Student’s Name:€¦ · Web viewAn earned value report. The upper and lower control limits are...
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` Student’s name: ___________________ Diploma in Project Management Module Four: Project Development 1
Transcript of Student’s Name:€¦ · Web viewAn earned value report. The upper and lower control limits are...
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Student’s name: ___________________
Diploma in Project Management
Module Four: Project Development
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Deliberately Blank
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Outcomes DPM Module FourThe final assignment is a Project Report that shows evidence of the following learning outcomes:
4.1 Manage a project to closedown, people, materials and ongoing support
4.2 Recognise and put right defects and attain client signoff
4.3 Assess stakeholder satisfaction
4.4 Assess project performance
4.5 Evaluate project processes
4.6 Evaluate personal, team, individual, project collective team performance
4.7 Identify and record lessons learned
4.8 Assess to the extent the business benefits have been achieved
4. Prepare a project report
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DPM Module Four Programme
DAY ONE DAY TWO
9.00am. Project Close-Down Activities, Project Benefits Realisation and Change Management.
9.00am. Talk by Stephen Carruthers (Senior PM Highways and Network Operations) about NZTA road projects and the realities of project management.
Morning Tea (10.30 – 10.45am) Morning Tea (10.00 – 10.15am)
Student Presentations (4) Rachael, Jesse, Pohswan and Susan.
“Space Survival” (a project risk management game).
Student Presentations (3) Paul, Nigel and Tia (Justin’s presentation will be given during the visit to Trentham Army Camp).
PMP Mock Exam
Lunch (12.30-1.15) Lunch (12.00-12.45)
Visit to Wellington Zoo – view projects that are underway. Susan organising. Minibus departs for Zoo at 1.15pm
Visit to Trentham Army Camp, Upper Hutt. Military vehicle procurement programme. Justin organising. Minibus departs at 12.45pm and departs Trentham at 3.00pm for return.
Afternoon Tea at Zoo Afternoon Tea at IMNZ
Minibus departs Zoo at 4.00pm for return.
3.45 – 4.30 pm. Talk by Ron Shaw (PMI Committee) about PMI and PM Credentials.
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Project Closure Exercise
Working in groups, brainstorm and record all the activities that may be undertaken during the finish phase of a project to ensure that everything is properly closed down.
Close-down Activities:
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Project Finish Phase
Projects ultimately come to an end. Sometimes this end is abrupt and premature, as when a project is killed off early. It is hoped, however, that the project will meet a more natural ending. In any event, when projects end, the project manager's responsibilities continue. There are assorted wrapping-up duties to be performed. The precise nature of these duties is dependent on the character of the project. For example, if equipment was used, this equipment should be accounted for, and possibly reassigned to new uses. Similarly, project staff members should be given their new assignments. On contract projects, a determination must be made as to whether the project deliverables satisfy the contract. Final reports may have to be written. Users should be contacted to determine their satisfaction with the deliverables. And so on.
One problem in regard to closure is that at this point in the project lifecycle most of the interesting work has been done, and few - if any - engaging challenges remain. In fact, wrap-up work is generally tedious, documentation is rampant (systems documentation, training material, user manuals, budgets, reports) and dozens of annoying problems inevitably arise as a project is being closed. It is tempting for project staff to drift away in search of more interesting assignments. Consequently, loose ends are not always tied up, leading to post-project problems.
And then there is the question of maintenance. After a deliverable has been implemented or installed, it must be maintained. Maintenance can take several forms. It may involve debugging problems inherent in the deliverable, making so-called enhancements to the deliverable, integrating the deliverable with business-as-usual, and periodically testing the deliverable to determine whether it is still performing the way it should be. Deliverable maintenance is very important. It has been estimated, for example, that roughly 60 to 70 percent of the lifecycle cost of computer systems is devoted to maintenance.
Although maintenance is crucially important, it is not included in the project lifecycle for a good reason. Projects, it should be recalled, are efforts that occur within a finite period of time. They have clearly defined beginnings and ends. Maintenance, on the other hand, is ongoing and of an indefinite duration. A specific act of maintenance - for example, revision of company purchasing guidelines - may be viewed as a project, but it is a separate and distinct undertaking from the initial project that produced the original guidelines.
Closure activities are common knowledge and common sense, but far from common practice. This is what actually happens all too often:
Getting paid, or getting closure, drives all closeout actions. Unresolved issues and incomplete tasks that frustrate customers and end users, drag on while the project manager hopes they will eventually go away.
Acceptance becomes acrimonious, with the project team doing the minimum they have to in order to get the signature, the customer signing an acceptance certificate (or its equivalent) only grudgingly, and relationships ultimately being soured or severed.
Companies feel that they don't have time to complete post-project reviews fully or correctly. Project team members are busy on the next urgent project, and there just never seems to be the time to fit an evaluation meeting into a crowded schedule.
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The task of completing project records is assigned such a low priority that as-is drawings are never completely finished, files are never closed off, and so on.
Lessons learned may be noted, recorded, and even filed, but they aren't learned. Sometimes a politically correct story about the project gains acceptance in corporate folklore.
Why it should be this way becomes understandable when the following formidable array of barriers to effective project closeout management is considered:
Completing records is a distraction. There are already too many important activities that obviously add more immediate value clamour for attention.
Closeout activities cost money, and in the final stages it is easy to see that money can be saved simply by not doing them. If the project lost money or cost more than expected, why should good money be thrown after bad? If the project went well, there probably isn't much to be dealt with, anyway is sometimes the thinking.
There is a widespread myth that learning is a personal activity, and so the lessons to be learned from the project will be available to the organisation informally through the experience of the project manager and project team members.
While most project organisations pay lip service to the importance of project closeout management, there are rarely any tangible or emotional/psychological rewards given to people who pay particular attention to this aspect of project management. The folly of "asking for X while rewarding Y" may be acknowledged, but instances of it continue to abound.
Effective project managers tend to be task-oriented people with a strong commitment to the project and a desire to deliver results. They tend to prefer to organise tasks for action rather than sitting in meetings reflecting on events that they can no longer influence. Preferring practice to theory, they tend to know what they have concluded from the recent project and have now moved on, in their thinking, to their next challenge.
While many organisations acknowledge the importance of projects and their success, they may underestimate the extent of the difference necessary between thinking about projects on the one hand and either operations (repetitive processes) or tasks (simple activities) on the other hand. Because operations are by their very nature repetitive, they do not require specific closeout. A philosophy of continuous improvement is more relevant. Because tasks, which may or may not be repetitive, lack the complexity of projects, they often lend themselves to simple and straightforward analysis and a philosophy of "just do it." Consequently, there is insufficient attention paid to the unique difficulties of creating organisational learning in a project environment, where circumstances guarantee that every experience contains unique elements.
Lessons learned may not be relevant to future projects, given this unique nature of each project. Nevertheless, the completed project should be evaluated, lessons learned documented, but then applied with discretion to future projects.
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ProcessesProject managers, in just about any industry, are faced with the challenge of improving the efficiency and productivity of their oganisation and its operation. To do this, we need to know how to analyse processes. After all, to improve results, the best approach is to improve the process that gives you those results.
There is no universal agreement about process mapping terminology. There is a glossary a short in these notes, but the following would all be reasonable definitions of a process:
“A process is a logical sequence of activities that takes inputs, adds value, and produces outputs for an internal or external customer.”
“A process comprises all the activities that people must undertake to achieve a particular outcome.”
“A process is a series of steps to achieve a desired result.”
“A process is a collection of related events performed to provide products and services for customers.”
“A process is a set of activities with a start and a finish, with each activity adding value to the process.”
Some common business processes include:
determining customer needs and wants measuring customer satisfaction selecting appropriate projects developing new products and services marketing products and services acquiring resources health and safety practices delivering products
OUTPUTS
Activity Activity ActivityINPUTS
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developing human resources invoicing customers resolving disputes recruiting new staff conducting internal audits communicating with shareholders / stakeholders / public measuring organisation performance developing supplier relationships strategic and operational planning problem solving decision making
A useful and popular roadmap for developing and improving processes is the straightforward DMAIC methodology. The five steps make sense, they are easy to understand and they are logical in their se-quence. The steps allow a team to adequately scope the process problem, measure the current perform-ance, analyse the root causes of problems and any inefficiency, test and verify improvement recommend-ations, and then implement changes for sustainability over the long haul.
So, it is imperative that we project managers have a rudimentary understanding of pro-cess thinking when managing improvement efforts. As shown in the example below, a process can be broken down into three basic elements: the inputs to the process, the process under study and the outputs from the process. The concept of improvement is quite simple; to improve the outputs of a process, you simply improve the inputs and the process itself. To improve the output, identify, measure and improve the inputs and pro-cess metrics. Focusing on the results, the output measures instead of the inputs and process is an after-the-fact, reactive, expensive and inefficient approach to improving results.
The DMAIC steps can be applied to any process, any industry, and any organisation to help guide a process improvement team. Before they can be applied, however, the pro-ject leader should lead his or her team to scope the problem, perhaps using a SIPOC diagram - Supplier, Input, Process, Output, and Customer. Using the SIPOC tool can help project managers scope the problem, think in terms of processes, and help the
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team pinpoint what and where to measure. Leaving aside the Supplier(s) and Cus-tomer(s), here is a possible Takeaway example.
Your job is to select one of the following five processes and identify likely Inputs and Outputs:
INPUTS
stafffood ingredientspackagingenergywater moneyorder
OUTPUTS
takeawaysnapkinwrappingwastechangereceipt
THE TAKEAWAY PROCESS
INPUTS OUTPUTS
PROCESS
Bake a CakeBoil an Egg
Wash DishesMake CoffeeClean Teeth
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Process Terminology ExerciseTERM ACTIVITY INPUT or
OUTPUTPERFORMANCE
MEASURE TARGETTemplate PlanProblem SolvingPolicy SoftwareDig HoleUser-friendlyProductivity IndexEffectivenessAccessibilityPrepare InvoiceCompare OptionsSend EmailWeightWeigh ContainerInvoice ErrorsError Rate1 reject per 1000Dollars/PersonLost TimeShrinkage (Theft!)20-30o CNumber of ComplaintsCycle TimeSales PeopleSkillsReworkAbsenteeismCollect WasteApprove PurchasePrint EmailEliminate Duplication
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Processes BenefitsBenefits are positive outcomes. As with any project result, if process benefits exceed process costs, the process adds value:
Typical benefits that effective and efficient processes provide are:
they safeguard us
predictable and consistent outputs (zero variation is the ideal)
shortens learning curve
provides a common vision and basis for communication
limits procrastination and complacency
enables a valid comparison of outputs
captures and preserves corporate knowledge
provides a basis for continuous improvement
shows how people interact
internal customers recognised and teamwork improved
increased profitability, productivity and performance
fewer errors and defects, and less waste and rework
faster, cheaper and better outputs
simplified workflows
highlights troublesome aspects
provides for competitive advantage and satisfied customers
basis for benchmarking
prevent stagnation and improves competitiveness
Which of the above would be the main reason(s) for embarking on a process improve-ment project in your organisation? What’s the rationale?
VALUE = BENEFITS - COSTS
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Process Problems POTENTIAL PROBLEMS (RISKS) AND CONCERNS IMPACT PROBABILIT
YSCOR
E
HML HML 1-9
Poorly described, conflicting or frequently changing needs.Unreasonable development timeframe.Lack of funding and other resources.Individual’s below par performance exposed.Lack of expertise and user training.Lack of formal authority.Lack of senior management support.Functional agendas take priority.Unsatisfactory teamwork.Unclear roles and responsibilities.Poor cross-functional organisational communications.Lack of buy-in and commitment. Lack of flexibility and local discretion.Apprehension that bureaucracy will proliferate.Good old resistance to change.Continuously rewritten processes is frustrating.Duplicate processes.Stifles creativity.Uncoordinated updates.No central process database.Non-intuitive for users.Content not layered. Scroll not drill-down.No process editorial control.No structured approach to process development.No process owners.Processes out of date or unusable.Constant fire-fighting.Too time-consuming to continuously improve.Job security under threat. Redundancies?Why should we do it? It’s a lot of work!We know the process. It doesn’t need to be documented.
PLANNING IMPLEMENTING
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IMPROVING
CONCEPTION
Process CharacteristicsWhile each process is different, they also have several important features in common:
processes create customer value
suppliers provide inputs
customers receive outputs
outputs often become inputs
can be illustrated by flowchart
an owner who is the process guardian
a purpose and unique name
activities that add value, both individually and synergistically
no need for heroic leadership
performed by people, and most process problems are behavioural in nature
multi-disciplined team often needed
a sponsor to remove organisational obstacles
require the willing cooperation of process team members
processes have a life cycle
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Process Management PrinciplesPrinciples are universal truths. They may not guarantee success, but we ignore them at our peril.
plan to do it
get organisation’s strategy right first
lead from the top
develop an enabling culture
establish and maintain effective communications
design from the customer’s perspective
involve those who do the activities
identify process start and finish activities (process boundaries)
universal responsibility
clearly define roles and responsibilities
appoint a process owner and sponsor
document and control the process
seek feedback on process effectiveness and efficiency
relentless commitment to continuous improvement
pre-empt problems (proactive rather than reactive)
develop relevant performance targets (KPIs)
be clear when the process starts and finishes
maintain a process record.
Which of the above principles does your organisation apply most conscientiously? And where are the gaps?
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Process Lifecycle Exercise
ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION
Conduct TrialUndertake AuditCommission ProcessPlan TrialDefine ProcessRefine ProcessImprove ProcessUndertake ResearchCheck FeasibilityMap ProcessApprove Proposal
A pilot enables us to refine the process.To improve the as-is process, an audit is needed.Following the trial, the new process is implemented.Once mapped the process is sometimes trialled.Initial step in the process lifecycle.Feedback from the trial enables process refinement.An audit enables process improvement.Once process proposal is approved for development.Is the process idea worthwhile?Usually illustrated by flowchart.Approval authorises process research and planning.
CONCEIVE PLAN IMPLEMENT IMPROVE
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Process Definition ExerciseOnce the need or opportunity is identified, and is recognised as a valid idea, the proposed process needs to be defined sufficiently to enable its feasibility to be determined.
A template that may be used for process definition purposes is a SIPOC chart. Select a simple process and complete the required SIPOC chart. Macro-level activities only are shown.
SIPOC CHART
Process Name: Date:
Process Purpose:
SUPPLIERS INPUTS PROCESS OUTPUTS CUSTOMERS
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Basic Flowchart Symbols
Oval shape for start or end or a process (eg, bell rings). Trigger activity or terminator.
Circle means 'go to' next page, process, or level of detail. It's a connector. Drill-down facility.
Rectangle is an activity, usually described in verb-noun format (eg, phone customer). Might include identification code.
Diamond shape denotes a decision box, including a 'closed' question with two or three options (eg, does the machine work?). Yes route usually out of the bottom.
Yes/NoGo/No GoTrue/False
Arrow shows the direction of flow from one activity to the next.
Some other less common symbols:
Represents a document input or output (eg, a report). Name of document appears on the symbol.
Represents a database where information is stored.
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Arrow showing feedback from an activity that affects a previous activity. Consult or compare. Can also be solid arrow.
Means delay - waiting for service (eg, report sitting in in-tray).
External input or entity.
Activity BoxSometimes the activity box might contain additional information:
ID
description
responsible
Decision BoxThe decision box is usually for YES/NO decisions. However, it might also be used when three responses or options are available:
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Some flowchart design points:
State process name and purpose at top of diagram.
Use simple language. Action verbs.
Processes usually flow top to bottom and left to right.
Draw arrows vertically or horizontally.
Post-it Notes often useful to develop flowchart.
Avoid arrows crossing where possible.
Keep process updated. Record version/date.
Include performance measures (KPIs).
Document process assumptions.
Activities might be codified.
Additional information might include: activity descriptions, triggers, inputs, outputs, roles and responsibilities, exceptions, document version control.
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Cut Grass Flowchart Exercise
Construct an appropriate flowchart. One essential step isn’t shown below. You will need to identify and include it too. Use Post-it Notes.
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Simple Cross-functional Flowchart
Some design points:
Swim lanes show responsibilities, which might be individuals, groups, functional areas, contractors, suppliers, or consultants.
Diagram may be drawn with vertical or horizontal swim lanes.
Often the customer swim lane is the top one.
Swim lanes and activities might also be colour-coded.
