is used to describe objects, qualitiesof materials, appearance, apparatus, phenomena,processes, experiment; to classify; to give instructions; togive cause and reason; to report actions, observationsand results; to state conclusions.- Scientific terms have associations with other scientificroots, and the use of Greek and Latin roots has theadvantage that they are internationally understood.- Scientific terms are often long. A long scientific word ismade up of familiar elements which compress into oneword facts that might have been expressed in severalsentences:fibrosis leukemia electrocardiogram tonsillitis- Names of sciences tend to end in -ology, -ics:biology, technology, pediatrics, aeronautics , genetics- The main distinguishing feature of technical language isits vocabulary. The vocabulary is characterized by use of:

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nominal phrases, compounds, derivatives, new application ofwords: (bed, mouth, force, word, current).- Technical texts are characterized by a rigorously defined useof words and a high frequency of passive forms with no byphraseto specify the actor.- Technical language tends to be more logical and lucid thaneveryday language. The style is formal and impersonal.Technical prose is written in terse sentences.46TECHNICAL TEXTS1. Time order: ProcessThe first man to produce a practical steam engine asThomas Savery, an English engineer (1650-1715), who obtaineda patent in 1698 for a machine designed to drain water frommines. The machine contained no moving parts except handoperatedsteam valves and automatic check valves, and inprinciple it worked as follows: Steam was generated in aspherical boiler and then admitted to a separated vessel where itexpelled much of the air. The steam valve was then closed andcold water allowed to flow over the vessel, causing the steam to

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condense and thus creating a partial vacuum. This vacuumpulled water from the area to be drained into the vessel. Then bya further operation of the valves, steam was readmitted to thevessel to force water through a vertical pipe to the dischargeelevation.2. Time Order: ProcessCarriage and Assembly Removal:1. Remove the snap rings from the chain anchors and pull thechain anchors out of the carriage.2. Secure the carriage with an overhead crane. Remove thecarriage by pulling it out the bottom of the mast channels.3. Remove the two middle and two lower assemblies.4. Remove the two upper roller assemblies by removing thecap-screws that connect the retaining plats to the stubshafts. pull the roller assemblies off the stub shafts.3. Time Order: ChronologySince the Middle ages the output and consumption of pit coalhad been greater in English than in any other country of Europe.Already during the 13th century, domestic coal consumption inLondon is said to have been so great that restrictive by-laws

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became necessary to check the increasing smoke nuisance.During the 17th century, English coal was already shipped to the47continent in considerable quantities. The actual 'coal age',however, set in during the second half of the 18th century when itbecame possible to use steam power for the drainage ofcollieries, thus permitting the working of deeper galleries underconditions of greater safety.4. Space order:The test section was constructed of a pure copper cylinder 2ft 6 in long, 6 in id and 6.25 in od. Both ends of the cylinder wereclosed with removable Pyrex-glass plates 1/4 in. thick. A fluid portwas located at each end of the cylinder.5. Comparison contrastMany types of mathematical problems are similar in one wayor another as are their methods of solution. However, there arealso distinct differences in both types of problems and theirmethods of solution. For example, many interesting problems inmaxima and minima can be solved by elementary methods: that

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is, by the methods of algebra and plane geometry. But there aremany more maxima and minima problems that require thetechniques of differential calculus for their solutions. Finally,there are many other problems of a more complicated nature inwhich quantities are to be maximized or minimized that cannot behandled by the methods of the differential calculus: These requiretreatment by methods of the calculus of variation.6. AnalogySound waves are created by the compression of themolecules of air, this compression generated by the origin of thesound. The resulting wave motion is analogous to that created inwater when a rock is thrown in a pond. By studying the propertiesexhibited by water waves, we can become familiar with theproperties of all wave motion. First, we note that the wavesproduced on the water by a rock striking it move away at aconstant speed: This speed is called the velocity of propagation.Second, we note that the waves have crests and troughs. Thedistance between successive crests or troughs is called wave48

