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Student WorkbookComparative Animal Physiology
PCB4723
Dr. Wayne A. Bennett
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COMPARATIVE ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGYCLASS SYLLABUS
SPRING 2015
OVERVIEW
This course will provide you with a thorough overview of animal physiological processes. We
will be taking a comparative approach to understanding physiological similarities and differences
across multiple organizational levels. Animal physiology comprises a massive body of
information collected over nearly 3000 years of human study. So be prepared to cover large
amounts of material during each lecture session, and to review the material on your own carefully
and frequently.
The following suggestions will greatly enhance your in-class performance:
1) Attend class regularly
2) Ask questions
3) Read the book or other outside materials on the topics covered
4) STUDY, STUDY, and STUDY
DETAILS AND GENERAL STUFF
INSTRUCTOR:
Dr. Wayne A. Bennett, Professor of Vertebrate Physiology
Office hours: Tuesday and Thursday 08:00-10:00; or by appointment
UWF office: 58/62-H
Phone: 474-3362
E-mail: [email protected]
MEETINGTIME:
Tuesday and Thursday 2:30 to 3:45
TEXTBOOK:
Comparative Animal Physiology,by Philip C. Withers
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STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES (SLO)
UPON COMPLETION OF THIS COURSE,STUDENTS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
1) Identify similarities and differences in the functional morphology and physiology betweenmajor animal groups.
2) Define the Fry Paradigm and explain how relationships between animals and their abioticenvironment alter physiology to determine behavior using specific references to: oxygenuptake, temperature regulation, ion balance, sensory physiology, and circulation.
3) Describe key morphological and physiological attributes that result in differing sensory,communication and cognitive abilities among/between vertebrate and invertebrate groups.
4) Describe the propriety, need and benefits of basic and applied comparative physiologyresearch.
5) Solve basic biophysical equations that define major physiological attributes of animalsincluding: oxygen uptake, temperature regulation, ion balance, sensory physiology, andcirculation.
Additional detailed SLOs are listed in the unit Module outlines
ATTENDANCE:
You should make every effort to attend class regularly. Students who have poor
attendance records fail this class spectacularly and without exception!
CLASSROOM MATERIALS AND HANDOUTS:
Handouts will come to you via group e-mail. The information can be opened by clicking
on the link, but in some cases you will need to copy the link and paste it into the address
line on your internet browser.
READING ASSIGNMENTS:
The text book compliments much of the lecture material but is not identical to it. I also
often include material that isnt in the book that I think you should know. Reading thebook or other outside material can aid you in grasping concepts that you did not clearly
understand during class or filling in areas that we will not have time to cover in depth.
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IN-CLASS OPPORTUNITIES
OPPORTUNITIES:
In-class assessments are an opportunity to show me what you have learned. Here's how it
works.
1) We will have threetest opportunities.
2) THERE WILL BE NO MAKE-UP TESTS!
3) Test will consist of 40 to 50 multiple choice and 10 fill in the blank
questions.
Exam questions will be taken from lecture topics and will be approximately 60% recall
(What is the typical transmembrane potential?), 30% application (If sodium concentration
inside the cell increases, what happens to the transmembrane charge?), and 10% analysis
(How might a decrease in transmembrane charge affect animal response times?)questions.
TEST SCHEDULE:
Thursday February 5that 2:30-3:45
Thursday March 19that 2:30-3:45
Thursday April 23that 2:30-3:45
SPECIAL ACCOMMODATIONS:
If you require special in-class accommodations or test-taking arrangements due to
physical or perceptual limitations, please contact the UWF Student Disabilities Resource
Center 474-2387.