Arrows pin-point where responsibilities are transferred.
Activities can be codified.
Flowcharts might be ‘as-is’ and ‘to-be’.
Sometimes referred to as blueprints.
Process cycle time is determined by longest pathway from start to finish.
What performance measures (KPIs) would you suggest for this flowchart?
Purpose: To plant tree Prepared By: Date:Version:
Jack
Jill
Pete
Start
Dig Hole
PositionTree
Fill in Hole
Finish
Add Fertiliser
Add Water
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Flowchart Exercise
Develop a cross-functional diagram using swimlanes for the sausage sizzle your team propose to undertake for fund-raising purposes.
And list what the customer is likely to expect in terms of outcomes (ie, performance measures).
The inputs include labour (cook, cashier, and toppings person), sausages, barbeque, onions, sliced bread, tomato sauce, chilli sauce, mustard, and paper napkins.
The output is a sausage wrapped in a slice of bread. Onions and sauce may be included. Napkin also provided.
. About four activities per person would be probably sufficient.
Customer
Cashier
Cook
Toppings
Also write down your assumptions and KPIs.
KPIs should be identified for each of the following areas of performance:
price
quality
quantity
hygiene
speed
KPIs are target and should be relevant, measurable and realistic.
Also, prepare a RAM for this process.
Who could be made redundant?Process Audit Checklist
“Continuous improvement? It’s ok we did it last decade year!”
Is the process purpose valid? Why are we doing this? Is it essential?
Does the process possess strategic fit?
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Waste Work
Waste work can be defined as:
Spending time doing things again which have not been done right first time;
Duplicating effort;
Doing things that add no value to the customer or the organisation.
This should be evident from our process maps, (and probably from any discussions you have with staff), when we:
Re-work something not done right first time;
Complete unnecessary forms/paperwork/reports;
Do not have access to the right equipment;
Work from unreliable or inaccurate information;
Deal with mis-routed phone calls or post;
Do things that you’ve found others are doing/have done;
Deal with problems caused by other departments not doing their job correctly first time;
Encounter “bottlenecks” of work, or excessive delay/movement of work;
Fire fight and deal with symptoms rather than causes;
Have to obtain unnecessary authorisation;
Attend unnecessary or poorly managed meetings;
Have to handle issues that others should have dealt with.
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Sausage Sizzle - Possible Solution
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Myer-Briggs Personality Types
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Personality Profile QuestionnaireSelect in each instance the alternative that you believe better describes you. Don’t attempt to analyse the answers or predict their significance. Simply complete the questionnaire honestly and without dwelling too long on any one question. There are no wrong or bad responses. Answer all questions please.
1. At a party do you
a. interact with many, including strangersb. interact with a few, known to you
2. Are you more
a. realistic than speculativeb. speculative than realistic
3. Is it worse to
a. have your “head in the clouds”b. be “in a rut”
4. Are you more impressed by
a. principlesb. emotions
5. Are you more drawn toward the
a. convincingb. touching
6. Do you prefer to work
a. to deadlinesb. just “whenever”
7. Do you tend to choose
a. rather carefullyb. somewhat impulsively
8. At parties do you
a. stay late, with increasing energyb. leave early, with decreased energy
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9. Are you more attracted to
a. sensible peopleb. imaginative people
10. Are you more interested in
a. what is actualb. what is possible
11. In judging others are you more swayed by
a. laws than circumstancesb. circumstances than laws
12. In approaching others is your inclination to be somewhat
a. objectiveb. personal
13. Are you more
a. punctualb. leisurely
14. Does it bother you more having things
a. incompleteb. completed
15. In your social groups do you
a. keep abreast of other’s happeningsb. get behind on the news
16. In doing ordinary things are you more likely to
a. do it the usual wayb. do it your own way
17. Writers should
a. “say what they mean and mean what they say”b. express things more by use of analogy
18. Which appeals to you more
a. consistency of thoughtb. harmonious human relationships
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19. Are you more comfortable in making
a. logical judgementsb. value judgements
20. Do you want things
a. settled and decidedb. unsettled and undecided
21. Would you say you are more
a. serious and determinedb. easy-going
22. In phoning do you
a. rarely question that it will all be saidb. rehearse what you’ll say
23. Facts
a. “speak for themselves”b. illustrate principles
24. Are visionaries
a. somewhat annoyingb. rather fascinating
25. Are you more often
a. a cool-headed personb. a warm-hearted person
26. Is it worse to be
a. unjustb. merciless
27. Should one usually let events occur
a. by careful selection and choiceb. randomly and by chance
28. Do you feel better about
a. having purchasedb. having the option to buy
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29. In company do you
a. initiate conversationb. wait to be approached
30. Common sense is
a. rarely questionableb. frequently questionable
31. Children often do not
a. make themselves useful enoughb. exercise their fantasy enough
32. In making decisions do you feel more comfortable with
a. standardsb. feelings
33. Are you more
a. firm than gentleb. gentle than firm
34. Which is more admirable
a. the ability to organise and be methodicalb. the ability to adapt and make do
35. Do you put more value on the
a. definiteb. open-minded
36. Does new and non-routine interaction with others
a. stimulate and energise youb. tax your reserves
37. Are you more frequently
a. a practical sort of personb. a fanciful sort of person
38. Are you more likely to
a. see how others are usefulb. see how others see
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39. Which is more satisfying
a. to discuss an issue thoroughlyb. to arrive at agreement on an issue
40. Which rules you more
a. your headb. your heart
41. Are you more comfortable with work that is
a. contractedb. done on a casual basis
42. Do you tend to look for
a. the orderlyb. whatever turns up
43. Do you prefer
a. many friends with brief contactb. a few friends with more lengthy contact
44. Do you go more by
a. factsb. principles
45. Are you more interested in
a. production and distributionb. design and research
46. Which is more of a compliment
a. “There is a very logical person.”b. “There is a very sentimental person.”
47. Do you value in yourself more that you are
a. unwaveringb. devoted
48. Do you more often prefer the
a. final and unalterable statementb. tentative and preliminary statement
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49. Are you more comfortable
a. after a decisionb. before a decision
50. Do you
a. speak easily and at length with strangersb. find little to say to strangers
51. Are you more likely to trust your
a. experienceb. hunch
52. Do you feel
a. more practical then ingeniousb. more ingenious than practical
53. Which person is more to be complimented: one of
a. clear reasonb. strong feeling
54. Are you inclined more to be
a. fair-mindedb. sympathetic
55. Is it preferable mostly to
a. make sure things are arrangedb. just let things happen
56. In relationships should most things be
a. renegotiableb. random and circumstantial
57. When the phone rings do you
a. hasten to get to it firstb. hope someone else will answer
58. Do you prize more in yourself
a. a strong sense of realityb. a vivid imagination
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59. Are you drawn more to
a. fundamentalsb. overtones
60. Which seems the greater error
a. to be too passionateb. to be too objective
61. Do you see yourself as basically
a. hard-headedb. soft-hearted
62. Which situation appeals to you more
a. the structured and scheduledb. the unstructured and unscheduled
63. Are you a person that is more
a. routinised than whimsicalb. whimsical than routinised
64. Are you more inclined to be
a. easy to approachb. somewhat reserved
65. In writings do you prefer
a. the more literalb. the more figurative
66. Is it harder for you to
a. identify with othersb. utilise others
67. Which do you wish more for yourself
a. clarity of reasonb. strength of compassion
68. Which is the greater fault
a. being indiscriminateb. being critical
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69. Do you prefer the
a. planned eventb. unplanned event
70. Do you tend to be more
a. deliberate than spontaneousb. spontaneous than deliberate
Your type indicator is determined by a combination of the following fundamental psychological types identified by Isabel Myers and Katheryn Briggs in their widely recognised and used Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Test:
(I) INTROVERSION
(N) INTUITION
(F) FEELING
(G) PERCEIVING
EXTROVERSION (E)
SENSING (S)
THINKING (T)
JUDGING (J)
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Brief DescriptionsISTJQuiet, serious, earn success by thoroughness and dependability. Practical, matter-of-fact, real-istic, and responsible. Decide logically what should be done and work toward it steadily, re-gardless of distractions. Take pleasure in making everything orderly and organized - their work, their home, their life. Value traditions and loyalty.ISFJQuiet, friendly, responsible, and conscientious. Committed and steady in meeting their obliga-tions. Thorough, painstaking, and accurate. Loyal, considerate, notice and remember specifics about people who are important to them, concerned with how others feel. Strive to create an orderly and harmonious environment at work and at home.INFJSeek meaning and connection in ideas, relationships, and material possessions. Want to under-stand what motivates people and are insightful about others. Conscientious and committed to their firm values. Develop a clear vision about how best to serve the common good. Organized and decisive in implementing their vision.INTJHave original minds and great drive for implementing their ideas and achieving their goals. Quickly see patterns in external events and develop long-range explanatory perspectives. When committed, organize a job and carry it through. Skeptical and independent, have high standards of competence and performance - for themselves and others.ISTPTolerant and flexible, quiet observers until a problem appears, then act quickly to find work-able solutions. Analyze what makes things work and readily get through large amounts of data to isolate the core of practical problems. Interested in cause and effect, organize facts using logical principles, value efficiency.ISFPQuiet, friendly, sensitive, and kind. Enjoy the present moment, what's going on around them. Like to have their own space and to work within their own time frame. Loyal and committed to their values and to people who are important to them. Dislike disagreements and conflicts, do not force their opinions or values on others.INFPIdealistic, loyal to their values and to people who are important to them. Want an external life that is congruent with their values. Curious, quick to see possibilities, can be catalysts for im-plementing ideas. Seek to understand people and to help them fulfill their potential. Adapt-able, flexible, and accepting unless a value is threatened.INTPSeek to develop logical explanations for everything that interests them. Theoretical and ab-stract, interested more in ideas than in social interaction. Quiet, contained, flexible, and adapt-able. Have unusual ability to focus in depth to solve problems in their area of interest. Skepti-cal, sometimes critical, always analytical.ESTPFlexible and tolerant, they take a pragmatic approach focused on immediate results. Theories and conceptual explanations bore them - they want to act energetically to solve the problem. Focus on the here-and-now, spontaneous, enjoy each moment that they can be active with others. Enjoy material comforts and style. Learn best through doing.
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ESFPOutgoing, friendly, and accepting. Exuberant lovers of life, people, and material comforts. En-joy working with others to make things happen. Bring common sense and a realistic approach to their work, and make work fun. Flexible and spontaneous, adapt readily to new people and environments. Learn best by trying a new skill with other people.ENFPWarmly enthusiastic and imaginative. See life as full of possibilities. Make connections between events and information very quickly, and confidently proceed based on the patterns they see. Want a lot of affirmation from others, and readily give appreciation and support. Spontaneous and flexible, often rely on their ability to improvise and their verbal fluency.ENTPQuick, ingenious, stimulating, alert, and outspoken. Resourceful in solving new and challenging problems. Adept at generating conceptual possibilities and then analyzing them strategically. Good at reading other people. Bored by routine, will seldom do the same thing the same way, apt to turn to one new interest after another.ESTJPractical, realistic, matter-of-fact. Decisive, quickly move to implement decisions. Organize projects and people to get things done, focus on getting results in the most efficient way possi-ble. Take care of routine details. Have a clear set of logical standards, systematically follow them and want others to also. Forceful in implementing their plans.ESFJWarmhearted, conscientious, and cooperative. Want harmony in their environment, work with determination to establish it. Like to work with others to complete tasks accurately and on time. Loyal, follow through even in small matters. Notice what others need in their day-by-day lives and try to provide it. Want to be appreciated for who they are and for what they contrib-ute.ENFJWarm, empathetic, responsive, and responsible. Highly attuned to the emotions, needs, and motivations of others. Find potential in everyone, want to help others fulfill their potential. May act as catalysts for individual and group growth. Loyal, responsive to praise and criticism. Sociable, facilitate others in a group, and provide inspiring leadership.ENTJFrank, decisive, assume leadership readily. Quickly see illogical and inefficient procedures and policies, develop and implement comprehensive systems to solve organizational problems. En-joy long-term planning and goal setting. Usually well informed, well read, enjoy expanding their knowledge and passing it on to others. Forceful in presenting their ideas.
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More Detailed DescriptionsAs project managers it falls upon us to bring different personality types together into a coher-ent and functioning project team. We can be likened to conductors who ensure members of our orchestra work in harmony to create the music. However, each personality type requires a different approach. For example, we will not get our point across properly if we’re too direct and overly data-oriented with a touchy-feely type person. By the same token, we would not want to be too touchy-feely with a no-nonsense type person. If a person or team is too analyti-cal, there will be little creativity. If a person or team is too sensitive, compromises will prolifer-ate and fewer decisions will be made with confidence.
We project managers can benefit from knowing our fellow team members’ personalities and how each team member best works, so team members and projects are set up for success. Knowing our team members’ personality types helps us:
Adjust our management and leadership style for each individual. Understand what best motivates a team member to do their best work. Understand what learning style works best for each team member. Know what communication method they prefer. Build their trust and loyalty. Ensure our project runs smoothly and efficiently. Identifies their preferences, rather than just competencies, abilities or skills.
Believers, whose numbers seem to exceed the number of skeptics might have their project team members each do the following quiz and then share and discuss their results at the start of the project – maybe at the project kick-off meeting. But remember that no personality type is better than another, as each personality provides its unique benefits to each project. The quiz is a tool, not a test.
This particular tool divides personalities into sixteen different types, which if nothing else sug-gests some greater degree of precision than many other personality tests that divide us into only four categories. My experience is that people complete the personality quiz about them-selves and usually express surprise at the accuracy of the result, confirming their own view of themselves – a self-fulfilling prophesy. Thus, it may also be even more revealing if we were to ask a colleague or even several colleagues to assess ourselves. The 16 personality categories are summarised here:
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Extroverts (E) are focused on the external world, including people and things. Introverts (I) are inwardly focused, interested in ideals and symbols. Extroverts and Introverts are opposites.
Intuition (N) is about unconscious perceiving. It includes the recognition of patterns and ab-stract ideas, as well as visionary thoughts. Sensing (S) is perception with our five senses and focuses on the real world. Intuition and Sensing are opposites.
Thinking (T) is making decisions based on facts, like a court judge. Feeling (F) is making deci-sions based upon a personal point of view. Thinking and Feeling are opposites.
Perceiving (P) concerns the perceptive side of one’s personality externally, either through Intu-ition or Sensing. Judging (J) emphasises the judging side of one’s personality. These are oppo-sites.
Each dimension highlights the dominant personality trait. However, an Extrovert is still capa-ble of Introverted thought.
Personality exists on a continuum, and most personality tests show where each person falls on the preference scale.
Extroverted (E) or Introverted (I)It is very natural to see Project Managers as Extroverts, because they must communicate con-stantly. But to declare that only Extroverts belong in Project Management is to deny a critical part of the profession. Project Managers must be able to communicate in many ways to many people. The managers that are working with people from nine to five every day are typically in the office early or out of the office late, doing much solitary work off-hours or on weekends.
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Either an Introvert or an Extrovert can do the Project Manager job successfully, so long as they can also act opposite to their dominant type. An extreme Extrovert, with no interest in ideals and solitary work, will eventually fail in the job. An extreme Introvert, with no interest in see-ing their ideas take shape in the real world, will also fail.
Intuition (N) or Sensing (S)Intuition and Sensing can both serve a Project Manager well. Most Project Managers are Sens-ing dominant. Concrete, observable information is critical. Many modern management tech-niques favour the sensing personality type. They focus on concrete, observable outcomes, and explicitly exclude intuitive judgement. “Feeling uncomfortable” with an option or “just liking” one option over another can be misleading.
Experienced Project Managers develop a sixth-sense about their projects. They know when the project has a problem, and they have an uncanny ability to ask the right questions to uncover that problem. Intuitive people look for patterns and have a vision of abstract ideals. Project Managers must also be capable of abstract thought and able to defend a vision. Even the Sens-ing manager will look for patterns in their project data to form opinions about the likelihood of project success and failure.
