Style

Ways with words

Style IS Substance

Many regard style as mere verbal “ornamentation” or “decoration”

Arguments come in language and cannot be separated from it

What we say and how we say it aren’t quite so different

Content and style work together the “stuff” of the argument is in style paraphrasing is translation—something is

always lost in the process

“Neutral” Language

Separating content from form means positing a “neutral,” purely descriptive language

Such language is very difficult, when not impossible, to find

Words “belong” to different spheres of activity, and, so, to different value systemsExample:

“pro-choice” or “pro-life”“freedom-fighter” or “terrorist”

Definitions Definitions, by definition, seek to assign limits to

what words signify—to make words finite

A “hut” may refer to a very small dwelling, but it may not refer to a very large dwelling with multiple storeys, a backyard pool and lavish accommodations

Numerous definition types exist—all have different argumentative purposes

We consider here lexical, popular, stipulative and persuasive Lexical—dictionary definition Popular—what “most people” believe the word

to mean Stipulative definitions widen or narrow the

semantic range (i.e., the meaning) of a word in a given argument

Persuasive Definition Persuasive definitions, or “dissociative

definitions,” seek to dissociate two concepts once held together in order to offer the “true” (or what is being argued as the more relevant) meaning of a word

Example:

Lyndon Johnson separated legal from practical equality when he spoke in favor of the Civil Rights Bill in 1965, during a commencement address at Howard University:

“This is the next and the more profound stage of the battle for civil rights. We seek not just freedom but opportunity. We seek not just legal equity but human ability, not just equality as a right and a theory but equality as a fact and equality as a result”

Vagueness Any impreciseness in language “Suitcase” terms

terms encompassing many different meanings Literature Philosophy

“ultimate terms” The heap (sorites) The slippery slope Passive voice

It was sent … (so who sent it?) Things were said … (who said them?)

May be useful for making statements designed to win general agreement

Precision

The opposite of vagueness Establishes definite meanings All parts of speech may help

N.—is “thing” really as precise as you can get? V.—did he “walk” or “saunter”? Adj.—do you mean “old” or “obsolete”? Adv.—do you mean “usually” or “typically”? (one means “customarily,” whereas the

other means “characteristically”) Prep.—when you say it’s “by her,” do you mean located near her or that she created it? Conj.—can you do with simply “and,” “or,” or would both be appropriate? Pron.—when you say “they,” to whom are you referring? Interj.—there is a difference between “eh,” “huh,” and “hmm”!

How exact do you really wish to be?

Ultimate Terms

God terms carry blessings, demand sacrifice and obedience. E.g., progress value

Devil terms are reviled and evoke disgust. E.g., fascist pedophile

Charismatic Terms are not like God and Devil terms, which are associated with observable things. These terms are more intangible. E.g. freedom contribution

Source: Weaver, The Ethics of Rhetoric and http://www.changingminds.org/explanations/theories/ultimate_terms.htm

Clichés

George Orwell tackles the problem of hackneyed language in his now famous “Politics and the English Language” (1946)

Clichés tend to rob language of its force Clichés can, however, be effective

Commonplaces often invoke clichés Maxims Proverbs Sacred pronouncements

Should be used sparingly

Cohesion

Are the sentences connected? How are those connections maintained?

high cohesionFranklin’s idea of time is money is confirmed in the film; however, the idea comes off much differently than it would have had Franklin written it.

medium cohesionFranklin’s idea of time is money is confirmed in the film. The idea comes off much differently than it would have had Franklin written it.

low cohesionFranklin’s idea of time is money is confirmed in the film. The idea comes off much differently.

“Marked” Themes Themes (also called “topics”) are what

sentences are talking about Rhemes (also called “comments”) are what

the sentences are saying about the topics Example:

The student wrote the paper

Theme comment

The paper was written by the student

When the order of the Theme and Rheme is atypical—as in the second example—the Theme is considered “marked”