GRADING SYSTEM:
Three in-class exams (33% each)
GRADING SCALE:Exams will be will be adjusted to the following scale:
90 - 100: A
80 - 89: B
70 - 79: C
60 - 69: D
< 60: F
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GRADES OF INCOMPLETE (I)OR WITHDRAW (W)
If you have a question regarding UWF policies for assignment of grades of 'W' or 'I', please visit:
UWF Withdrawal Policyhttp://uwf.edu/registrar/withdrawal.cfm
UWF Incomplete Grade Policyhttp://uwf.edu/registrar/Incomplete%20Grade%20--%20Assignment%20Report.pdf
http://x-excid//FA770000/jmp:x-excid:/FA750000/jmp:http:/uwf.edu/registrar/withdrawal.cfmhttp://x-excid//FA770000/jmp:x-excid:/FA750000/jmp:http:/uwf.edu/registrar/withdrawal.cfmhttp://x-excid//FA770000/jmp:x-excid:/FA750000/jmp:http:/uwf.edu/registrar/Incomplete%20Grade%20--%20Assignment%20Report.pdfhttp://x-excid//FA770000/jmp:x-excid:/FA750000/jmp:http:/uwf.edu/registrar/Incomplete%20Grade%20--%20Assignment%20Report.pdfhttp://x-excid//FA770000/jmp:x-excid:/FA750000/jmp:http:/uwf.edu/registrar/Incomplete%20Grade%20--%20Assignment%20Report.pdfhttp://x-excid//FA770000/jmp:x-excid:/FA750000/jmp:http:/uwf.edu/registrar/withdrawal.cfm -
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CLASS TOPICS CHAPTER
SYLLABUS &INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 1&2
CELL &MEMBRANE PHYSIOLOGY 6
NEURONS AND THEIR FUNCTION 6
NERVOUS SYSTEMS 8
GENERAL SENSES 7
CHEMORECEPTION 7
VISION 7
INTRODUCTION TO METABOLISM 4
BODY SIZE &METABOLISM 4
TEMPERATURE &METABOLISM 4&5
SKELETONS &SUPPORT 10
MOVEMENT WITHOUT MUSCLE 10
MOVEMENT WITH MUSCLE 10
DIRECT WATER BALANCE 16
ORGANS OF EXCRETION 16
DIFFUSION &RESPIRATION 12
RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS 12&13
VENTILATION SYSTEMS 12&13
INVERTEBRATECIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 14
VERTEBRATE CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 14
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STUDY MODULE I
UNDERSTANDING ANIMAL NERVES AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS
STUDY GUIDES
Comparative Animal Physiology
Dr. Wayne A. Bennett, Professor of Animal Physiology
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ON THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDY SKILLS AND HOW TO BEA STUDENT OF
BIOLOGY,INSTEAD OF JUST PLAYING AT IT
OR
THE BEST 36MINUTES OF YOUR LIFE
Since the days when crowds gathered to listen to open-air oratories by Aristotle on thediversity and function of animal life, students of biology have been bound by one
immutable rule:
Every Hour Spent in Instruction, Requires Two Hours of Outside Study
Ten Facts You Should Know:
1. Historically 2 of 5 Comparative Animal Physiology students drop or fail to attain a passing grade
2. In 1970, the average college student studied 25 to 35 hours per week. Today the average college
student studies 8 hours per week, but spends 28 hours on social media (CPTI)
3. 32% of college seniors agreed with the statement that Google has made studying obsolete
4. The average college student doesnt start studying until 2 days before a major exam
5. 50% of college graduates had difficulty or could not interpret information on a graph
6. Almost 85% of college students said cheating was necessary to get ahead (U.S. News and World
Report).
7. Only 27% of college graduates work in a field related to their major. Employers report new-hire
graduates lack core knowledge to do the jobs for which they were hired, exhibit poor or no
writing skills, and are unable to work effectively as a team
8. In 1969, US students ranked first in the world in Science, Math and Technologywe now rank
29th
among developing countries
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IMPORTANT WEBSITES
How to Get the Most Out of Studying:
Video 1: Beliefs That Make You Fail...Or Succeed[7 min] Video 2: What Students Should Know About How People Learn[7 min] Video 3: Cognitive Principles for Optimizing Learning[6 min] Video 4: Putting Principles for Learning into Practice[9 min] Video 5: I Blew the Exam, Now What?[7 min]
You will get the most out of the material if you view the 5 videos in order. I
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RH95h36NChIhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RH95h36NChIhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9O7y7XEC66Mhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9O7y7XEC66Mhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xeHh5DnCIwhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xeHh5DnCIwhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9GrOxhYZdQhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9GrOxhYZdQhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-QVRiMkdRsUhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-QVRiMkdRsUhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-QVRiMkdRsUhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9GrOxhYZdQhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xeHh5DnCIwhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9O7y7XEC66Mhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RH95h36NChI -
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COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY
THE QUEEN OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
THE OBJECTIVES:
Understand the philosophy of comparative physiology, its goals, approaches anddomain
Understand strengths and weaknesses of the two major paradigms used to studyanimal physiology
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
Interdependence of form-function, and animal-environment as units of study The relationship of comparative physiology to other biological sub-disciplines The resource-condition concept The Fry paradigm an Frys five famous environmental entities
THE DETAILS:
1. A brief summary of the study of Comparative Animal Physiology
a. Definition-study of animalb. Domain-c. Queen of the biological sciences-d. What does the quote Structure without function is a corpse; function without
structure is a ghostmean to you?