Project Managers can tolerate extremes in the personality dimension of Intuition versus Sens-ing. They must be able to operate somewhat on both sides of the line, but could favour either side and still be successful. Perhaps this personality dimension is a main source of diversity in style. It is not uncommon to see heated discussions, with one person demanding more facts, and another insisting that he or she just “knows” everything will work out fine. Sometimes these disagreements may be fact-based; one person feels evidence is shaky, while another be-lieves the existing evidence. When the discussion is emotionally intense, though, it is probable that a sensing personality simply cannot accept the conclusions of the intuitive personality. Personality differences can be an enormous source of conflict among project team members and other stakeholders. When two people have a different “style”, think about this personality dimension; it may help to explain their conflict.
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Thinking (T) or Feeling (F)A Project Manager can thrive with either a focus on Thinking or on Feeling. This personality di-mension will perhaps have the greatest impact upon selecting a positive work environment for the project manager. An organisation that requires objective, fact-based decisions from Project Managers will favour a Thinking manager. An organisation that looks for managers to inject compassion into project decisions will likely favour a Feeling manager.
Thinking and Feeling personalities can be happy in either type of project environment, but they are more likely to thrive in a corporate culture that matches their personality. It is important to note that a Thinking personality can have extreme compassion, and may be more sensitive to people’s feelings than a Feeling personality. Personal values come into play. The key ques-tion in the personality type is what their primary, default reaction is: objective or personal. Given the number of people involved in most projects, a Thinking personality who is sensitive to emotional needs of stakeholders is probably preferable to a Feeling personality. The Feeling personality is more likely to weight subjective elements in the decision. He or she may have a difficult time taking into account the needs of all stakeholders. A Thinking personality who makes decisions with little consideration for subjective concerns, based upon simple right and wrong, can be very destructive on a project.
Like Sensing and Intuition, the difference of Thinking and Feeling is one of project management style. The most successful managers will combine elements of both, but can be successful with either type of dominant personality.
Perceiving (P) or Judging (J)The natural tendency for most Project Managers is the Judging personality type. Given the constant need for decisions that come with the job, Judging personalities are naturally drawn to it. The job is complex, though, and some element of Perceiving, or data gathering, is neces-sary for success.
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An ability to operate in both spheres is desirable. The Perceiving manager becomes paralyzed if he or she must constantly gather more information. At some point he or she must decide and act. The Judging project manager meets failure if he or she cannot take the time to gather required information, making decisions too quickly and with too little information. Between those two extremes, we can be successful. The Perceiving manager can gather information up to a point, and then make a judgement. The Judging manager can gather required information before following his or her natural tendency to decide.
Personality differences along the Perceiving and Judging dimension can amplify conflicts be-tween Intuitive and Sensing types. It is difficult enough if one person intuits the answer while the second is focused on concrete evidence. If one tends to make quick decisions, while the other prefers to collect more data, the conflict between them can grow quickly.
Personality Types and Project ManagementPut each of the four dimensions of personality together, and we get a four-letter summary – the MBTI code. Given the above discussion, in theory at least, an ESTJ is possibly the most ap-propriate and most common MBTI for a Project Manager. But all profiles are described in posi-tive terms. There is no fail-safe method to pre-select the ultimate Project Manager. Also, the typical Project Manager has often held a number of titles before becoming a Project Manager.
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On one occasion I was invited to help resolve a problem in an Upper Hutt (NZ) organisation. Two team leaders were not communicating with each other and their animosity had paralysed the progress of the project. Eventually, with the protagonists’ permission we shared their per-sonality profiles, which resulted in some better mutual understanding and allowed us to nego-tiate some rules to ensure improved communication. However, about a month later I checked with the General Manager and discovered that both team leaders had departed the organisa-tion. At their exit interviews it became evident that up until my intervention, the only reason they had stayed on was to outlast the other person. True story. Perhaps the personality quiz helped.
Anyway, personality assessments answer questions about why we prefer a certain manage-ment style, why we are comfortable with certain people, and why certain situations have a dra-matic effect on our happiness. Expecting personality uniformity is unreasonable, even within a specialised profession like our own.
Myers-Briggs is just a tool and if all our decisions are based on it, then we too are a tool. We should not use Myers-Briggs or any other personality assessments to disqualify someone from working with us on a project if they bring the right capacity, commitment and capability, but if we do happen to know our team members’ personality types, this may be of assistance from a leadership perspective – perhaps if we need to sort out a personality conflict or persuade, in-fluence or convince a team member of something.
From bumps on the head to ink blots to handwriting analysis, science has come up with many personality tests, but Myers-Briggs remains the most popular, but is about determining our preference, not our ability. There might be things that we’re good at that we don’t enjoy, and there might be things we enjoy that we’re not good at. The MBTI helps us find our comfort zone, the types of activities we’ll like and be most content with, but not necessarily those at which we’ll be especially competent. The intention of using of Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicators is NOT to alienate, discriminate, stereotype, disqualify, and/or be biased as this would not only be unethical, but in most countries it’s also illegal.
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Projects and Change Management
“If you do what you’ve always done, you’ll get what you’ve always gotten.”
There is no progress without change. Yet, it is a truth universally acknowledged that “no-one likes change”. Change freaks us out—probably even more than public speaking. I once heard it said that the only person who likes change is a baby with a wet nappy. Change is such an extraordinary, sometimes uncomfortable thing, isn’t it? So many of us crave it but fiercely resist it, fueling an ever-escalating inner civil war. While there’s no progress without change, change management has two meanings in the project management lexicon:
1. Managing project changes (variations) to the scope of a project and is often needed to accommodate risk and altered requirements, features, functions, spe-cifications and performance standards for a deliverable. Change might also be driven by external factors, such as new contractors, technologies, or methodolo-gies. A change request often arises when our client wants an addition or altera-tion to the agreed-upon deliverables for the project. Because change requests are beyond the scope of the initial agreement, they generally mean that the client will have to pay for the extra resources required. Such changes easily rank among the top concerns that keep us project managers awake at night, mostly because our sponsors may expect the original schedule and budget to be up-held. But a scope change is a separate decision that ordinarily requires addi-tional expenditure and may delay project completion. Such changes must stand on their own merits. No change should proceed unless the associated benefits exceed the costs involved.
2. Managing the transitioning of individuals and organisations as they adopt new processes, services or products as a consequence of projects. We aim to bring stakeholders from awareness to acceptance and adjustment to the new reality that the change creates. We apply a systematic approach to helping the indi-viduals impacted by the change to be successful by building support, addressing resistance and developing the required knowledge and ability to implement the change. We manage the 'people' side of the change. And in today’s fast-paced world, every organisation can benefit from a better way to manage change. And recent research has revealed that the ineffective management of people during change is the number one reason for unsuccessful projects across industries.
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As diagram below shows, project management and change management support moving an organisation from a current state (how things are done today) through a transition state to a desired future state (the new processes, organisation structures or job roles defined by 'the change'). Change management is a structured approach for ensuring that changes are thoroughly and smoothly implemented, and that lasting benefits of the change are achieved. Thus, project management focuses on producing the project deliverables and change management focuses on the people impacted by the change caused by the adoption of the deliverables. Both disciplines are related, overlap and important if change is to succeed. But change management is not a separate role or function. It is a vital competency for all project and program managers and starts early in the project lifecycle.
Change is a process and not an event. As the diagram shows we can break change into three sequential states, and the time for the change process will vary depending mainly on the extent and degree of change involved. Some organisations prefer the quick “big bang” approach to change, whereas other organisations may prefer incremental change over a longer period. Ideally, the change should not occur faster than we can properly manage it. When change occurs too quickly or is undertaken ineffectively we might expect:
1. Productivity to decline2. Passive resistance to escalate3. Active resistance to emerge and sabotage the change4. Valued employees to leave the organisation5. Morale to deteriorate6. Projects to go over budget and past their deadline7. Employees to find workarounds to avoid the new way of doing things
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8. Employees to revert to their old way of doing things9. Divides to be created in the organisation between ‘us’ and ‘them’10.The organization to build a history of failed and painful changes.
Let’s consider in more detail what needs to happen during each of these three stages to ensure that the benefits of change are permanently realized.
1. Current State is how things are done today. It is the collection of processes, beha-viours, tools, techniques, organisational structures and job roles that constitute how work is done. The Current State defines who we are. It may not be working well, but it is stable, predictable, familiar and comfortable because we know what to expect. The Current State is where we have been successful and where we know how we will be measured and evaluated. Above all else, the Current State is the comfort-able known, in which state we:
• Determine exactly what needs to change.
• Understand why change has to take place.
• Ensure there is strong support from senior management. • Create a compelling message as to why change has to occur.• Emphasise the "why".
• Conduct a stakeholder analysis.
• Manage and understand the doubts and concerns.
• Communicate often. Describe the benefits. Explain exactly the how the changes will effect everyone. Prepare everyone for what is coming.
2. Transition State is messy and disorganised. It is somewhat unpredictable and con-stantly in flux. The Transition State is often emotionally charged - with emotions ran-ging from despair to anxiety to anger to fear to relief. During the Transition State, productivity usually declines. The Transition State requires us to accept new ways of working, while still keeping up our day-to-day efforts. The Transition State can be very challenging.
• Generate short-term wins to reinforce the change.• Provide support and training. Dispel rumors.• Answer questions openly and honestly.• Deal with problems immediately.
3. Future State is where we are trying to go. It is often not fully defined, and can even shift while we are going through the Transition State. The Future State is sup-posed to be better than the Current State in terms of organisational performance. The Future State can often be worrisome. The Future State may not match our per-sonal and professional goals, and there is a chance that we may not be successful in the Future State. Above all else, the Future State is pretty much unknown.
• Celebrate success.
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• Anchor the changes into the culture.
• Identity what supports the change.• Identify barriers to sustaining change.• Develop ways to sustain the change.
• Ensure on-going leadership support.• Create a reward system.• Establish feedback systems.
Change management involves principles, processes, tools and techniques to manage the people-side of change to help achieve the required business case benefits. Thus, it is the people impact of change that this blog item mainly considers – the need for the effective and efficient introduction of change to ensure that those people affected (stakeholders) adapt to the change to help ensure that the benefits are fully realised. In fact, success and failure for project management is often determined by how effectively organisational change is managed. At its core, such change management is about identifying and resolving potential problems associated with the proposed change. While projects may be successfully completed, the management of change associated with the introduction of the new deliverables is often not planned at all or planned properly or executed well such that business case benefits that justified the investment are not realised or fully realised.
There are three key conditions in change management that we need to understand and address:
1. Single changes create multiple stakeholder impacts. A new status quo can lead to stakeholders experiencing one or more of the following consequences - They can be better off. They can be worse off. They can be unaffected.
2. Stakeholder perception of the impact may be different from the reality. Stake-holder will respond based on their personal perception of the project impact. Therefore, it’s critical for change managers to understand each stakeholder’s perception versus reality.
3. Stakeholder management and planning must take account of both the reality and the perception, for the change to succeed.
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Thus, just having a project deliverable that is the “right” answer does not guarantee that employees will make the necessary changes to their behaviours and work processes. Employee commitment, buy-in and adoption do not stem from the rightness of the solution, but rather from employees moving through their own change process. It takes more than the right solution to move employees out of the current state that they know and into the unknown future state. Fortunately, change management is not rocket science, and here are some well-proven commonsense principles to help ensure that the change process works properly:
1. People Issues. Any significant change creates people issues. For example, new leaders will be asked to step up, jobs will be created, changed or elimin-ated, new skills and capabilities may need to be developed, and as a con-sequence affected employees (stakeholders) may be uncertain and many of them resistant. Dealing with these issues on a reactive basis usually puts mor-ale and results at risk. A formal proactive approach for managing change — be-ginning with the relevant leaders and then engaging key stakeholders — should be developed during the project life cycle as we conceive, plan and execute the project, and adapted often as change moves through the affected parts of the or-ganisation.
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2. Start at the top. Because change is inherently unsettling for people at all levels of an organisation, all eyes are likely to turn to the CEO and the organisation’s leadership team for strength, support and direction. So, leaders themselves must embrace the change. They must be genuinely committed to the change, speak with one voice and model the desired behaviours. Bottom-up change is a very hard slog.
3. Make the case. Individuals are inherently rational and will question to what ex-tent change is needed, whether the change is headed in the right direction, and whether they want to commit personally to making change happen. They will look to the leadership for answers. The development of a sound business case for change is essential.
4. Create ownership. Leaders of change must over-perform during the transform-ation period and be the zealots who create a critical mass among the work force in favour of the change. This usually requires more than mere buy-in or passive agreement that the change is acceptable. It demands ownership by leaders will-ing to accept responsibility for making change happen in all of the areas they in-fluence or control. Ownership is often best created by involving people in identi-fying implementation problems and crafting solutions. It is reinforced by incent-ives and rewards. These can be tangible (for example, financial compensation) or psychological (for example, camaraderie and a sense of shared destiny).
5. Communicate the message. Too often, change leaders make the mistake of believing that others understand the issues, feel the need to change, and see the new direction as clearly as they do. The best change strategies reinforce core messages through regular, timely advice that is both inspirational and prac-
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ticable. Communications are targeted to provide employees the right informa-tion at the right time and to solicit their input and feedback. This may require over-communication through multiple channels. Effective communication that in-forms various stakeholders of the reasons for the change (why?), the benefits of successful implementation (what is in it for us, and you) as well as the details of the change (when? where? who is involved? how much will it cost?) is essential.
6. Risk Management. No change goes completely according to plan. Effectively managing change requires continual reassessment of its impact and the organ-isation’s willingness and ability to adopt. Risk management\
7. Speak to the individual. Change is both an institutional journey and a very per-sonal one. People spend many hours each week at work; many think of their col-leagues as a second family. Individuals (or teams of individuals) need to know how their work will change, what is expected of them during and after the change, how they will be measured, and what success or failure will mean for them and those around them. Team leaders should be as honest and explicit as possible. People will react to what they see and hear around them, and need to be involved in the change process. Highly visible rewards, such as promotion, recognition, and bonuses, should be provided as dramatic reinforcement for em-bracing change. Sanction or removal of people standing in the way of change will reinforce the institution’s commitment. Provide personal counseling (if re-quired) to alleviate any change-related fears It's easy just to think that people resist change out of sheer awkwardness and lack of vision. However you need to recognize that for some, change may affect them negatively in a very real way that you may not have foreseen. For example, people who've developed expert-ise in (or have earned a position of respect from) the old way of doing things can see their positions severely undermined by change.
Conveying the need for change
Positive and negative stakeholders come in many forms. Some individuals oppose change simply because they do not like the idea of changes to their routine. However there are also those who oppose change because they feel it threatens their status within an organisation. As an example, someone who is considered a subject matter expert for a particular software program may feel ill at ease at the proposition of a new, unfamiliar application replacing the previous system. In cases like this, it is important to communicate the overarching goals and benefits, as well as positive impacts to the
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individual. In this example, it is important to identify why this individual feels ill at ease, so concerns can be addressed via an effective communication strategy. The communication strategy aims to ensure that the individual ends up with positive feelings about change.
Despite the natural disposition of some individuals to avoid change, it is important to outline how a planned change improves an organisation to get onboard as many stakeholders as possible early within the change management process. Change management teams should not guess how individuals will be influenced, they carefully map the “is now” to the “will be” with respect to individual job roles, as well as utilising historical data to draw conclusions on how change has impacted the organisation in the past. Additionally, within groups certain individuals are more influential than others. It is very important to identify influential proponents of change and provide them with information, which they can use to ease the process of change within the larger group, aiding change management efforts.
Communications plan
All of the data gathering and planning amounts to little if there is not an effective communications plan in place. Information is communicated in a transparent way, with clear and concise messaging to stakeholders regarding the benefits of the proposed change for stakeholders. To ease the workload on the change management team, automated notifications are sent to keep users informed of how the change effort is progressing and how it impacts them. Change management teams keep project teams updated as to the progress of change efforts, as well as easing the burden of communication through automated notifications. This goes for both positive and negative stakeholders, since any information unnecessarily and intentionally withheld from negative stakeholders can be used as a platform for objections to change and perhaps sabotaging progress during the change.
Additionally, information which is intentionally withheld from relevant stakeholders can be interpreted as a sign that change has negative implications for those individuals, and can lead those parties to become suspicious of the team implementing change. To avoid this, the change team determines what information is communicated to whom, and from there, the project team can effectively tailor relevant messages.
Project teams must recognise that change management is crucial to the success of their projects. In order to obtain stakeholder buy-in, the goal of a planned change is mapped to a current pain experienced by the organisation. Both those in favour as well as those opposed to change are informed of the change impacts in order to level set expectations early during the planning phases of a change effort. Messages to stakeholders must be part of a wider, effective communications plan, which accounts for transmitting messages regarding updates to change efforts to individuals who occupy various roles within the organisation.