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length. Third, as the waves move past a given point, they causeup and down motion of the water at this point. This motion is thefrequency of the wave.7. Classification:All crystalline solids can be classified as members of one offourteen crystal systems. The number of ways in which atomicarrangements can be repeated to form a solid is limited tofourteen by the geometries of space division. Any one of thesearrangements, when repeated in space, forms the latticestructure characteristic of a crystalline material. These fourteensystems are ... For example, cadmium sulphide has a latticeformed of hexagonal units...We can classify the planets of our solar system by one ormore of the following characteristics: average distance from thesun, Earth = 1; solar radiation received, Earth = 1; orbital period;eccentricity; equatorial diameter in miles; mass, Earth = 1' gravity,Earth = 1; escape velocity in mi/sec.; rotation period; inclination indegrees; and albedo.8. Definitions

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An arachnid is an invertebrate animal having eight legs extendingat equal intervals from a central body.An anemometer is a meteorological instrument that registers thespeed of the wind on a dial or gage.An arachnid has eight legs extending at equal intervals from acentral body.An anemometer is used to measure the speed of the wind.Agronomy is a science which seeks improved methods of soilmanagement and crop production. By crop production we meannew techniques that will increase the yield of field crops. By49improved soil management we men the use of fertilizers whichcontain the necessary nutrients needed for the crops.9. Description of properties:When substances are mixed without a chemical reaction,they do not change their properties. Thus a mixture of sand andsalt is yellowish-white in color. It tastes both salty and gritty. If weput the mixture in water, the salt will dissolve, because it issoluble. But the sand will not dissolve.10. Cause-effect:Heat causes substance to expand. This is because heat

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causes the atoms and molecules in the substance to move morequickly. As a consequence, they take up more space than liquids,and liquids much more than solids. When a substance is cooled,the molecules slow down and as a result the substance contract.11. Function:The endocrine system consists of various glands such as thethyroid and adrenal glands. The function of these glands is tosecrete chemicals, known as hormones, into the blood. Thesehormones control various processes in the body, such as growth,and digestion. The nervous system controls the other systemsand enables human beings to think.12. Structure:Matter consists of organic substances and inorganicsubstances. Organic substances include coal and oil. Inorganicsubstances include iron and sulfur. Organic substances containcarbon. Inorganic substances do not contain carbon.13. Measurement:In Calcutta in January the temperature ranges from 27 C to

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13C; that is, the maximum temperature is 27C and the minimumtemperature is 13 C. These are the two extremes of temperature.50STYLISTIC FEATURES OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS- Some kinds of legal documents are: insurance policies,wills, drawing up of statutes, contracting of agreementsbetween individuals, leases, petitions, investigations...etc.- Lawyers have been doing the same thing for a long time,and for each species of transaction there has developed alinguistic formula (established formula). They rely on formswhich were established in the past.- Pronoun reference is extremely scarce.- Legal English contains complete major sentences. Most ofthem are statements, with no questions and only occasionalcommand. Statements are of a characteristic type which isreflected in equally characteristic sentence structure.- Legal sentences are long and complex. They useconditional clauses.- Legal sentences have an underlying logical structure whichsays: 'if X, then Z shall be Y'. Every action or requirement, from alegal point of view, is hedged around with, and even dependsupon, a set of conditions which must be satisfied before anythingat all can happen.

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- Adverbials tend to cluster at the beginning of the sentence.They are used as a means of clarifying meaning andavoiding ambiguity. Adverbial elements are oftencoordinated:on the expiration ... or on the previous deathsubject to any authorized endorsement ... and to theproduction...on credit or without such payment- Adverbials are put in positions which seem unusual bynormal standards:a proposal to effect with the Society an assurance..- Legal English is highly nominal (it uses long complicatednominal groups).51- Adjectives like splendid, wise, disgusting, and happy aremuch less frequent and intensifying adverbs like veryand rather are completely absent.- The use of the modal auxiliary shall + be + past participle.Shall is not used as a marker of future tense; it is used toexpress what is to be the obligatory consequence of alegal decision.- Verbs are selected from a small number of lexical sets:deem, accept, require, agree, issue, state, specify,constitute, perform, observe, exercise.- Legal English is studded with archaic words and phrasesof a kind that could be used by no one but lawyers:witnesseth- The prefixing and suffixing of prepositions is a commonfeature of legal English:

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hereby hereof hereunder hereinafter aforesaid- A legal characteristic is the coordination of a number ofsynonyms or near-synonyms:altered & modified transformed & alteredable and willing made an signedterms and conditions- A good deal of legal language is of French and Latin origin:Law French: puisine judge puis ne estoppel feesimple laches quashLaw Latin: alias amicus curiae nolle peosequires judicataTheir French origin has affected the word-order of anumber of legal phrases:malice prepense malice aforethoughtcourt martial heir apparentSecretary General- The most obvious feature of legal documents is theirprolixity. They are prolix because its author is trying tosecure complete coverage of a given area of meaning.52EXAMPLEWhereas a proposal to effect with the Society an assurance onthe Life Insured named in the Schedule hereto has been dulymade and signed as a basis of such assurance and a declarationhas been made agreeing that this policy shall be subject to the

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Society's Registered Rules (which shall be deemed to form partof this policy) to the Table of Insurance printed hereon and to theterms and conditions of the said Table and that the date ofentrance stated hereon shall be deemed to be the date of thiscontract AND such proposal has been accepted by the society onthe conditions as set forth in the proposal.NOW this policy issued by the Society on payment of the firstpremium stated in the Schedule hereto subject to the RegisteredRules of the Society.WITNESSETH that if the Life Insured shall pay or cause to bepaid to the Society or to the duly authorized agent or Collectorthereof every subsequent premium at the due date thereof thefunds of the Society shall on the expiration of the term of yearsspecified in the Schedule hereto....IF UPON THE DEATH OF THE LIFE INSURED there shall be noduly constituted personal representative or nominee or assigneeof the Life Insured able and willing to give valid receipt for the

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sum payable such sum may in the discretion of the Committee ofManagement be paid to one or more of the next-of-kin of the lifeinsured whose receipt shall effectually discharge the Society fromall liability under this policy.IN WITNESS WHEREOF we the Secretary and two of theCommittee of Management of the Society have hereuntoattached or signatures.53STYLISTIC FEATURES OF COMMERCIAL TEXTS- Business letters may be fully-blocked (all lines begin atthe same point) or semi-blocked (paragraphs areindented).- Parts of a business letter are : the letterhead, thereference (the sender of the letter), the date, the name andaddress of the addressee, the attention line (when allcorrespondences must be addressed to the firm and notindividuals), the salutation or greeting (dear..), the subjectheading (indicated what the letter is about, the body (it ismade of several paragraphs, the complimentary close(yours faithfully), the name of the company sending theletter, the signatory, the designation or the position held bythe signatory.- Use of many conventional phrases:your esteemed favor = a letteryour esteemed favor to hand and contents noted =he has not only received the letter but also read itscontents and wishes to make it clear that he is not

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only courteous but also brisk and efficient.best attention at all times = used to conclude a letterassuring his correspondence.enclosed please find = I encloseult. = the last monthinstant = the current monthprox. = the next monthreplace "you" by "your goodself"- some words and phrases that were once in general usehave survived as features of commercial English afterbecoming obsolete elsewhere:54- Some words serve a useful purpose in that they aretechnical terms to describe commercial practices, but theyare liable to be misused:Pro forma = done for form's sake.= used with courteous difference in commercialEnglish to describe an invoice which thesender expects to be paid before the goodsare sent.EXAMPLESDear SirMessrs. Willing and Co., of Market Place, Norwich, havegiven your bank as reference and we should consider it greatfavor, if you would kindly state what you know about the standingand financial position of this firm, especially in regard to theamount of credit which might safely be extended to them.thanking you in anticipation.

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we are,Yours FaithfullyDear SirsFurther to my telephone conversation with Mr Simpson thismorning I enclose the copy of Invoice NO 4635 sent to me forchecking and the Credit Note received from Crossley Ltd.I confirm that the original delivery was returned to Crossley Ltdand that replacements for the damaged goods were listed onInvoice No 47869.Yours FaithfullyRobert TibbittsBuying OfficerENCS55STYLISTIC FEATURES OF LITERARY TEXTS- One defining feature of literature is its special use oflanguage. I foregrounded, or made strange. Its style isdifferent from that of other everyday uses. It deviatesfrom ordinary language.- Use of figurative language.- words have a connotative meaning.- A number of clichés tend to occur:lofty flights of imaginationheights of majestyorganic unity- Use of vague adjectives of approval:fascinating profound exciting stimulating lively

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impressive