(1)Studying anatomy can give insight to physiology vise versa
2. Why is the comparative approach used?
a. Almost everything we know with ecology, genetics and biology. Quantify therange of variation between given traits among organisms. Limits of life. Helps usunderstand structure and pattern. Mechanism of the physiological features.
3. The domain of the comparative physiology: One world, two views
a. The resource-condition concept
i. Assumptions of the Resource/Condition concept
ii. Definitions-
(1)Conditions; pH, Temp(2)Resources: water ,food, space,
b. Advantages of the Resource-Condition Concept-very easily organized
c. Disadvantages- overly simplistic reductionist
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4. The Fry Paradigm-animal response
a. Advantages/disadvantages-allows to ask and answer questions that A?C cannot
b. Assumes you have a large understanding of physiology
c. Frys Famous Environmental Entities
i. Lethal Factors- animal can dieii. Controlling Factors-changes rate and pace of developmentiii. Limiting Factors-reduce active metabolismiv. Regulatory [Webb 1978] Factors (=Masking Factors)-ineractions between
factors that influence the other ie temp and oxygenv. Directing Factors- taxis attraction or avoidance factor.
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CELL MEMBRANES:APRE-ADAPTATION TO INTEGRATED CONTROL
STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Know the major factors & conditions effecting solute movement across cell
membranes Understand the physical bases for these movements Relate the import of these characteristics & conditions to cell homeostasis and
electrotonus
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
The Steady Ionic State The General Diffusion Equation (GDE) Ficks Law of Diffusion The Nernst Equation
Electrochemical potentials Donnan equilibrium Molecular Pumps
THE DETAILS:
Understanding Steady Ionic State & How it is Preadaptative for Electrical
Integration
1. List 5 important cell membrane functions that make electrical events possible
a. Excellent barriers to free diffusion (semi permeable) concentration gradient-source of potential energy
b. actively picking things up and spitting things out-exo/endocytosis
c. receptive to certain types of compounds that changes the feature/state of themembrane receptors
d. transmembrane potential/charge-voltage is a potential source of energy
e. conduct bioelectric charges-nervous systems
2. What is the steady ionic state?
a. Ionic steady state- Although cells are in osmotic equilibrium with theirenvironment, ion concentrations differ greatly between the cytosol and interstitialfluid.
b. This definition leads to three important questions you should be able to answer.
i. How is this dif ference establ ished?
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ii. How is the dif ference maintained?iii.How can this conditi on lead to in tegrated nervous control?
3. Four important characteristics that establish the ionic steady state
a. Membrane Permeability
i. Permeability (P)- the rate at which a substance passively penetrates themembrane under a given set of conditions - is the key factor determining
physiological exchange rates between the internal and external cell
environment.
ii. Know the five physical & chemical factors affecting permeability
b. Solute concentration gradients
i. Chemical potential
ii. Diffusion
c. Electricalconcentration gradientseffects ofcharged molecules
i. Attributesii. Donnan Equilibrium - ion distribution in the face of undiffusible or fixed
ions
d. Active transported via molecular pumps
i. Membrane or molecular pumpshave three basic featuresii. The sodium-potassium pump: A classic example.
Predicting Solute Exchange Rates
The General Diffusion EquationA biophysics lesson
1. Rateof net solute flow (Jnet) = conductanceof the solute driving force
dx
dc
RT
z
dx
dcADJnet
where A = area (cm2)
D = diffusion coefficient (cm2/s)
c= solute concentration (mol/cm3)
z= charge on the solute
= the Faraday (96,500 coulombs/mol)R = gas constant (8.314 V coulomb/K mol)T = absolute temperature (K)
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= electrical potential (V)x= distance (cm)
2. Can we determine the rate of solute movement across a cell membrane using GDE?
Assume z= 0
What is the effect on the GED?
dxdcADJ /
This form is known as Fick's Law of Diffusion
(1)A is the surface area for diffusion(2)D = permeability (diffusion constant) of the membrane tissue or substance(3)dc/dxis the chemical potential (concentration or partial pressure gradient)
3. Can the GDE be used to determine movement of ions?
Assume
z 0Let Vm= electrical potential across the membrane
Flux occurs in both directions from compartments 1 & 2
Net flux = 0
Solve for Vmthe GDE reduces to:
2
1ln c
c
z
RT
Vm
This form is the famous Nernst Equation!
i. Shows how a diffusing ion is distributed across a membrane at equilibriumii. A most useful equation - accounts for both concentration & electrical gradient
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NERVES AND THE EXCITING CONCEPT OF EXCITABLE MEMBRANESHOW EXCITING!
STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Understand excitable membranes physiology and how they differs from typical cellmembranes
Explain the bio-physical & morphological events of the resting & active excitablemembrane
Link the bio-physical & morphological characteristics of excitable membranes totheir functional attributes
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
The Resting Potential The Action Potential
The Nernst Equation the Goldman Adjustment Gated Channels Action Potentials Properties
THE DETAILS:
1. Four important attributes about cell membrane permeability and molecular pumps
2. Overview - The Resting Potential
a. Resting potential and its magnitude for a typical excitable membraneb. Do you remember the four factors that establish the resting potential?c. List the resulting ionic characteristicswe have seen these befored. The electrical consequenceseach ions contribution to the resting potentiale. OneKEY FACTORleads to a negative trans-membrane potential in an excitable
membrane
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3. What is the trans-membrane potential of a typical excitable membrane?
a. Defined by the Nernst equation:
i
om
K
K
z
RTV
][
][ln
Where:
Vm= trans-membrane potential (mV)
R = universal gas constant
T = Absolute Temperature (K)
z= charge carried by 1 gram equivalent of ions[K
+]o& [K
+]i= outside and inside potassium concentration
b. What is the resting potential when inside and outside [K+] is equal?
4. Why doesnt the Nernst equation return a precisely accurate value?
a. The Goldman Adjustment
][ClP+][NaP+][KP
][ClP+][NaP+][KP
z
RT=E
oCliNaiK
iCloNaoK
ln
Where:
Pxis the membrane permeability for ionx[X]o& [X]I ionX,concentration outside and inside the membrane
5. Sodium permeability and the action potential
a. The permeability of Na+is so low that it has a minor affect on resting potential.
b. What happens if there is a momentary increase in membrane permeability to Na+?
i. Depolarization & Action Potential: things every biologist should know!ii. Key Concept - membrane potential can be changed 125 mV, merely by
altering the relative permeability of sodium and potassium!
6. How is sodium permeability controlled?
a. TheNa+
/K+
pump& Gated Channelsb. Types of gates:
i. Ligand-gated channelsii. Voltage-gated channelsare self-closingiii. Mechanical-gated channels
7. The Hodgkins Cycle and its key attributes
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a. Stimulusb. Local responsec. Threshold valued. Hodgkin cycle
i.Sodium channels activated
ii. Overshootiii. Sodiumchannels deactivateiv. Rectified potassium channels activatev. Hyperpolarization
8. Important properties of action potentials.
a. Regenerativeor local responsethat is the question.b. All or none. Conduction without decrement.
i. Absolute refractory period
ii. Relative refractory periodiii. Rectification.iv. Accommodation.v. Adaptation: Is habituationa better term?vi. Hyperpolarization
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NERVES:THE BASIS OF ANIMAL INTEGRATION
STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Understand functional & morphological differences & similarities between the twonervous tissue types Explain the basic ultra-structure the typical neuronal cell Identify explain morphological and functional attributes used to classify neuronal
cells
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
Excitable and non-excitable nerve tissue Synaptic action potential transfer
Importance of neurotransmitters Cable properties, ephaptic transmission, and saltatory conduction
THE DETAILS:
1. Two basic types of nervous cellsWhat are they?
1. Neuroglial cells
1. Distribution among the phyla
2. Neuralgia cell typesform and function
(1)Ependymal cells(2)Astrocytes(3)Oligodendricytes(4)Schwann cells(5)Microglia cells
2. Neurons
1. Basic structure
(1)Cell body or soma(2)Cell processes and their function
1 Dendrites2 Axon
1 Collateral axons2 Unmyelinated and myelinated
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1) Schwann cells2) Nodes of Ranvier
2. Connecting neurons together - Axon terminals and synaptic batons
(1)Presynaptic membrane or terminal
1 AP reaches baton2 Synaptic vessels
(2)Synaptic clefts or nexus(3)Postsynaptic membrane and receptor (ligand) channels
3. Transmitter substances
(1)norepinephrine (noradrenaline)(2)epinephrine (adrenaline)(3)acetylcholine
(4)-aminobuteric acid (GABA)
2. Classification of neurons
1. Morphological
1. Multipolar neurons2. Bipolar neuron
Node of Ranvier
Dendrite
Schwan cell(myelin sheath)
Axon
Motor nerve
ending
Soma
Synapticterminals
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3. Unipolar neuron
2. Conduction ratesFunctional classification of nerves
1. Low resistance electrical pathways septal synapses or ephaptictransmission2. Diameter - invertebrate solution (still found in anamniote vertebrates).