First Law: The Law of persistence
The status quo is persistent. The first law says that nature favours the status quo. Why? It doesn’t matter why. But for those who can’t rest until they know why, here’s a
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plausible reason. Nature is efficient. Since the status quo is where we need to be most of the time, nature has made the status quo free. We don’t need to exert any force to stay the course. But, in order for the status quo to be free and sustainable, then change must require force and cost. We get one or the other for free, not both. Nature has made a wise choice. The world we know would not be possible without this law. Take cricket for example. When a player bowls the ball, he’s applying a force to the ball while the ball is in his hands. As his arm moves through the air with the ball in his hand, he’s accelerating the ball. At some point he let’s go of the ball, removing the force. The ball is now on its own. If the first law didn’t exist, the ball would immediately fall, since the force is gone. Instead the ball continues its motion, even though there is no longer any force acting on it. It continues its journey to the batter. The batter then wants to change the motion of the ball, so he needs to apply a force to it. He does this with his swinging bat. The ball accelerates in the direction of the force of the bat until it leaves the bat. Again, if the first law didn’t exist, the ball would fall to the ground as soon as the bat lost contact.
Once we’ve established a way of doing things through training and coaching, we can leave it alone and it should faithfully continue to operate in the same way. We can expect that people and processes will behave today as they did yesterday. That allows us to focus on the things we need to change. Our world is stable, predictable. Imagine someone came along and tried to get our people to change their ways and that the first law didn’t exist. That person would have an easy time changing the team’s behaviour. We’d have to spend all our time making sure that didn’t happen. Fortunately that’s not the case. Change requires force, time and energy, so it isn’t easy for anyone to change our team’s behaviour. Of course, that means that if we want to deploy a change, we have to revert to using a force as well. We can’t have stability for free and change for free. We have to pay for on, and that one is “the change”. But how much force is required for a particular change? That depends. The second law explains.
Second law: The law of power
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If we want to move a 20 tonne truck we need a bigger force than moving a tricycle. Why? The truck is bigger. It has more mass. The greater the mass, the greater the force required. That seems pretty intuitive. If we don’t have enough force (not strong enough), the second law says, “Don’t waste your time trying.” We’re simply going to waste our energy. In addition to force, there is another consideration, “How far do we want to move the truck?” This is a second component to the second law. Even if we are strong enough to move it, can we move it all the way to where we want? Moving an object a certain distance is work. Work = force X distance (how far). Even if we’re strong enough to get it started, do we have enough energy to exert that force over the distance required? If we don’t, then we shouldn’t bother trying, especially if we’re moving the truck up an incline. As soon as we run out of energy and stop pushing, the truck will roll back down to its previous state. Sound familiar? In an organization all changes should be considered uphill. Many changes are not sustained for that reason.
What does this mean for our business projects? If we are introducing a change that impacts 100 people, we need a larger f orce than the same change to 10 people. A change that impacts 10 powerful people will require greater force than one impacting 10 not-so-powerful people. One hundred people represent a bigger mass than ten people. So we need a larger force. If our change is small, then that’s like pushing the truck a small distance. If the change is big, then that’s like pushing the truck a longer distance. Our project requires enough clout (force) to impact our mass, and enough resources (energy) to move that mass to the new desired status quo.
Third law: The law of reciprocity
The first two laws say that people and processes don’t naturally resist, they persist. Imagine you’re wearing very slippery skates on an ice ring. Imagine to you walk up to someone from behind, so that they don’t see you and don’t have time to react. You push the other person, who is also on skates. Who will move? Of course, you will both move. But has the other person deliberately pushed you? No, they haven’t. The third
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law says that force is an interaction. Force always occurs in pairs. So when you apply a force to a body, then the other body unwittingly applies an equal force to you as well. That’s not resistance you’re feeling. That’s persistence. Now imagine the other person was facing you and just as you push them, they dig their skate tip in the ice and push back. Now you’d be experiencing two forces; you pushing him, and him pushing back. That would be resistance. When we try to change something, it will always reciprocate. That’s nature telling us that change is not free.
The third implies that tiny changes may be easy while large changes will be difficult, regardless of any overt resistance that may be offered for other reasons. Resistance is not the third law. It is another unbalanced force coming from someone else trying to make a change of their own. When there is resistance, there are at least two forces coming from two different sources. Why is change difficult? How difficult is it? It is difficult so that stability can be easy. The level of difficulty will depend on the mass we’re trying to impact and how quickly we’re trying to impact it. People don’t naturally resist change. They persist in status quo behaviour according to the laws of nature. If you ask someone “Why do you do things that way?” and they respond, “Because that’s the way we’ve always done it,” don’t laugh, thinking that’s a poor reason. Not only is it a good reason, it’s the law.
Exercise Scenario
An organisation wanted to change its payroll system. A consultancy “NOPAY” won the contract to design the best solution and implement the change. The project had just started when rumours began to spread: “This payroll change is not good for the company. The old system is fine.” Several supervisors and managers were resisting the change. They could see no benefit in the new system and preferred the old Datacom system. It had been stable during the previous eight years, but was considered dated; there was no on-line access and the system provided insufficient data to support more complex information and research needs. But the new consultancy’s help centre seemed to provide indecipherable advice. Misinformation, negative comments, poor attitudes, lack of cooperation, lack of support and interest, and even minor sabotage were evident. In some cases managers would not show up for key decision-making meetings. Information was withheld or incomplete.
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During breaks and around the coffee machine, employees complained about the new system. Both employees and managers were distracted from their day-to-day work and productivity suffered. Some managers were rumored to quit if the change was implemented. After several months of difficulties and delays, under and over payments, the consultants finally declared the project in jeopardy. With the project at a stand-still, the client company held an emergency meeting. They identified a department head as the focal point for the resistance. Arguments against the new system – initiated by this manager – were spreading throughout the ranks. It turned out that her supervisors were the same people who were resisting the change and presumably threatening to leave the organisation. The only recourse at this point seemed to be reassignment or termination of this department head. However, both options would have negative fall-out for the company, not least the affected manager. Stakeholders were faced with a stalled project and a potentially lose-lose decision for a long-tenured manager. Resistance to the change was spreading.
An underlying principle at work here, as with many changes, is recognising that resistance is normal, and that our success with change is dependent on how we plan for, recognise and manage resistance. However, simply arriving at the “right” or “best” solution is not sufficient to ensure that performance is improved. Ultimately, changes come to life through the behaviors and work processes of individual employees, since:
1. The right answer alone does not create buy-in2. The right answer alone does not create commitment3. The right answer alone does not mitigate resistance
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4. The right answer alone does not eliminate fear5. The right answer alone does not ensure compliance
Just having a solution that is the “right” answer does not guarantee that employees will make the necessary changes to their behaviors and work processes. Employee commitment, buy-in and adoption do not stem from the rightness of the solution – but rather from employees moving through their own change process. It takes more than the right solution to move employees out of the current state that they know and into the unknown future state. As a group identify:
1. Measures to salvage the project.2. Measures that would have helped prevent the current situation?
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Case Study: Project Leadership
Your company has just won a contract for an outside customer. The contract is for one year, broken down as follows: R & D: six months; prototype testing: one month; manufacturing: five months. In addition to the risks involved in the R & D stage, both your management and the customer have stated that there absolutely will be no tradeoffs on time, cost, or performance – all are fixed.
When you prepared the proposal six months ago, you planned and budgeted for a full time project staff of five people, in addition to the functional support personnel. Unfortunately, due to limited resources, our staff (i.e. the project office) will be as follows:
Tom: An excellent engineer, somewhat of a prima donna, but has worked very well with you on previous projects. You specifically requested Tom and were fortunate to have him assigned, although your project is not regarded as a high priority. Tom is recognised as both a technical leader and expert, and is considered as perhaps the best engineer in the company. Tom will be full-time for the duration of the project.
Bob: Started with the company a little over a year ago, and may be a little “green behind the ears”. His line manager has great expectations for him in the future, but for the time being wants to give him on-the-job training as a project office team member. Bob will be full-time for the duration of the project.
Carol: She has been with the company for twenty years and does an acceptable job. She has never worked on your projects before. She is full-time on this project.
George: He has been with the company for six years, but has never worked on any of your projects. His superior tells you that he will be only half time on your project until he finishes a crash job on another project. He should be available for full-time work in a month or two. George is regarded as an outstanding employee.
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Management informs you that there is nobody available to full the fifth position. You’ll have to spread the workload among the other members. Obviously, the customer may not be too happy about this.
Remember; these individuals are “dotted” to you and “solid” to their line manager, although they are in your project office. The balance of power favours line management. Record your selected choice on this table and on completion of the exercise we will score your results.
Situation Answer Points Situation Answer Points1 11
2 12
3 13
4 14
5 15
6 16
7 17
8 18
9 19
10 20
TOTAL
Situation 1: The project office team members have been told to report to you this morning. They have all received your memo concerning the time and place of the planning kick-off meeting. However, they have not been provided any specific details concerning the project except that the project will be at least one year in duration. For your company, this is regarded as a long-term project. A good strategy for the meeting would be:
A. The team must already be self-motivated or else they would not have been as-signed. Simply welcome them and assign homework.
B. Motivate the employees by showing them how they will benefit; esteem, pride, and self-actualisation. Minimise discussion on specifics.
C. Explain the project and ask them for their input. Try to get them to identify altern-atives and encourage group decision-making.
D. Identify the technical details of the project; the requirements, performance stand-ards, and expectations.
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Situation 2: You give the team members a copy of the winning proposal and a “confidential” memo describing the assumptions and constraints you considered in developing the proposal. You tell your team to review the material and be prepared to perform detailed planning at the meeting you have scheduled for the following Monday. During Monday’s planning meeting, you find that Tom (who has worked with you before) has established a take-charge role and has done some of the planning that should have been the responsibility of other team members. You should:
A. Do nothing. This may be a beneficial situation. However, you may ask if the other project office members wish to review Tom’s planning.
B. Ask team members individually how they feel about Tom’s role. If they complain have a talk with Tom.
C. Ask each team member to develop their own schedule and then compare res-ults.
D. Talk to Tom privately about the long-term effects of his behaviour.
Situation 3: Your team appears to be having trouble developing a realistic schedule that will satisfy the customer’s milestones. They keep asking you pertinent questions and seem to be making the right decisions, but with difficulty.
A. Do nothing. If the team is good, they will eventually work out the problem.
B. Encourage the team to continue but give some ideas as to possible alternatives. Let them solve the problem.
C. Become actively involved and help the team solve the problem. Supervise the planning until completion.
D. Take charge yourself and solve the problem for the team. You may have to provide continuous direction.
Situation 4: Your team has taken an optimistic approach to the schedule. The functional managers have reviewed the schedule and have sent your team strong memos stating that there is no way they can support your schedule. Your team’s morale appears to be very low. Your team expected the schedule to be returned for additional iterations and tradeoffs, but not with such harsh words from the line managers. You should:
A. Take no action. This is common in these types of projects and the team must learn to cope.
B. Call a special team meeting to discuss the morale problem and ask the team for recommendations. Try to work out the problem.
C. Meet with team members individually to reinforce their behaviour and perform-ance. Let them know how many other times this has occurred and been re-solved through tradeoffs and additional iterations. State your availability to provide advice and support.
D. Take charge and look for ways to improve morale by changing the schedule.
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Situation 5: The functional departments have begun working, but are still criticising the schedule. Your team is extremely unhappy with some of the employees assigned out of one functional department. Your team feels that these employees are not qualified to perform the required work. You should:
A. Do nothing until you are absolutely sure (with evidence) that the assigned per-sonnel cannot perform as needed.
B. Sympathise with your team and encourage them to live with this situation until an alternative is found.
C. Assess the potential risks with the team and ask for their input and suggestions. Try to develop contingency plans if the problem is as serious as the team indic-ates.
D. Approach the functional manager and express your concern. Ask to have differ-ent employees assigned.
Situation 6: Bob’s performance as a project office team member has begun to deteriorate. You are not sure whether he simply lacks the skills, cannot endure the pressure, or cannot properly assume part of the additional work that resulted from the fifth position in the project being vacant. You should:
A. Do nothing. The problem may be temporary and you cannot be sure that there is a measurable impact on the project.
B. Have a personal discussion with Bob, seek out the cause, and ask him for a solution.
C. Call a team meeting and discuss how productivity and performance are decreas-ing. Ask the team for recommendations and hope Bob gets the message.
D. Interview the other team members and see if they can explain Bob’s poor per-formance. Ask the other members to assist you by talking to Bob.
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Situation 7: George, who is half time on your project, has just submitted for your approval his quarterly progress report for the work he has done on your project. After your signature has been attained, the report is sent to senior management and the customer. The report is not very clear or comprehensive, is only marginally acceptable and not at all what you would have expected from George. George apologises to you for the report and blames it upon his other project, which is in its last two weeks. You should:
A. Sympathise with George and ask him to rewrite the report.
B. Tell George that the report is not satisfactory and will reflect upon his ability as a project office team member.
C. Ask the team to assist George in redoing the report since a bad report reflects upon everyone.
D. Ask one of the other team members to rewrite the report for George.
Situation 8: You have completed the R&D stage of your project and are entering phase II - Prototype testing. You are entering month seven of the twelve-month project. Unfortunately, the results of phase I - R&D indicate that you were too optimistic in your estimating for phase II and schedule slippage of at least two weeks is highly probably. The customer may not be happy. You should:
A. Do nothing. These problems occur and have a way of working themselves out. The end date of the project might still be met.
B. Call a team meeting to discuss the morale problem resulting from the slippage. If morale is improved, the slippage may be overcome.
C. Call a team meeting and seek ways of improving productivity for phase II. Hope-fully, the team meeting will come up with alternatives.
D. This is a crisis and you must exert strong leadership. You should take control and assist your team in identifying alternatives.
Situation 9: Your rescheduling efforts have been successful. The functional managers have given you adequate support and you are back on schedule. You should:
A. Do nothing. Your team has matured and is doing what they are paid to do.
B. Try to provide some sort of monetary or non-monetary reward for your team (ie, management-granted time off or a team dinner).
C. Provide positive feedback/reinforcement for the team and search for ideas for shortening phase III.
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D. Obviously, your strong leadership has been effective. Continue this role for the phase III schedule.
Situation 10: You are now at the end of the seventh month and everything is proceeding as planned. Motivation appears high. You should:
A. Leave well enough alone.
B. Look for further ways to improve the functioning of the team. Talk to them and make them feel important.
C. Call a team meeting and review the remaining schedule for the project. Look at contingency plans.
D. Make sure the team is still focusing on the goals and objectives of the project.
Situation 11:The customer unofficially informs you that his company has a problem and may have to change the design specifications before production begins. This would be a catastrophe for your project. The customer wants a meeting at your plant within the next seven days. This will be customer’s first visit to your plant. All previous meetings were informal and at the customer’s premises, with just you and the customer. This meeting will be formal. To prepare for the meeting, you should:
A. Make sure the schedule is updated and assume a passive role since the cus-tomer hasn’t informed you of their problem.
B. Ask the team to improve productivity before the customer’s meeting. This should please the customer.
C. Call an immediate team meeting and ask the team to prepare an agenda and identify the items to be discussed.
D. Assign specific responsibilities to each team member for preparation of handout material for the meeting.
Situation 12: Your team is obviously not happy with the results of the customer interface meeting where the customer has asked for a change in design specifications. The manufacturing plan and manufacturing schedule must now be redeveloped. You should:
A. Do nothing. The team is already highly motivated and will take charge as before.
B. Re-emphasise the team spirit and encourage your people to proceed. Tell them that nothing is impossible for a good team.
C. Roll up our shift sleeves and help the team identify alternatives. Some degree of guidance is necessary.
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D.
E. Provide strong leadership and close supervision. Your team will have to rely upon you for assistance.
Situation 13: You are now in the ninth month. While your replanning is going on (as a result of changes to the specifications), the customer calls and asks for an assessment of the risks in cancelling this project right away and starting another one. You should:
A. Wait for a formal request. Perhaps you can delay long enough for the project to finish.
B. Tell the team that their excellent performance may result in a follow-on contract.
C. Call a team meeting to assess the risks and look for alternatives.
D. Accept strong leadership for this and with minimum, if any, team involvement.
Situation 14: One of the functional managers has asked for your evaluation of all of her functional employees currently working on your project (excluding project office personnel). Your project office personnel are working closer with the functional employees than you are. You should:
A. Return the request to the functional manager since this is not part of your job de-scription.
B. Talk to each team member individually telling them how important their input is and ask for their evaluation.
C. As a team, evaluate each of the functional team members, and try to come to some sort of agreement.
D. Do not burden your team with this request. You can do it yourself.
Situation 15: You are in the tenth month of the project. Carol informs you that she has the opportunity to be the project leader for a new job starting in two weeks. She has been with the company for twenty years and this is her first opportunity as a project leader. She wants to know if she can be released from your project. You should:
A. Let Carol go. You do not want to stand in the way of her career advancement.
B. Ask the team to meet in private and conduct a vote. Tell Carol you will abide by the team vote.
C. Discuss the problem with the team since they must assume the extra workload, if necessary.
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D. Talk with her and explain how important it is for her to remain. You are already short-handed.
Situation 16: Your team informs you that one of the functional manufacturing managers has built up a brick wall around his department and all information and requests must flow through him. The brick wall has been in existence for two years. Your team members are having trouble with status reporting, but always get the information after catering to the functional manager. You should:
A. Do nothing. This is obviously the way the line manager wants to run his depart-ment. Your team is getting the information they need.
B. Ask the team members to use their political behavioural skills in obtaining the in-formation.
C. Call a team meeting to discuss alternative ways of obtaining the information.
D. Assume strong leadership and exert your authority by calling the line manager and asking for the information.
Situation 17: The executives have given you a new person to replace Carol for the last two months of the project. Neither you nor your team have worked with this replacement before. You should:
A. Do nothing. Carol obviously filled him in on what he should be doing and what is involved in the project.
B. Counsel the new man individually, bring him up to speed, and assign him Carol’s work.
C. Call a meeting and ask each member to explain his or her role on the project to the new man.
D. Ask each team member to talk to this man as soon as possible and help him come on board.
Situation 18: One of your team members wants to take a late afternoon course at the local polytechnic. Unfortunately, this course may conflict with his workload. You should:
A. Postpone your decision. Ask the employee to wait until the course is offered again.
B. Review the request with the team member and discuss the impact on his per-formance.
C. Discuss the request with the team and ask for the team’s approval. The team may have to cover for this employee’s workload.
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D. Discuss the individually with each team member to make sure that the task re-quirements will still be adhered to.
Situation 19: Your functional employees have used the wrong materials in making a production run test. The cost to your project was significant, but absorbed in a small “cushion” which you saved for emergencies such as this. Your team members tell you that the test will be rerun without any slippage of the schedule. You should:
A. Do nothing. Your team seems to have the situation well under control.
B. Interview the employees that created this problem and stress the importance of productivity and following instructions.
C. Ask your team to develop contingency plans for this situation should it happen again.
D. Assume a strong leadership role for the rerun test to let people know your con-cern.
Situation 20: All projects must come to an end. Your project has a requirement for a final report. This final report may very well become the basis for follow-on work. You should:
A. Do nothing. Your team has things under control and knows that a final report is needed.
B. Tell your team that they have done a wonderful job and there is only one more task to do – the final report.
C. Ask your team to meet and provide an outline for the final report.
D. You must provide some degree of leadership for the final report, at least the structure. The final report could easily reflect on your ability as a project man-ager.
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Project Benefits RealisationProject benefits are advantages or added value that emerge mostly at or after project completion. They are not just another project component, but are the reason for the project – the fundamental project driver. Obtaining some sort of benefit, whether financial, economic or otherwise is the reason for undertaking a project. If no worthwhile benefit will emerge, we should not embark on the project.
While projects are undertaken to add value through benefits, understandably project managers are mostly preoccupied with producing deliverables as per specifications, on time and within budget. Traditionally, it is the project sponsor who is responsible for achieving the business case benefits that mostly emerge after the deliverable is launched. Of course, project delivery is an important step to achieving benefits. Completing our projects on time, within budget and to expected standards of quality sets the platform for ongoing success, but ultimately it is the realisation of expected, and sometimes unexpected benefits that determine project success, and of course benefit or benefits should outweigh the costs of achieving them, where:
VALUE = BENEFITS - COSTS
The division of responsibilities between project sponsor and project manager has its equivalent in NZ government, whereby outcomes are the results that our government wants to achieve and outputs are the deliverables (products and services) that our government departments are engaged in producing.
Outputs may or may not achieve outcomes. This disconnect is a result of the 1980s public service reforms and perpetuated over subsequent decades. Ministers of the Crown are deemed to be exclusively accountable for outcomes and our public service is exclusively accountable for outputs. The principle behind this split is that managers should be held accountable only for things they can control. Outcomes, while
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supremely important, are seen as more difficult to control because they are affected by many external factors that better reside in the political arena.
This division of responsibility between the sponsor and the project manager is understandable, since:
Project managers’ success, rewards and recognition are usually measured in terms of project constraints – scope, time, cost and quality.
Most organisations have no formal process for managing project benefits.
Most benefits arise during the product lifecycle, which follows the project life-cycle is completed.
However, in the project management domain, there is now an argument that we project managers should assume greater responsibility for benefit delivery. As a minimum project managers should include strategies for benefit tracking and realisation in their project implementation plans. Such strategies might also be addressed in the project business case that justifies the investment.
But before we explore this value creation process further, we need to properly understand the relationship between project objectives, outputs, outcomes and benefits, where:
Objectives are parameters or constraints of scope, time, cost and quality, within which us project managers must navigate and build our creations.
Outputs are deliverables – products or services that remain at our project’s completion. Such outputs may be tangible (eg, buildings) or intangible (eg, policy).
Outcomes are the results or changes caused by using project outputs. Such changes need to be managed to ensure that planned benefits result.
Benefits add value through improvements that result from outcomes and may be easy or difficult to quantify, direct or indirect, anticipated or unforeseen, one-time or recurring, and are not necessarily assured – they possess uncertainty. Typical benefits or reasons for undertaking projects could be categorised as:
To retain customers or gain more customers. To increase revenue and market share. To reduce or avoid costs. To improve staff satisfaction, morale and motivation. To comply with legislation.
Tangible and intangible benefits are described as follows:
Tangible benefits are those that can be stated in quantitative terms and in-clude benefits that can be expressed in dollars, such as the dollar savings achieved through staff redundancies, and non-financial, but measureable bene-fits directly attributable to the project such as improved levels of customer satis-faction and fewer stress-related staff problems.
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Intangible benefits that are difficult to measure or quantify, yet still represent a return on the project investment, such as happier staff, faster decision-making and improved public image.
Benefits might also be measured in terms of the “triple bottom line” where they are categorised as:
Economic or financial benefits determined through such techniques as cost-benefit analysis, net present value, internal rate of return, and economic value added calculations.
Social and community benefits that encompass health and safety, cultural, functionality, sustainability, welfare and environmental impact factors.
Corporate benefits such as revenue, profitability, innovation, growth, market share, shareholder and stakeholder value, community perception, and ethical and probity considerations.
We can’t expect benefits to materialise without some effort. Benefits evolve over time as people adopt the new product or service. However, many projects declared successful, never deliver the benefits originally envisaged. Also, different projects sometimes claim the same benefits. In fact, if any two projects claim the same benefits, they are the same project. Also, we need to recognise that one benefit may be dependent on the achievement of another. And benefits are not necessarily assured. Their importance and probability needs to be periodically assessed and appropriate response measures taken as we should do for any other project risk.
The process for benefits realisation starts with the end in mind. In fact, a project might be described as a benefits-led change initiative. We must therefore ensure our client is clear about the benefits they are buying, not just the product or service they are buying. Benefits are the rationale for undertaking the project and are identified in the project business case, which is a core reference document throughout the project lifecycle and subsequent product lifecycle. Benefits need to be clear, relevant and measurable, and the business case, which is a “living document,” needs to be continually updated as circumstances change. Sometimes the rationale or value proposition for the project evaporates, resulting in project cancellation, even when project implementation is proceeding well in terms of schedule and budget performance.
The project plan, prepared by the project manager, should include the anticipated benefits and responsibilities for their realisation, typically shown in table format:
Required Benefit
Person Accountable
Metric(s) AchievementTimeframe
While a business analyst may have prepared the project business case complete with anticipated benefits, the project sponsor “owns” the business case, is responsible for
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keeping it updated, and is primarily accountable for benefits realisation. Their responsibility intrudes into the operational life of the deliverable. Sponsor or line manager-arranged user surveys are helpful for gauging benefit realisation. Customers (users) are usually required to provide regular feedback. They track, record and report performance against agreed benefits. Benefits also need to be sustained. Sometimes enhancement projects are implemented when benefits do not materialise as planned or deliverables under-perform. Yet, sometimes unexpected benefits and disbenefits occur.
There are several reasons why project benefits may not be realized, fully realized or sustained, including:
Unsatisfactory business cases that do not properly identify or describe benefits, discount risks, and/or over-state benefits sometimes to help ensure projects are approved or are given unwarranted funding priority. Such business case have probably not been subject to robust and independent challenge and scrutiny. The business case should be unbiased and include evidence for and against the proposition, with credible alternatives included wherever appropriate. A be-nefits identification workshop with key stakeholders might be held during project conception and periodically thereafter.
Poor benefit definition. Such anticipated benefits, if identified, are described in only vague terms with plenty of adjectives and adverbs that make their object-ive measurement difficult.
Over-emphasis on deliverables, without thinking much, or at all, about the be-nefits that the deliverables will create. Sometimes this is the consequence of lethargic sponsors and deliverable-driven project managers. An important job for the project manager is to plan for benefits realisation and keep that plan up-dated as circumstances change.
No plan or mechanism in place to regularly review business case viability or re-view and manage resultant benefits. Little or no planning is undertaken for be-nefit tracking and harvesting.
Deliverable users not properly trained in the new product or service, have no or little buy-in and/or are reluctant to make the change often due to a fear of the unknown. Suitable change management practices need to be identified and implemented, including any training needed for the successful use of the new equipment and procedures.
Project sponsors and champions leave the organisation or become preoccu-pied with other responsibilities and/or the more exciting prospect of starting new projects.
External factors (eg, politics, economics, social factors, new technology, new le-gislation, and competition) change after product launch to diminish or cancel anticipated benefits. Changes could also be beneficial. Such external impacts are more likely when benefits are to be realised over a period of years rather than days.
Changing the way people think, work and manage is not easy, but without such change our projects may deliver, but will surely die. We must ensure that the benefits
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envisaged at the start are fully realised at the end, as soon as possible, and are sustained.
Exercises
1. Link these benefits with their most likely deliverable:
Benefits Deliverables
Increase revenue
Reduced costs
Improved image
New efficient technology
New popular product
Updated code of ethics
2. What project deliverables might achieve the following benefits:
Benefits Deliverables
Improved safety
Reduced staff turnover
Reduced wastage
3. What benefits might be realised from these project deliverables:
Deliverables Benefits
Software training
Updated strategic plan
Reduced production cycle time
4. Suggest KPIs (performance measures) that might apply to the following benefits:
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Benefits Performance Measures
Fewer customer com-plaints
Better teamwork
Reduced absences due to injuries
PMBOK Team Quiz70
Instructions
Below are 90 questions covering PMBOK and the principles of project management. There are five answers for each question. Although some of the answers may appear quite similar, you must select one answer only. As a group attempt 20 questions and then check the answers and then proceed with the next 20, and so on. To qualify at PMP exams we need to get 60 percent or 54 answers correct.
1. A comprehensive definition of scope management would be:
A Managing a project in terms of its WBS tasks through all lifecycle phases and processes
B Approval of the scope baseline
C Approval of the project charter
D Configuration control
E Approved detailed planning including budgets, resource allocation, linear responsibility charts, and management sponsorship
2. The most common types of schedules are: milestone charts, line of balance, and:
A Gantt charts
B Time phased events
C Calendar integrated activities
D A and C only
E B and C only
3. The main player in project communication is the:
A Sponsor
B Project manager
C Functional manager
D Functional team
E All of the above
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4. The most effective means of determining the cost of a project is to price out the:
A Work breakdown structure (WBS)
B Responsibilities assignment matrix
C Project charter
D Scope statement
E Management plan
5. Employee unions would most likely satisfy which level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
A Belonging
B Self-actualization
C Esteem
D Safety
E Empowerment
6. A written or pictorial document that describes, defines, or specifies the services or items to be produced or procured is:
A A specification document
B A Gantt chart
C A charter
D A risk analysis
E None of the above
7. Future events or outcomes that are favourable are called:
A Risks
B Opportunities
C Surprises
D Contingencies
E None of the above
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8. The costs of non-conformance include:
A Prevention costs
B Internal failure costs
C External failure costs
D B and C only
E A, B, and C
9. Perhaps the biggest problem facing the project manager during integration activities within a matrix structure is:
A Coping with employees who report to multiple bosses
B Too much sponsorship involvement
C Unclear functional understanding of the technical requirements
D Escalating project costs
E All of the above
10. A variance envelope has been established on a project. The envelope goes from + 30 percent in R & D to + 5 percent during manufacturing. The most common reason for the change in the "thickness" of the envelope is because:
A The management reserve has been used up
B The accuracy of the estimates in manufacturing is worse than the accuracy of the estimates in R & D
C Tighter controls are always needed as a project begins to wind down
D The personal desires of the project sponsor are an issue
E Level of uncertainty
11. An informal communication network on a project and within an organisation is called:
A A free upward flow
B A free horizontal flow
C An unrestricted communication flow
D The grapevine
E An open network
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12. Which of the following methods is/are best suited to identifying the "vital few"?
A Pareto analysis
B Cause-and-effect analysis
C Trend and analysis
D Process control charts
E All of the above
13. In contract management the 'Order of Precedence' is:
A The order (priority) in which contract documents will be used or interpreted when it becomes necessary to resolve inconsistencies between contract documents
B The order in which project tasks would be completed
C The relationship that project tasks have to one another
D The ordered list (by quality) of the screened vendors for a project deliverable
E None of the above
14. Future risk events or outcomes that are unfavourable are called:
A Risks
B Opportunities
C Surprises
D Contingencies
E None of the above
15. In smaller companies, project managers and line managers are:
A Never the same person
B Always the same person
C Sometimes the same person
D Always in disagreement with each other
E Forced to act as their own sponsors
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16. Project lifecycles are very useful for _______ and ______
A Variation management; termination
B Objective setting; information gathering
C Standardisation; control
D Configuration management; weekly status updates
E Approval; termination
17. Smoothing out resource requirements from period to period is called:
A Resource allocation
B Resource partitioning
C Resource levelling
D Resource quantification
E None of the above
18. The difference between the BCWS (Budgeted Cost for Work Scheduled) and the BCWP (Budgeted Cost for Work Performed) is referred to as:
A The schedule variance
B The cost variance
C The estimate at completion
D The actual cost of the work performed
E None of the above
19. Well qualified R & D project managers in high-tech companies most often motivate using ________ power.
A Expert
B Reward
C Referent
D Identification
E None of the above
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20. A recurring communication pattern within the project organisation or company is called:
A A free-form matrix
B A structured matrix
C A network
D A rigid channel
E None of the Above
21. A task-oriented family tree of project work chunks is:
A A detailed plan
B A linear responsibility chart
C A work breakdown structure (WBS)
D A cost account coding system
E A work package description
22. Quality may be defined as:
A Conformance to requirements
B Fitness for use
C Continuous improvement of products and services
D What the client wants
E All of the above
23. In which of the following circumstance(s) would you be most likely to buy goods or services instead of producing them in-house?
A Your company has excess capacity and can produce the goods and services.
B Your company has no excess capacity and cannot produce the goods or services
C There are many reliable vendors for the goods or services that you are attempting to procure but the vendors cannot achieve your level of quality
D A and B
E A and C
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24. The major disadvantage of the original Gantt chart is:
A Lack of time-phasing
B Cannot be related to calendar dates
C Does not show activity interrelationships
D Cannot be related to manpower planning
E Cannot be related to cost estimates
25. Project risk management is typically defined as a function consisting of reducing:
A Uncertainty
B Damage
C Time
D Cost
E A and B
26. Typically, during which phase in a project lifecycle are most of the project expenses incurred?
A Concept phase
B Development or design phase
C Execution phase
D Termination phase
E None of the above
27. Going from Level 3 to Level 4 in the work breakdown structure (WBS) will result in:
A Less estimating accuracy
B Better estimating and control of the project
C Lower status reporting costs
D A greater likelihood that something will fall through the cracks
E None of the above
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28. Conflict management requires problem solving. Which of the following is often referred to as a problem-solving technique and used extensively in conflict resolution?