(1)Rate of conduction is defined by the neurons cable properties
(2)u=kd1 Where:
u= transmission velocity
k= animal-specific fiber properties constant
d= diameter of the nerve fiber
3. Invertebrate use of giant neurons (Always large muscle groups for quick
Some examples of unipolar neurons
Some examples of multipolar and bi-polar neurons
Can you tell the difference?
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escape)
4. Vertebrates - Lateral line nerves & Mauthner fibersin fish & amphibians
3. Insulation
1. Myelinated neurons- vertebrate solution
(1)Myelinated neurons(2)Nodes of Ranvier(3)Saltatory conduction(from the Latin to dance or jump). The question is
how?
Axon
Cell body
Lateral dendrite
Ventral dendrite
Batons
Mauthner neron
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2. Invertebrate solution to meylinated nerves Do they differ fromvertebrates?
Membrane under myelin
remains negative
Current flows back
outside myelin
Outward current depolarizes
next node of Ranvier
Direction of impulse
Reverse potential
At active node
Axon
Node
Myelin sheath
Saltatory Conduction
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -+
_
_
+
+
+
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FROM NERVES TO NERVOUS SYSTEMS
THE OBJECTIVES:
Understand functional integration & emergent properties of nervous systems
Be able to track nervous system evolution within the animal kingdom & relateimportant contributions of major animal groups
Identify key strategies of nervous integration and recognize advantages and limits ofeach
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
Typical structure of nervous systems Independent Effectors The radiate approach to nervous systems Similarities & differences in nervous systems of the bilateria
Evolution of nervous systems in the vertebrates Measures of intelligence
THE DETAILS:
1. Nervous systems - Excitable nerve cell groups providing an interface betweensensory & motor responses.
a. Functionsb. Organization - Sensory-motor circuit:
i. Three parts (usually)
(1)Neuron receptor(2)Motor neuron(3)Effector cell
ii. Interneurons may allow complex interpretation & integration.
(1)Divergence -(2)Convergence -(3)Feedback loops -
2. Are nervous systems necessary to support highly integrated and coordinated life?
a. Independent effector cellsb. Major advantagesc. Major disadvantage
3. Three important examples:
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a. Complex movement patterns of ciliatesb. Poriferiansc. Cniderian cnidocytes
4. Radiates: Evolution of true effector/motor nervous systems
a. Radial symmetryb. Sophisticated nerve nets
i. Motor reflex responseii. Semi- independent nerve nets
(1)Fast specific nerve net(2)Slow diffuse nerve net
5. Bilateral animals: trends in nervous system evolution
a. Reduction in reflex motor unitsb. Cephalizationc. Centralization of nervous controld. Neuronal aggregation
i. Gangliaii. Nuclei
e. Fusion/reduction of nerve cords
6. Flatworms - show a wide diversity of nervous development
a. Primitive forms
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b. Moderately advancedcommissures or nerve laddersc. Advanced forms - Brain or endom
Primitive flatworm nerve net
7. Mollusks - highly cephalized (not bivalves) with ganglia fused into few large centralmasses
a. Circumesophageal gangliab. Ventral pedal nerve cordsc. Visceral nerve cordsd. Cephalopod circumesophageal ganglion
8. Annelids - distinctly more organized nervous systems
a. Bilobate brainsb. Ganglionic swellings
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9. Arthropodsrefine basic annelid nervous plan to its highest integration level
a. Low sodium diet - perineuriumb. Brainsensory organs produce highly modified brain - 3 distinct regions:
i. Protocerebrumii. Deuterocerebrumiii. Tritocerebrum
c. Segmental ganglia
i. metathroacic gangliaii. CO2& hypoxia
d. Central pattern generators
10.Vertebrates differ from invertebrates-
a. CNS housed in bony chamber cushioned in cerebral spinal fluid to protect from
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STUDY MODULE II
SENSORY SYSTEMS AND THEIR FUNCTION
STUDY GUIDE
Comparative Animal Physiology
Dr. Wayne A. Bennett, Associate Professor of Physiology
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MECHANORECEPTORS
A most versatile sensory system
STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Recognize importance, distribution and use of the mechanical receptor/sensorysystems
Identify and classify various mechanical sensory receptor types Understand the structural functional components of general and special sensory
systems
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
Type and classification of senses Sensory encoding
General mechanoreceptor types and structure Equilibrium sensory adaptations of various animal groups Audition in air & water Magnetoreception
THE DETAILS:
1. Important definitions:
a. Receptorsnerve/epithelial tissue responding to stimuli by developing actionpotentials
i. Primary receptor cellsspecialized neurons (ancestral)ii. Secondary receptor cellsepithelial cells synapsing with neurons
(vertebrates only)
b. Stimulus- any environmental parameter causing a response in a nerve muscle orgland
c. Sensation- perception or awareness of a stimulus received by sensory receptorsd. Generaland specialsenses
i. Generalii. Special senses
2. Sensory coding
a. Receptor specificity and morphological encoding
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b. Additional attributes of morphological encoding
i. Filteringii. Amplification
c. Innate receptor encoding
i. Pulse-code messagestwo types
Olfactory Auditory Muscle
stretchCutaneous
Examples of different receptor
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(1)Tonic receptors
Horseshoe crab optic nerve tonic discharge rates
relative to intensity. Broken white line gives the
1-sec period during which the eye was illuminated.