A Confrontation
B Compromise
C Smoothing
D Forcing
E Withdrawal
29. Estimating the effect of the change of one project variable upon the overall project is know as:
A The project manager's risk aversion quotient
B The total project risk
C The expected value of the project
D A sensitivity analysis
E None of the above
30. Power games, withholding information, and hidden agendas are examples of:
A Feedback
B Communication barriers
C Indirect communication
D Mixed messages
E All of the above
31. The basic terminology for network diagrams includes:
A Activities, events, manpower, skill levels, and slack
B Activities, documentation, events, manpower, and skill levels
C Slack, activities, events and time estimates
D Time estimates, slack, sponsorship involvement, and activities
E Time estimates, slack time, report writing, life cycle phases, and crashing times
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32. The lowest level in the work breakdown structure (WBS) used for assignment purposes are referred to as:
A Work packages
B Subtasks
C Tasks
D Code of accounts
E Integration points
33. A project element that lies between two events is called:
A An activity or task
B A critical path node
C A slack milestone
D A timing slot
E A calendar completion point
34. The make or buy decision is made at which stage of the contracting cycle?
A Requirement
B Requisition
C Solicitation
D Award
E Contractual
35. The basic elements of a communication model include:
A Listening, talking, and sign language
B Communicator, encoding, message, medium, decoding, receiver, and feedback
C Clarity of speech and good listening habits
D Reading, writing, and listening
E All of the above
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36. Which of the following is not part of the generally accepted view of quality today?
A Defects should be highlighted and brought to the surface
B We can inspect in quality
C Improved quality saves money and increases business
D People want to produce quality products
E Quality is customer-focused
37. The three most common types of project cost estimates are:
A Order of magnitude, parametric, and budget
B Parametric, definitive, and top down
C Order of magnitude, definitive, and bottom up
D Top down, bottom up, and definitive
E Analogy, parametric, and top down
38. Good project objectives must be:
A General rather than specific
B Established without considering resource constraints
C Realistic and attainable
D Overly complex
E Measurable, intangible, and verifiable
39. The process of examining a situation and identifying and classifying areas of potential risk is known as:
A Risk identification
B Risk response
C Lessons learned or control
D Risk quantification
E None of the above
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40. In which type of contract arrangement is the contractor most likely to control costs?
A Cost plus percentage of cost
B Firm-fixed price
C Time and materials
D Firm-fixed price with economic price adjustment
E Fixed-price incentive firm target
41. A project can best be defined as:
A A series of non-related activities designed to accomplish single or multiple objectives.
B A coordinated effort of related activities designed to accomplish a goal without a well-established end point
C An endeavour that takes no more than one year.
D An undertaking with a well-defined outcome, and a clear timeframe.
E All of the above.42. Risk management decision-making falls into three broad categories:
A Certainty, risk, and uncertainty
B Probability, risk, and uncertainty
C Probability, risk event, and uncertainty
D Hazard, risk event, and uncertainty
E A and D
43. If there is a run of ___________ consecutive data points (minimum) on either side of the mean on a control chart, the process is said to be out of control.
A 3
B 7
C 9
D 5
E 11
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44. The work breakdown structure (WBS), the work packages, and the company's accounting system may be tied together through:
A The code of accounts
B The overhead rates
C The budgeting system
D The capital budgeting process
E All of the above
45. A programme can best be described as:
A A grouping of related activities that last two years or more
B The first major subdivision of a project
C A grouping of related projects, similar in nature.
D A product line
E Another name for a project
46. Which of the following types of power comes through the formal organisational hierarchy?
A Coercive, legitimate, referent
B Reward, coercive, expert
C Referent, expert, legitimate
D Legitimate, coercive, reward
E Expert, coercive, referent
47. The most appropriate definition of project success is:
A Within time
B Within time and cost
C Within time, cost, and technical performance requirements
D Within time, cost, performance, and acceptance by the customer/user
E None of the above
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48. Activities with zero time duration are referred to as:
A Critical path activities
B Non-critical path activities
C Slack time activities
D Events
E None of the above
49. Which of the following is the correct order for the steps in the contracting process?
A Requisition cycle. Requirement cycle, solicitation cycle, award cycle, contractual cycle
B Requirement cycle. requisition cycle, solicitation cycle, award cycle, contractual cycle
C Requirement cycle, requisition cycle, solicitation cycle, contractual cycle
D Requisition cycle, requirement cycle, award cycle, solicitation cycle, contractual cycle
E Requirement cycle, requisition cycle, award cycle, contractual cycle, solicitation cycle
50. Project cash reserves are often used for adjustments in escalation factors, which may be beyond the control of the project manager. Other than possible financing (interest) costs and taxes, the three most common escalation factors involve changes in:
A Overhead rates, labour rates and material costs
B Overhead rates, schedule slippages, rework
C Rework, cost-of-living adjustments, overtime
D Material costs, shipping cost, and scope changes
E Labour rates, material costs and cost reporting
51. The critical path in a network is the path that:
A Has the greatest degree of risk
B Will elongate the project if the activities on this path take longer than anticipated
C Must be completed before all other paths
D All of the above
E A and B only
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52. The major difference between project and line management is that the project manager may not have any control over which basic function?
A Decision-making
B Staffing
C Rewarding
D Tracing/monitoring
E Reviewing
53. During which phase of a project is uncertainty the greatest?
A Design
B Execution
C Concept
D Phase-out
E All of the above
54. In today's view of quality, who defines quality?
A Senior management
B Project management
C Functional management
D Workers
E Customers
55. Project managers need exceptionally good communication and negotiation skills primarily because:
A They may be leading a team over which they have no direct control
B Procurement activities mandate this
C They are expected to be technical experts
D They must provide executive/customer/sponsor briefings
E All of the above
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56. For effective communication, the message should be oriented to:
A The initiator
B The receiver
C The media
D The management style
E The corporate culture
57. In the past, most project managers have come from _________ fields without proper training or education in ________skills.
A Technical; accounting/finance
B Technical; management
C Technical; psychological
D Marketing; technology-oriented
E Business; manufacturing know-how
58. On a network diagram, the line between two boxes is called:
A An arrow
B A constraint
C An event
D The critical path
E None of the above
59. In which type of contract arrangement is the contractor least likely to control costs?
A Cost plus percentage of cost
B Firm-fixed price
C Time and materials
D Purchase order
E Fixed-price incentive firm target
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60. The financial closeout of a project dictates that:
A All project funds have been spent
B No charge numbers have been overrun
C No follow-on work from this client is possible
D No further charges can be made against the project
E All of the above
61. A graphical display of accumulated costs against time, is called:
A A trend line
B A trend analysis
C An S curve
D A percent completion report
E An earned value report
62. The upper and lower control limits are typically set:
A 3 standard deviations from the mean in each direction
B 3 (sigma) from the mean in each direction
C Inside the upper and lower specification limits
D To detect and flag when a process may be out of control
E All of the above
63. The major difference between PERT and CPM networks is:
A PERT requires three time estimates whereas CPM requires one time estimate
B PERT is used for construction projects whereas CPM is used for R&D
C PERT addresses only time whereas CPM also includes costs and resource availability
D PERT requires computer solutions whereas CPM is a manual technique
E PERT is measured in days whereas CPM uses weeks or months
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64. The most common form of organisational communication is:
A Upward to management
B Downward to subordinates
C Horizontal to peers
D Horizontal to customers
E All of the above
65. The ultimate purpose for risk management is:
A Analysis
B Mitigation
C Assessment
D Contingency planning
E All of the above
66. Traditional organisational form has the disadvantage of:
A Complex functional budgeting
B Poorly established communication channels
C No single focal point for clients/sponsors
D Slow reaction capability
E Inflexible use of manpower
67. Which of the following is not a factor to consider when selecting a contract type?
A A type/complexity of the requirement
B The urgency of the requirement
C The cost/price analysis
D The extent of price competition
E All are factors to consider
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68. Which of the following is not indicative of today's views of the quality management process?
A Defects should be highlighted
B Focus should be exclusively on written specifications
C The responsibility for quality lies primarily with management but everyone should be involved
D Quality saves money
E Problem identification leads to cooperative solutions
69. The document that describes the details of the task in terms of physical characteristics is:
A A design specification
B A functional specification
C A performance specification
D A project specification
E All of the above
70. The swiftest and most effective communications take place among people with:
A Common points of view
B Dissimilar interests
C Advanced degrees
D The ability to reduce perception barriers
E Good encoding skills
71. Assigning resources in an attempt to find the shortest project schedule consistent with fixed resource limits is called:
A Resource allocation
B Resource partitioning
C Resource priorities
D Resource quantification
E None of the above
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72. The process of conducting an analysis to determine the probability of risk events and the consequences associated with their occurrence is known as:
A Risk identification
B Risk response
C Lessons learned or control
D Risk quantification
E None of the above
73. The most common method for pricing our nonburdened or overhead labour hours for a three-year project would be:
A To price out the hours at the actual salary of the people to be assigned
B To price out the work using a company-wide average labour rate
C To price out the work using a functional group average labour rate
D All of the above
E A and B only
74. Which of the following is true of modern quality management?
A Quality is defined by the customer
B Quality has become a competitive weapon
C Quality is now an integral part of strategic planning
D Quality is linked with profitability on both the market and cost sides
E All are true
75. A project manager can exchange information with the project team using which media?
A Tactile
B Audio
C Olfactory
D Visual
E All of the above
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76. The techniques and methods used to reduce or control risk are known as:
A Risk identification
B Risk response
C Lessons learned or control
D Risk quantification
E None of the above
77. A written preliminary contractual instrument that authorizes the contractor to begin work is known as:
A A definitive contract
B A preliminary contract
C A letter contract/letter of intent
D A purchase order
E A pricing arrangement
78. A company dedicated to quality usually provides training for:
A Senior management
B Hourly workers
C Salaried workers
D All employees
E Project managers
79. The most common form of project communication is:
A Upward to executive sponsor
B Downward to subordinates
C Lateral to the team and line organisations
D Lateral to customers
E Diagonally to the client's senior management
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80. During a project review meeting, we discover that our $250,000 project has a negative (behind) schedule variance of $20,000, which equates to 12 percent of the work scheduled to this point in time. We can therefore conclude that:
A The project will be completed late
B The critical path has been lengthened
C The costs are being overrun
D Overtime will be required to maintain the original critical path
E None of the above
81. Which of these is not an input to Develop Project Charter?
A Enterprise environmental factors
B Preliminary scope statement
C Contract
D Project statement of work
82. What is the output of Direct and Manage Execution?
A Approved change requests
B Project management processes
C Deliverables
D Work performance information
83. You’re managing a graphic design project. One of your team members reports that there is a serious problem, and you realise that it will cause a delay that could harm the business of the stakeholder. Even worse, it will take another two days for you to fully assess the impact – until then, you won’t have the whole story. What is the BEST way to handle this situation?
A Create a change request document and submit it to the change control boarl
B Pull out the project charter and show them that you have authority to make decisions
C Meet with the stakeholders and tell them that there’s a problem, but you need two more days to get them the information they need
D Update the lessons learned and add it to your organisational process assets
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84. You’re a project manager on a construction project. The electrician has started laying out the wiring, when the client comes to you with a change request. He needs additional outlets, and you think that will increase the cost of the electrical work. What is the first thing you do?
A Refuse to make the change because it will increase the cost of the project and blow your budget
B Refer to the project management plan to see how the change should be handled
C Consult the contract to see if there is a clause
D Make the change, since the client requested it
85. You’re the project manager at a telecommunications company. You recently had stakeholders approach you with changes. You figured out that the changes would cost additional time and money. The stakeholders agreed, you were given additional time and budget, and the changes were approved. Now you have to incorporate the changes into the project. What do you do next?
A Modify the preliminary scope statement to include the changes
B Use the work authorisation system to make sure the work is performed
C Make sure to track your changes against the project’s baseline so you know how much they eventually cost
D Incorporate the changes into the baseline so you can track the project properly
86. You are holding a formal, approved document that defines how the project is executed, monitored and controlled. You are holding:
A The project management plan
B The preliminary scope statement
C The project charter
D The work breakdown structure
87. You are the project manager for a software project, when the sponsor pulls the plug and cancels the project. What would you do?
A Give the team the day off to recuperate from the bad news
B Create a budget summary for the remaining unspent budget
C Create the closure procedures and update the organisational process assets
D Find new assignments for any people previously assigned to your project
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88. You are managing a software project, when you find out that a programming team who you were supposed to have access to has been reassigned to another project. What is the first thing that you should do?
A Figure out the impact that this will have on your project
B Bring a copy of your project’s charter to the other manager, and explain that you need that team for your own project
C Go to your sponsor and demand the team
D Figure out a way to compress the project schedule so that you can work with the team if they become available
89. Which of the following is NOT true about the project charter?
A The project charter defines the requirements that satisfy customer needs
B The project charter defines the work authorisation system
C The project charter makes the business case that justifies the project
D The project charter includes the summary budget
90. Which is NOT true about the project charter:
A The project manager must be consulted before the charter is finalised
B The charter is issued by the project sponsor
C The project manager’s authority to manage the project is granted by the charter
D The charter describes how stakeholders influence the project
Check Your Answers – Page 88
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Project Team Retrospective
“Life can only be understood backwards, but it must be lived forwards.”Kierkegaard
As a trainer I have seen and been subjected to a huge variety of post-course appraisals. Typically these appraisal templates list a number of management-inspired performance criteria against which course participants circle on a numbered scale how they thought things went. While such assessments make for ready mathematical analysis, the truth is that a word picture provides more useful feedback. In fact, there are only three questions that need be included in such appraisals – what went well, what didn’t and what could be improved.
Similarly, it is these three questions that form the basis of a project retrospective.A retrospective (from the Latin word retrospectare meaning “look back”) in project management parlance is a review of events that have already taken place. A retrospective is often completed at the end of a project. The process might also be referred to as a postmortem, postpartum or after-action review. It is a method of evaluating project performance, identifying lessons learned and making recommendations for the future.
Such reviews are not only undertaken on project completion, but are even more usefully undertaken periodically throughout the project, perhaps at milestones, to enable mid-course adjustments. It would be foolish to blindly adhere to a plan that’s no longer working properly. The Agile project methodology in particular encourages the use of retrospectives at the end of each short phase, iteration or “sprint” to improve the success of the next sprint. The meeting is usually scheduled to take about 45 minutes for every five working days of sprint duration. It’s commonsense and is about continuous improvement, and as such should be applied regardless of our project methodology.
To help ensure a thorough and open discussion a retrospective only involves project team members. As project manager, we ask our project team how the project is going or has gone from their perspective. It is intended to promote project team collaboration, and agreement on project performance and improvements. It’s not an occasion to apportion blame.
During the retrospective one approach is simply to have the team identify three key things that I mentioned in the opening paragraph to this blog item – what went well, what didn’t and what could be improved. And this last question is in my opinion the true power of the retrospective. One approach might be to have team members record their thoughts using notes that they then stick on an idea board or a “retrospective pie”:
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The retrospective gives us an important insight into the project from the perspective of the project team members. A more comprehensive assessment might be triggered with questions such as:
1. Are you proud of the project deliverables? If yes, what’s good? If not, what’s not so good?
2. What was the single most frustrating part of the project?3. How would you do things differently next time to avoid this frustration?4. What was the most gratifying or professionally satisfying part of the project?5. Which methods or processes worked particularly well?6. Which methods or processes were difficult or frustrating to use?
While a retrospective is purely a project team assessment, other stakeholders with different perspectives and expectations should also be briefed periodically on project performance, which in Agile is called a Sprint Review Meeting – external stakeholders are acquainted with what went well, problems that arose and how problems were solved during the last sprint. The sprint review meeting is often followed by a retrospective.
Having had some good experiences with retrospectives, I stress the importance of trust. If project team members don’t feel comfortable about being honest, the process is likely to be just a formality that provides no or very little useful information. And of course as the project manager it isn’t helpful to be defensive or chastise team members should they identify things that aren’t or didn’t go so well. Rather the retrospective identifies, among other things, performance shortfalls to be overcome and lessons thus learned should be recorded at the time in the project lessons learned log or register. However, if these lessons don’t prompt some appropriate changes, individuals may stop giving helpful feedback. Thus, retrospectives are only as valuable as the improvements they instigate.Sometimes, even though a team may have suggested some worthwhile changes, there is no follow-up action. To be effective continuous improvement or kaizen must go beyond the identification step, illustrated here by the Deming cycle:
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Continuous improvement is largely dependent on our ability to solve problems, although such problems may concern the gap between good and great, rather than some specific defect, difficulty, dispute or dilemma. For a detailed explanation of the problem solving process please check http://www.skillpower.co.nz/2013/09/13/project-problem-solving-101/.
Incidentally, I’ve never experienced a retrospective for a geographically distributed team, although I appreciate their necessity. No doubt retrospectives are most effective when done face-to-face because much information is communicated non-verbally. A standard retrospective is easy enough, you sit next to other members from your project team and simply discuss, but when there are long distances between team members, we will need a collaboration tool such as those mentioned in Tomasz Dziurko’s article at http://tomaszdziurko.pl/2012/04/tools-retrospectives-distributed-teams/.
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Lessons Learned Questions“The only real mistake is the one from which we learn nothing.”
Projects are risky. We all make mistakes and even the biggest mistakes carry valuable lessons, so some would argue there are no mistakes only opportunities to learn. The more important aspect of making a supposed mistake, is how you pick yourself up afterwards. So these questions are designed to help you work through what went wrong and why, and how you can move forward minus the baggage. Of course lesson are learned as our project proceeds and they need to be recorded in our Lessons Learned log at that time.
1. First, don’t equate making mistakes with being a mistake.2. Why was the project important? 3. What were the early warning signs that things were going awry? 4. What was the worst thing that happened? 5. Were there any erroneous assumptions made?6. Did we have the right goals? 7. Were we trying to solve the right problem?8. What support structures were not in place? 9. What information could have avoided the mistake?10. What could you have done differently? This is about taking ownership of YOUR part in
what went wrong? This is probably the most painful question to answer.11. With hindsight, at what point could you have saved things?12. What was great about the project when it was first initiated?13. What can still be salvaged?14. Were there alternatives you should have considered but did not?15. What will you do differently next time? Yet don’t over-compensate. The next project
will be different.16. What are you most proud of right now?
And be proud of yourself. You gave it a go. But now make sure that you don’t give up trying new things. Remember too that we also learn from our successes. After capturing lessons learned, the next step is to derive what's called best practices, which is the best way that you, your project team, or your organisation has found of doing something.
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Project Team Member Retrospective Questionnaire
Project Name:
Member’s Name:
Date:
Specific Questions (examples) Poorly Adequately Well Extremely Well
Lessons Learned and Ideas for Improvement
1. How clearly defined is/was the project purpose/ra-tionale/ outcomes/impact)? 2. How clearly defined is/was the project goal or out-put? 3. How clearly defined are/were the project paramet-ers of scope, time, cost and scope? 4. How clear are/were you about your role? 5. To what extent are/were you involved in project planning, problem solving and de-cision- making? 6. How effective and efficient are/were team meet-ings?
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Specific Questions (examples) Poorly Adequately Well Extremely Well
Lessons Learned and Ideas for Improvement
7. How well are/were issues managed? 8. How well do/did senior management support the project? 9. How well are/were your personal efforts appreci-ated? 10. How well do/did the team work together? 11. How well are/were variations managed? 12. How well are/were risks managed? 13. To what extent does/did the project distract you from your business-as- usual and other work? 14. How well are/were you informed of your perform-ance? 15. To what extent does/did the project further your learning and development? 16. To what extent is/was the project enjoyable?
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Assignment Four: Post-project ReportThe evaluation of completed projects is not always undertaken in a conscientious and comprehensive matter. This diploma programme places considerable emphasis on such an evaluation, recognising that we will only improve if we identify and learn from the project management failures and successes, and requires that participants document their evaluation in a post-project report, which is the final assignment for the NZIM Diploma programme.
The project evaluation and report writing process is summarised in the following flowchart:
The report is usually prepared for the sponsor. However, there may be a wider audience (CEO, steering committee, senior management etc) that could influence the report’s format, content and presentation. ‘Reader-friendly’ is an important formula.
Sources of information may include any and all project stakeholders and project files including various registers (risk, opportunities, issues, learning, variations), progress reports, interim evaluation reports, minutes of meetings, and any other information recorded in your project learning journal. For this reason Assignment Three (learning journal) and Assignment Four are submitted together after project completion. Nevertheless, there will be occasions when an interim evaluation report will be accepted as Assignment Four, especially when your project is not due for completion until several months after the last Diploma classroom session.
The report structure or format might typically comply with the following template:
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PLAN REPORT
RESEARCH AND ANALYSE
WRITE REPORT
Clarify Purpose
Identify Audience
Establish Scope
Write Draft Report
Edit and Proofread
Publish Report
Decide Information Needs
Collect Information
Analyse Information
Project Evaluation
A completed project usually culminates in the preparation of a report concerned with project performance over the period of the project life. For larger projects this report may consist of the covering letter, cover page, summary, contents, introduction, purpose, methodology, dis-cussion or findings, conclusions and lessons learned, recommendations and possibly numerous appendices.
Some ways of collecting the necessary project performance data for evaluation are surveys, questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, observation, and through study of project documen-tation, diaries and logs. It is particularly useful to maintain a Lessons’ Learned Log. There is no single way to structure the body of our reports (sometimes referred to as discussion, findings or observations), but one of following may be appropriate:
Knowledge Areas
The PMI PMBOK identifies the following ten knowledge areas in terms of which project success can be evaluated:
1 Project Integration Management coordinates the other areas to work together throughout the project.
2 Project Scope Management is a set of processes used to ensure that the project includes all of the requirements and no new requirements are added in a way that could harm the project.
3 Time Management involves processes to ensure that the project is completed on schedule.
4 Cost Management involves processes to ensure that the project is completed on budget.
5 Quality Management ensures that the project meets its requirements, or does what it is expected to do.
6 Human Resource Management includes all of the processes used to develop, manage and put the project team together.
7 Communication Management determines what information is needed, how that information will be sent and managed, and how project performance will be reported.
8 Risk Management involves identifying, managing and controlling risk of a project.
9 Procurement Management is the group of processes used to acquire the mate-rials and services needed to complete the project.
10 Stakeholder Management concerns the identification, engagement and control of those who are affected by the project or may affect the project.
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Lifecycle
Another way to assess project performance is to do so as per the project lifecycle phases, one example of which is CDEF process, where:
1. Conception when the project idea is evaluated and if the proposition is appropriate a project manager is appointed and a project charter prepared.2. Development when the project planning team prepare a detailed plan for the imple-mentation of the project.3. Execution when the project plan is implemented, progress monitored and controlled to produce the final deliverable(s).4. Finish when the project is closed.
Six Ps Perspective
Not “Proper Preparation Prevents Piss Poor Performance”, which of course is true, but in this instance six Ps means we assess project performance from the following perspectives:
1. Purpose. Did the project realise its purpose; its rationale for being undertaken? What busi-ness case benefits have been realised at this early point?2. Parameters. How did the project perform in terms of scope, time, quality, cost, risk and whatever other parameters or objectives were relevant? 3. Participants. Were stakeholders (including project team members) effectively managed and their needs satisfied.4. Processes. How effective and efficient were the processes used during the project? Such processes may include those for estimating, project approval, outsourcing, problem solving, de-cision making, communications, reviews, risk and issues management, variations, monitoring and control etc.5. Product. Was the final deliverable, product or service, satisfactory in all respects?6. Politics. Politics are a fact of organisation life and project managers are political beings by virtue of their position. What impact did politics have on the project?
Report Recommendations
Project reports always culminate in conclusions that may be followed by recommendations. If so, this section of our report is probably the most useful part, where we make suggestions based on our report’s conclusions. Recommendations in project reports tend to be less tenta-tive than those of academic reports. For example, a vague recommendation such as “Perhaps the procedure for recording variations should be updated in due course” will not be as effec-tive as would a more action-oriented and specific recommendation that might read thus “The project sponsor is to update and publish the procedure for recording variations by 1 June” (which may indeed spawn a small project). Recommendations must flow logically from our re-port’s conclusions. In fact, it is usually helpful to involve others in their identification. Also, our recommendations should match any terms of reference, be prioritized since they require re-sources, be consistent with our organisation’s mission and goals, core values and desired cul-ture, be readily understood, and be capable of implementation.
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Report Writing TrendsReport writing is not poetry or literature. This programme reflects contemporary report writing styles, which recognise the following trends:
We now write more like we talk (a conversation style) and appreciate that originality and creativity are often appropriate.
We now conscientiously consider our readers. This analysis helps us determine what and how we write. Formerly our report writing was inclined to be for the sterile record.
We now favour shorter words, straightforward and plain language, and shorter sentences and paragraphs. This is in an effort to clearly and concisely express rather than attempt to impress.
We now decide the desired outcome of our report, research and write to achieve this, and evaluate success against it. Previously if our recommendations were not implemented we seldom followed up. Now we actively seek specific feedback to help ensure the continuous improvement of our report writing.
We now favour a candid, courteous and sometimes report active style, and recognise the benefits of being clear, concise, specific, definite and precise. We minimise the use of adjectives and adverbs, and avoid false generalisations, obscure words, metalanguage, meaningless qualifiers, gobbledygook, ambiguous expressions, clichés, euphemisms, redundancies and little known abbreviations, acronyms and jargon.
We now show greater consideration for different cultures and values (national, corporate and personal), and exercise some heightened empathy. We review from our reader's perspective. And we avoid emotional, discriminatory and judgemental language.
We now make better use of graphics to illustrate, compare and contrast, and employ white space, colour and layout to improve the appearance of our report and thus enhance its likelihood of being read and understood as we intended it should be.
NZIM also advocates the importance of proper grammar, syntax and spelling - and consistency in their use. We acknowledge the potentially detrimental influence of email and the growing tendency to proofread after we hit 'send'. We also welcome the resurgent interest in proper punctuation to help ensure clarity.
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PMP Examination Tactics
1. Arrive 20 minutes before exam starts.
2. Wear comfortable clothing.
3. Bring two forms of identification, both bearing your signature.
4. Prohibited from the exam room:
smoking
books and papers
food and beverages
purses, bags, briefcases
mobile phones and other electronic devises.
5. You will be provided with pencils and blank paper (for your use during the exam) which is not to be taken with you after the exam.
6. Non-programmable calculators are permitted.
7. Use the 15 minutes period at the start to carefully read the exam procedure.
8. Your supervisor will brief you on:
venue emergency procedures
location of toilets
timings.
9. Golden rules:
attempt to answer every multi-choice question
read each question fully and carefully before answering.
10. Don’t read too much into the question. There are not intentional tricks.
11. Understand common acronyms such as ACWP, BCWP, BCWS, AON, FFP, etc.
12. Flag questions you wish to return to. Minimise these and schedule time to do return.
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13. If the question has extra information (eg, data, diagram, chart, etc) read this carefully too. And decide what parts are relevant. Sometimes irrelevant data is included.
14. The extra information usually relates to several questions. Ensure you know exactly what questions the information relates to.
15. If work on one question calls into doubt your answer to a previous question, check again the previous answers.
16. Golden rule: budget your time. All questions are worth equal marks. Determine average time to be spent on each question and periodically check. Allow for a review period at end.
17. Think about the likely answer before you read and consider the choices.
18. Read all choices before your selection.
19. If unsure, first of all eliminate the obviously wrong.
20. Should questions and answers seem ambiguous. Look for key words.
21. If all else fails, go with your gut feel and intuition. Flag it for review.
22. Don’t blow the time budget on detailed calculations, unless you're clear how to proceed.
23. Watch for words that clue you in to what’s required:
except for
most likely
mostly
least likely
24. Within a set of questions, answer first the ones you know best:
boosts your confidence
allows balance of time for the less familiar.
25. This exam is a high concentration endeavour. Take a brief break occasionally. Close your eyes. Take a few deeper breaths. Stand up. Breaks will help you concentrate and keep you in your zone of peak effectiveness.
26. Limit your caffeine intake.
See also www.pmstudy.com/examtips.asp
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Analysing Project Information
Project planning, problem solving and decision-making often require the analysis of considerable data.
In this exercise the portfolio consists of five development projects each undertaken by one of five adjacent business units that comprise your research organisation.
Each project is managed by a person of different nationality, with a different budget, and each project manager prefers a different drink.
Your job is to analyse the data in order to answer to following questions:
Which project manager drinks whisky?
Which project is to produce a paper cup?
The following diagram should help you analyse the data:
Business Unit HFL
PM’s Nationality
Preferred Drink
Project Budget $4m
Project Deliverable
1. There are five business units.
2. The Englishman is the project manager for JBL business unit.
3. The Spaniard’s project is about piano keys.
4. Coke is drunk by the project manager from HFL business unit.
5. The American project manager drinks rum.
6. HFL is immediately to the right of GIP.
7. The project with the $4 million budget is to produce leotards.
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8. The AXA business unit has a project budget of $1 million.
9. Gin is drunk by the project manager working for the middle business unit.
10. The Australian project manager works for the first business unit.
11. The business unit with the $5 million budget is next to the business unit with the car wrecking project.
12. The business unit with the $4 million budget is next to the business unit with the nuclear power bicycle.
13. Beer is drunk by the project manager whose budget is $3 million.
14. The Japanese manages the $2 million project.
15. The Australian manages the project for the business unit next to AMEC.
So, who drinks whisky and which company produces the paper cup?
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Space Survival Purpose
To practise your project team’s communication, risk management, problem solving and decision-making skills.
Scenario
You are survivors of a space crash and your project is to stay alive and find the radio station within 22 days.
Five profiles
Aledrew, Brisil, Calim, Davind and Edrich - explain the situation. Read their profiles carefully. They are important.
You will be given a map square made by Brisil which shows the area in which your space ship has crashed. Around the edges of the map square is a description of what you can see one day's walk away.
When you have decided which way to go, tell the adjudicator the number of the map square you want. Each new map square shows you where you are and what you can see from that square.
You have a project diary in which you keep a record of day-to-day movements from square to square. There are no diagonal movements and you must all stick together.
Advice
Space Survival may look like a game of chance, but it is not. If you treat it as a game, then you are unlikely to live for very long.
Before you attempt to decide which way to go, try to make sure that everyone has told you everything they know about the planet. Please don't try to think up ways of 'bending the rules'. For example, you have nothing to carry water in and that rule cannot be changed.
Importantly - you do not need to take risks. Be risk averse.
And always be assured that water is available. Don't move until the group is unanimous about where to go.
Critique
At the end of the exercise be prepared to discuss what behaviours helped or hindered the project team’s performance?
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Profile No. 1. Aledrew
My name is Aledrew - Space Officer.
Our space ship has crashed on Theda. We are in real trouble. Our radio broke down a week ago and cannot be repaired. No one will come to look for us here. Captain Kirk is dead. Our food and water were destroyed in the crash.
Space Officer Brisil has a compass and has made a map square showing where we have crashed. We must move, and we must stick together.
Theda is known as the planet of death. Thedans are friendly, and they would show us the way to go to reach the radio station which would have food and water and would save us. But Thedans do not drink water. They eat a kind of dry grass and they never move away from grassy areas, but they aren’t necessary in the grass.
Water is important, but we have nothing to carry it in. Fortunately, you have had your water ration for today just prior to the accident.
I will tell the others what I know, and they must tell everything they know about Theda, or we will surely die.
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Profile No. 2. BrisilMy name is Brisil - Space Officer.
I have made a map square showing where we have crashed - we are in flatland. I have called it Map Square No. 1.
I have a compass. We can go north or south, or east or west. But we cannot go diagonally on Theda - we would walk in circles.
We can see one day's walk away. From our start position there are bran sticks to the north, and we can eat bran. There is a valley to the south, and all valleys on Theda have water. There may be Thedans in the grassy area to the west. In the east is flatland, and across the flatland is a distant hill. I would take us two days to reach the hill. I have given a number to each square which is one day's walk away - any number will do, and I will make more map squares depending on which way we decide to go, and what we can see when we get there.