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(2)Phasic receptors
ii. Signal filtering
(1)Low-pass(2)High-pass(3)Band-pass filter
3. General mechanoreceptors- response to sheer or torque forces
a. Structureb. Functionc. Types
Stimulation of a Pacinian corpuscle and
the resulting action potential spike.
Time in (msec)
0 3 5 7
Stimulu
Myeli
Node of Ranvier
Nerve
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i. Light touch/pressure receptors- Merkels disks, Hair folliclesii. Discriminative touch receptors - Meissners corpusclesiii. Barrow receptors- Ruffinis end-organsiv. Nociceptors un-myelinated neurons two types:
(1)Fast response nociceptors(2)Slow propagation nociceptors
v. Proprioreceptors- Pacinian corpusclesvi. Thermoreceptors- un-myelinated neuronsvii.Infraredreceptors
Free nerve
endingsMerkels
disks
Hair
Follicle
Ruffinis
endorgans
Meissners
corpuscles
Pacinian
corpuscle
Diagrammatic representation of mechnoreceptors
found in mammalian skin. Thick lines are
myelinated nerves, thin are unmyelinated
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SPECIAL MECHANORECEPTORS WITH ACCESSORY STRUCTURES
1. Morphology of secondary sense cells
i. Hair cells
ii. kinocilium& stereocilia
Pit Or an
Palmate sensoryneurons on pit
membrane
Single sensoryneuron showing
palmate design
KinociliumSterocilia
Efferentnerve
Afferentnerve
Typical vertebratehair cell orsecondary
mechanoreceptor
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iii. Accessorystructures
2. Types of Special Mechanoreceptors
a. Organs of equilibrium and orientationi. statocyst & statolith
ii. semicircular canals& vestibule(ampullae)
Receptor
potential
Nerveimpulse
Resting
discharge
Increase impulsefrequency
Decrease impulsefrequency
Depolarization
Hyperpolarization
+
Excitation Inhibition
Statolith
Nerve
Rece tor
Typical invertebrate statocyst
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(1)Static equilibrium - otoliths.(2)Kinetic equilibrium
3. Lateral line (Octaveolateralis) systems
4. Audition
a. Hearing in water
i. Near-field sound
Ampullae
Otoliths
Ampullae
Cupulae
Hair cells
Hair tufts
Nerves
Cupula
Hair tuftsHair cells
Naked neuromast offish and amphibians
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ii. Far-field sound
(1)Osterophysan fishes
(2)Hearing specialists
(3)Cetaceans
b. Hearing in air:
i. Insects
Sonorificmuscle
Swimbladder
Swimbladderextensions to
endorgans
Swimbladder of the spotted sea trout(Cynoscion nebulosus) a hearing specialist
that used sound for communication
Tympanum
Attachment cell
Sensory dendrite
Scolopidiumsensory cell
Schwann cell
Sensory axon
Scolopidium
Chordotonal organ ofinsects are comprised of
many scolopidia
Scolopale cell
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(1)chordotonal organ(2)scolopidium
ii. The vertebrate ear
(1)External ear(auricle or pinna)(2)Middle earair- auditory ossicle: malleus, incus& stapes(3)Inner ear- bony & membranous labyrinth, tactorial membrane,
basalar membrane, andspiral organof Corti
iii. Hearing
Nerves
Cochlea
Semicircular canals
Ossicular chain
Tympanicmembrane
Auditory meatus
Pinna
External ear
Middle ear
Internal ear
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Oval window
Round window
Basilar Membrane
Simplified view of mammalian cochlearstructure in the extended position
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c. Specialized hearing adaptations in vertebrates
i. Echolocation
(1)Bats microchiroptrans& macrochirptran
(2)Shrews and some other insectivores(3)Whales, dolphins and seals(4)Cave swiftlets
d. Use of infrasound
i. Baleen whalesii. Elephantsiii. Pigeons
5. Magnetoreception
i. Electrically sensitive marine fishii. Birdsiii. Some bacteria & insectsiv. Magnetite
Tactorialmembrane
Haircells
Basilarmembrane
Vestibular canal
(round window)
Tympanic canal
(round window)
Nerves
Cross section of the cochlearapparatus showing the organ of
corti (basilar and tactorialmembrane, and hair cells)
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CHEMOSENSORY AND VISUAL ADAPTATIONSGustation, Olfaction, and Visionthree very important sensory modalities!
STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Understand the physiological processes leading to chemosensory and visualperception
Identify key integrative steps in each process Know the range of variability among animal groups and how system variation affects
what is perceived for each modality
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
Type and classification of chemical senses Sensory encoding of chemical and visual stimuli
General receptor types and structure Evolution of visual adaptations
THE DETAILS:
1. Chemoreception - gustatoryand olfactoryreceptors
1. Most universal sensory modality2. Evolved independently in many groups
2. Olfaction
1. Bipolar neurons but secondary sense cells often involved2. Exact physiological mechanisms not well known
Dendrites
Cuticle
Axon
Pore
Receptor cell
Diagram of an insect olfactory
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3. Steps in the initial process4. But what is the exact mechanism involved?
1. Primary odor hypothesis
(1)musky(2)floral
(3)pepperminty(4)camphoraceous(5)ethereal(6)pungent(7)putrid
5. Uses
1. Foraging/feeding2. Location or navigation3. Reproduction and development
4. Protection
3. Gustatory (taste) responses
1. Found in all major phyla2. Vertebrate taste buds
Receptor cells(differentiated dendrites)
Sustentacular cells(non-neuronal)
Cilia
Primary receptor cells fromhuman olfactory mucosa.
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1. Structure
(1)Taste hair and taste pores(2)Process of gustation
2. Distribution3. Four classic taste sensationsplus two non-traditional
(1)sour(2)salty(3)bitter(4)sweet(5)water(6)umami
Taste hair(microvilli)
Receptor cell
Neurons
Taste pore
Vertebrate taste bud with supporting cells
Capsule
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3. Vomoronasal organ(Jacobsons organ) an olfactory system augmentation
(1)Reptiles, amphibians & mammals(2)Role of the forked tongue
Mushroom body
Upper palate
Jacobson organ duct
Lachrymal duct
Jacobsons Organ of a monitor lizard.Dark arrows represent movement of
odiferous molecules
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ALL ABOUT VISION
4. Photoreceptors- more detailed information about near & distant environment thanother sense
1. Types of information
1. Intensity2. Wavelength3. Plane of polarization
2. Major advantage?
5. Photoreception in the animal kingdom
1. Dermal light sense or diffuse photosensitivity - nearly all phyla.
1. Exact mechanism not clear2. Perhaps photosensitive nerve endings?3. Type of information
2. Eye spots - flatworms, annelids & arthropods- not image forming
1. Forms:
(1)Flat sheets(2)Convex(3)Cup-shaped
Flat sheet Concave Convex
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7. Important anatomical features of image forming, single lens eyes
1. Cornea
1. Accommodation and light refraction
2. Underwater vision
2. Irisand lens- anterior eye
1. Iris2. Lens
(1)Shape - terrestrial vs. aquatic(2)Color
(1)Affect on ultra-violet sensitivity(2)Yellow lenses and countershading
(3) Using the lens to focuses light3 ways to change focal length
(1)Move retina(2)Move lens(3)Change lens shape
3. The retina
Cornea
Lens
Iris
Aqueoushumor
Vitreoushumor
Fovea
Neurons
Sclera(outer tunic)
Choroid(middle tunic)
Retnia(inner tunic)
Opticdisk
Ciliarymuscles
Basic structure of the vertebrate
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1. Outer pigmented retina2. Inner sensory retina
(1)Rods
(1)Rhodobsin
(2)Cones(wavelength)
(1)Iodopsins
(3)Trichromatic vision theory
Outersegments
Innersegment
Mitochondria
Cilium
Photosensitive region(generation of AP)
Metabolic region(synthesis & energy production)
Plexiform region
(synapse with nuerons)
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8. Multifaceted/ Convex eyediffer radically from vesicular eye
1. Ommatidia - photoreceptor units
1. Fixed angle of resolution2. Light guide, light shade & photoreceptors
9. Pineal or median eye of vertebrates
1. Best developed in lamprey and some lizards
Cross-section of the multifacetedor compound eye
Corneal lens
Crystalline cone
Secondary iris cells
Rhabdom
Retinula cells
Axon
Primary iris cells
Example of insect ommatidia
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2. Pineal organ complex3. Photo-sensitive4. Endocrine function
10.Eyes of the eyeless shrimp,Rimicaris exoculata