We must tell each other all we know.
The map squares will be provided by the adjudicator.
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Profile No. 3. CalimMy name is Calim - Space Officer
I will tell the others what I know about water on Theda. All valleys have water. The valley to the south will have water. We need water every three days or we die. We can only go two squares without water. Unfortunately, we have nothing we can use to carry water, so we must not forget to look for valleys.
I know that on Theda the valleys are not usually near hills.
The only other water on Theda is at the radio station. The radio station has a tall mast and we should be able to see this when we are two days’ walk away. If we climb a hill we may be able to see radio masts which are even further away. The three masts on Theda are spread throughout the planet. Only one mast has the station at its base.
Someone once told me that sand on Theda is very dangerous. I forget why. Perhaps the story is untrue. However, sand sounds extremely risky.
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Profile No. 4. DavindMy name is Davind - Space Officer.
The only food which grows on Theda is bran and a sort of grass. Both are dry. They do not need water to grow and they contain no water. The Thedans eat the grass, but not the bran. We cannot eat the grass, but we can eat the bran.
Bran grows on bran sticks, and there are bran sticks to our north. We can easily break off pieces of bran and carry it with us. It does not go bad quickly; it lasts for months.
However, we do not need to eat bran straight away, but we do need to have bran within 16 days. There would be no 17th day without bran.
Even if we have both bran and water we can live for no longer than 22 days. So we must find the radio station before day 23. The radio station has plenty of proper food and water and would ensure our safe return to planet Earth.
We must find out everything we know about Theda before we decide which way to go. How shall we decide which way to go - elect a leader, take a vote, throw dice, or what?
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Profile No. 5. EdrichMy name is Edrich - Space Officer
If we are to live it will not be because we are lucky. Theda is the planet of death. We must not take stupid risks. We must think before we move. Quick decisions lead to quick death.
So I have made a 22 day project diary. There will be no day 23 unless we reach the radio station. We will die if we do not have water at least once every three days. And we die if we do not collect bran in the first 16 days.
Today is day 0. We are on Map Square Number 1. We are on flatland. I have written this down in my diary. Tomorrow is day 1, and we will then be on square 5 or 24 or 18 or 7. If we go east towards the distant hill I will write down flatland; if we go west I shall write grass; if north I shall write bran, and if south I shall write valley.
Keeping a proper project diary is very important. Some space crews have died because they did not keep a project diary or forgot to write in it every day.
So the project completion date is no later than day 22, the budget is very meagre, we aim to have no deaths and to take no risks, and there is a paramount need for water!
Next Page: Edrich's Diary
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EDRICH'S PROJECT DIARY
PROJECT DAY
GRID SQUARE WHERE WE ARE
0 1 Flatland
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
* 16
17
18
19
20
21
22
* Last day for bran!
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Professional ResponsibilityWithin the past few years, the Project Management Institute (PMI) added a section to the PMP exams about professional responsibility. Although project managers might know how to perform all the required technical processes of project management, if they do not work ethically, with regard for customer fairness, and with the latest project management knowledge, then they may still not be doing the best job for their customer. Professional responsibility is based on the Project Management Professional Code of Professional Conduct. The following list includes the major elements of that code of conduct:
Adherence to the code of conduct, including supporting it and sharing it with others, acting ethically when taking the PMP exam, and cooperating with PMI in gathering ethics violations information
Disclosing what could look like conflict of interest or impropriety to customers and ensuring that a conflict of interest does not compromise our judgement or duties to the customer
Advertising our qualifications truthfully
Complying with all applicable laws wherever we are performing our project management duties
Respecting intellectual property
Providing accurate cost and service estimates and expected results of the project
Sticking to and satisfying the scope of our project goal (unless changed by the customer)
Protecting confidential information
Refraining from taking gifts or payments for personal gain (unless conforming to the customs where we are working yet still not violating our own customary practices).
There are a few other areas that we might think about that are not expressly mentioned in the code of conduct:
Seek growth opportunities in our knowledge of project management practices, including taking courses, reading articles, and attending seminars.
Stay on top of our industry’s practices because our project management skills are coupled with our knowledge of our industry.
Deal with issues on our project as quickly and with as much fairness as possible, making sure we use problem-solving techniques if we can. If we have competing stakeholder or customer needs, make sure we try to resolve the difference fairly and with regard to the objectives of the project.
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Use all our project management knowledge, and make sure we use the most significant processes and create the most important outputs from the nine PMI knowledge areas as appropriate for our projects.
Respect cultural differences by learning about them as needed, following local customs, and making sure our team is trained on cultural issues as appropriate.
Communicate as accurately and fairly as possible with our stakeholders. This means accurately reporting status – if it is bad news, report it. Our customers or management cannot make good decisions or help us get back on track if they do not know they need to.
Protect the community as needed. Although we may be following the requirements of our customer, if we thing the project could harm the community in any way, we need to work with our customer to change what could be harmful. If the customer will not change the project, then we may need to report the issue to the community.
To perform ethically in project management, we need to follow general business ethics and, on top of those items specific to project management. We must work with honesty, integrity, and fairness; show concern for client, stakeholder, and community interests; continue pursuing professional growth and education; and protect intellectual property and confidential information. We will make sure no conflict of interest clouds our professional judgement and actions as we manage each of our projects. This added piece of project management helps round out our full success in our project management career.
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Suggested Solutions to Leadership ExerciseSituation 1
A. Bad assumption. Since three of these people have not worked for you before, some action is necessary.
B. The team should already be somewhat motivated and reinforcement will help. Team building must begin by showing employees how they will benefit. This is usually the best approach on long-term projects. (5 points).
C. This is the best approach if the employees already understand the project. In this case, however, you may be expecting too much out of the employees this soon (3 points).
D. This approach is too strong at this time, since emphasis should be on team building. On long-term projects, people should be given the opportunity to know one another first. (2 points).
Situation 2
A. Do nothing. Don’t overreact. This may improve productivity without damaging morale. See the impact on the team first. If the other members accept Tom as the informal leader, because he has worked for you previously, the results can be very favourable. (5 points).
B. This may cause the team to believe that a problem exists when, in fact, it does not.
C. This is duplication of effort and may reflect upon your ability as a leader. Pro-ductivity may be impaired. (2 points).
D. This is a hasty decision and may cause Tom to overreact and become less pro-ductive. (3 points).
Situation 3
A. You may be burdening the team by allowing them to struggle. Motivation may be impacted and frustration will result. (1 point).
B. Team members expect the project manager to be supportive and to have ideas. This will reinforce your relationship with the team. (5 points).
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C. This approach is reasonable as long as your involvement is minimal. You must allow the team to evolve without expecting continuous guidance. (4 points).
D. This action is premature and can prevent future creativity. The team may allow you to do it all.
Situation 4
A. If, in fact, the problem does exist, action must be taken. These types of prob-lems do not go away by themselves.
B. This will escalate the problem and may make it worse. It could demonstrate your support for good relations with your team, but could also backfire. (1 point).
C. Private meetings should allow you to reassess the situation and strengthen em-ployee relations on a one-to-one basis. You should be able to assess the mag-nitude of the problem. (5 points).
D. This is a hasty decision. Changing the team’s schedule may worsen the morale problem. This situation requires replanning, not a strong hand. (2 points).
Situation 5
A. Crisis management does not work in project management. Why delay until a crisis occurs and then waste time having to replan?
B. This situation may require your immediate attention. Sympathising with your team may not help if they are looking towards you for leadership. (2 points).
C. This is the proper balance: participative management and contingency planning. This strategy is crucial for these situations. (5 points).
D. This may seriously escalate the problem unless you have evidence that perform-ance is substandard. (1 point).
Situation 6
A. Problems should be uncovered and brought to the surface for resolution. It is true that this problem may go away, or that Bob simply does not recognise that his performance is substandard.
B. Immediate feedback is best. Bob must know your assessment of his perform-ance. This shows your interest in helping him improve. (5 points).
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C. This is not a team problem. Why ask the team to do your work? Direct contact is best.
D. As above, this is your problem, not that of the team. You may wish to ask for their input, but do not ask them to perform your job.
Situation 7A. George must be hurting to finish the other project. George probably needs a
little more time to develop a quality report. Let him do it. (5 points).
B. Threatening George may not be the best situation because he already under-stands the problem. Motivation by threatening is not good. (3 points).
C. The other team members should not be burdened with this unless it is a team re-port.
D. As above, this burden should not be placed upon other team members unless, of course, they volunteer.
Situation 8
A. Doing nothing in time of crisis is the worst decision that can be made. This may frustrate the team to a point where everything that you have built up may be des-troyed.
B. The problem is the schedule slippage, not morale. In this case, it is unlikely that they are elated.
E. Group decision-making can work but may be difficult under tight time constraints. Productivity may not be related to the schedule slippage. (3 points).
F. This is the time when the team looks to you for leadership. No matter how good the team is, they may not be able to solve all of the problems. (5 points).
Situation 9
A. A pat on the back will not hurt. People need to know when they are doing well.
B. Positive reinforcements are a good idea, but perhaps not through monetary re-wards. (3 points).
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C. You have given the team positive reinforcement and have returned authority/re-sponsibility to them for Phase III. (5 points).
D. Your team has demonstrated the ability to handle authority and responsibility ex-cept for this crisis. Dominant leadership is not necessary on a continuous basis.
Situation 10
A. The best approach. All is well. (5 points).
B. Why disturb a good working relationship and a healthy working environment? Your efforts may be counterproductive.
C. If the team has done their job, they have already looked for contingencies. Why make them feel that you still want to be in control? However, if they have not re-viewed the Phase III schedule, this step may be necessary. (3 points).
D. Why disturb the team: You may convince them that something is wrong or about to happen.
Situation 11
A. You cannot assume a passive role when the customer identifies a problem. You must be prepared to help. The customer’s problems usually end up being your problems. (3 points).
B. The customer is not coming into your company to discuss productivity.
C. This places a tremendous burden on the team, especially since it is the first meeting. They need some useful guidance.
D. Customer information exchange meetings are your responsibility and should not be delegated. You are the focal point of information. This requires strong lead-ership, especially during a crisis. (5 points).
Situation 12
A. A passive role by you may leave the team with the impression that there is no ur-gency.
B. The team is motivated and has control of the project. They should be able to handle this by themselves. Positive reinforcement will help. (5 points).
C. This approach might work but could be counterproductive if employees feel that you question their abilities. (4 points).
D. Do not exert strong leadership when the team has already shown their ability to make good group decisions.
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Situation 13
A. This is the worst approach and may cause the loss of both the existing and fol-low-on work.
B. This may result in overconfidence and could be disastrous if a follow-on effort does not occur.
C. This could be very demoralising for the team because they may view the existing program as about to be cancelled. (3 points).
D. This should be entirely the responsibility of the project manager. There are some situations where information may have to be withheld, at least temporarily. (5 points).
Situation 14
A. This is an ideal way to destroy the project/functional interface.
B. This consumes a lot of time, since each team member may have a different opin-ion. (3 points).
C. This is the best approach, since the team know the functional personnel better than you do. (5 points).
D. It is highly unlikely that you can accomplish this.
Situation 15
A. This is the easiest solution, but the most dangerous if it burdens the rest of the team with extra work. (3 points).
B. The decision should be yours, not your team’s decision. You are avoiding your responsibility.
C. Consulting with the team will gain support for your decision. It is likely that the team will want Carol to have this chance. (5 points).
D. This could cause a demoralising environment on the project. If Carol becomes irritable, so could other team members.
Situation 16
A. This demonstrates your lack of concern for the growth of your employees. This is a poor choice.
B. This is fruitless. They have obviously tried this already and were unsuccessful. Asking them to do it again could be frustrating. Remember, the brick wall has been there for two years already. (3 points).
C. This will probably be a wasted meeting. Brick walls are generally not permeable.
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D. This will thicken the brick wall and may cause your team’s relationship with the line manager to deteriorate. This should be used as a last result only if status in-formation cannot be found any other way. (2 points).
Situation 17
A. This is a poor assumption. Carol may not have talked to him or may simply have given him her side of the project.
B. The new man is still isolated from the other team members. You may be creat-ing two project teams. (3 points).
C. This may make the new man uncomfortable and feel that the project is regimen-ted through meetings. (2 points).
D. New members feel more comfortable one-on-one, rather than having a team gang up on them. The team should make briefings, since project termination and phase out will be a team effort. (5 points).
Situation 18
A. This demonstrates your lack of concern for the growth of your employees. This a poor choice.
B. This is a personal decision between you and the employee. As long as his per-formance will not be impacted, he should be allowed to attend. (5 points).
C. This is not necessarily a problem open for discussion. You may wish to inform-ally seek the team’s opinion. (2 points).
D. This approach is reasonable but may cause other team members to feel that you are showing favouritism and simply want their consensus.
Situation 19
A. This is the best choice. Your employees are in total control. Do nothing. You must assume that the employees have already received feedback. (5 points).
B. Employees have probably been counselled by team members and their func-tional managers already. Your efforts can only alienate them. (1 point).
C. Your team already has the situation under control. Asking them for contingency plans at this point pay have a detrimental effect. They may have already de-veloped contingency plans. (2 points).
D. A strong leadership role now may alienate your team.
Situation 20
A. A poor choice. You, the project manager, are totally accountable for all information provided to the customer.
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B. Positive reinforcement may be beneficial, but does nothing to guarantee the quality of the report. Your people may get over-creative and provide superfluous informa-tion.
C. Soliciting their input has some merit, but the responsibility here is actually yours. (3 points).
D. Some degree of leadership is needed for all reports. Project teams tend to become diffused during report writing unless guided. (5 points).
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PMBOK Quiz Answers
1. A
2. A
3. B
4. A
5. D
6. A
7. B
8. D
9. A
10. E
11. D
12. A
13. A
14. A
15. C
16. C
17. E
18. A
19. A
20. C
21. C
22. E
23. B
24. C
25. E
26. C
27. B
28. A
29. D
30. B
31. C
32. A
33. A
34. A
35. B
36. B
37. D
38. C
39. A
40. B
41. D
42. A
43. B
44. A
45. C
46. D
47. D
48. D
49. B
50. A
51. B
52. B
53. C
54. E
55. A
56. B
57. B
58. A
59. A
60. D
61. C
62. E
63. A
64. B
65. B
66. C
67. E
68. B
69. A
70. A
71. A
72. D
73. C
74. E
75. E
76. B
77. C
78. D
79. C
80. E
81. B
82. C
83. C
84. B
85. D
86. A
87. C
88. A
89. B
90. A
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PMBOK Knowledge Categories
Scope Management
1. ____________
16. ____________
21. ____________
27. ____________
32. ____________
38. ____________
41. ____________
45. ____________
47. ____________
60. ____________
Time Management
2. ____________
17. ____________
24. ____________
31. ____________
33. ____________
48. ____________
51. ____________
58. ____________
63. ____________
71. ____________
Cost Management
4. ____________
10. ____________
18. ____________
26. ____________
37. ____________
44. ____________
50. ____________
61. ____________
73. ____________
80. ____________
TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL
Human Resources Management
5. ____________
9. ____________
15. ____________
19. ____________
28. ____________
46. ____________
52. ____________
55. ____________
57. ____________
66. ____________
Procurement Management
6. ____________
13. ____________
23. ____________
34. ____________
40. ____________
49. ____________
59. ____________
67. ____________
69. ____________
77. ____________
QualityManagement
8. ____________
12. ____________
22. ____________
36. ____________
43. ____________
54. ____________
62. ____________
68. ____________
74. ____________
78. ____________
TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL
125
RiskManagement
7. ____________
14. ____________
25. ____________
29. ____________
39. ____________
42. ____________
53. ____________
65. ____________
72. ____________
76. ____________
Communication Management
3. _____________
11. _____________
20. _____________
30. _____________
35. _____________
56. _____________
64. _____________
70. _____________
75. _____________
79. _____________
TOTAL TOTAL
IntegrationManagement
81. ____________
82. ____________
83. ____________
84. ____________
85. ____________
86. ____________
87. ____________
89. ____________
90. ____________
TOTAL
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Analyse Project Information : Solution
AXA AMEC JLB GIP HFL
Australian American English Spanish Japanese
Whisky Rum Gin Beer Coke
$1m $5m $4m $3m $2m
Car Wrecking Nuclear Bikes Leotards Piano Keys Paper Cups
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