1. Hydrothermal vents - black smokers2. Lack image-forming optics3. Location of rhodopsin4. Black-body radiation5. Sulphide bacteria
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STUDY MODULE III
METABOLISM AND MOVEMENT
STUDY GUIDE
Comparative Animal Physiology
Dr. Wayne A. Bennett, Associate Professor of Physiology
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ENERGY METABOLISMMEASURING THE COST OF LIVING
THE OBJECTIVES:
Understand, define, and explain what is meant by metabolism
Enumerate ways metabolism can be measured; recognize advantages & disadvantagesof each Understand the metabolic components and interrelationships of each method
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
Relationship between metabolism and oxygen consumption Four related but different metabolic measurement techniques Various measures of metabolism Food types and the concept of isocaloric weight
THE DETAILS:
1. What is metabolism?2. Types of metabolic reactions
a. Anabolic reactionsb. Catabolic reactions
3. Why are metabolic measurements useful to physiologists?4. Factors influencing metabolic rates
To be meaningful, metabolism must be measured carefully!
5. Some basic principles in the measurement of metabolic rates:
a. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)- metabolic rate of resting, fasting mammals andbirds under minimal physiological and environmental stress.
i. Endothermic animalsii. Constant body temperature
b. Standard Metabolic Rate (SMR)resting and fasting metabolism ofpoikilotherms under minimal physiological and environmental stress, at any given
temperature.
i. Poikilothermic animalsii. Variable body temperature
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c. Why fasting? Because of Specific Dynamic Action
6. * Key PointBMR and SMR are measured under unnaturally controlled and quiteconditions that vary greatly from an animals normal state & say nothing about
activity.
7. Other common metabolic measures
a. Routine Active Metabolic Rate- average metabolic rate of normally activeanimal.
b. Maximum Sustained Metabolic Ratemetabolic rate at sustained, vigorousactivity.
c. Metabolic Factorial Scope or Index of Metabolic Expansibility- ratio ofMSMR to BMR or SMR.
8. Metabolic rates can be determined in four different ways.
a. Mass balance equations
i. Ballistic bomb calorimetry - anabolic heat energyii. Also require moment-to-moment (catabolic) measuresiii. Advantages & disadvantages
b. Direct calorimetryDetermine total heat production
i. Hesss lawheat released through breakdown of a fuel to a given set of endproducts is constant irrespective of the intermediate chemical steps or
pathways used.
ii. Advantages & disadvantages
c. Indirect calorimetry- Determine the rate of oxygen consumption (most oftenused).
i. Respirometry(1)Manometric respirometry
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WaterBath
RespirometerFlask
ReferenceFlask
ManometerTube
Gas-tightSyringe
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(2)Flow-through respirometry
(3)Sealed-jar respirometery
ii. Advantages and disadvantages
d. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
i. Seldom usedii. Advantages/disadvantages
Water outflow
Water inflow
Sample tube
Water level
Example of a flow-throughrespirometer. From Cech 1990
Measurement
Flask
WaterBath
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9. Conversion of oxygen consumption to heatIsocaloric values (Table 1)
TABLE 1.Energetics of common foods.
Food kcal g-1 liter O2g-1 kcal per liter O2
Carbohydrate 4.20 0.84 5.0
Fat 9.40 2.00 4.7
Protein (urea)1 4.30 0.96 4.5
Protein (uric acid)1
4.25 0.97 4.4
1Protein energy values are higher than listed; however, proteins are incompletely burned
in vertebrates.
a. Fats, carbohydrates and proteins have different energy values by weight.b. Amount of energy released per liter of oxygen consumed remains relatively
constant.c. Important Shortcut- 4.8 kcal per liter of O2 (avg. kcal / L) 6% largest error
possible
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3. Adaptations of water-breathers to survive hypoxic events
a. Behavioral
i. Vertical migration
(1)Top-ward migrationASR(2)Bottom migration
ii. Horizontal migration
b. Physiological adaptations
i. INCREASE OXYGEN UPTAKEii. ANAEROBIC PATHWAYS
(1)oxygen debt
(2)aerobic coupling
PRESSURE
Pressures at various points in the atmosphere and hydrosphere.
RELATIVE POSITION IN THEATMOSPHERE OR HYDROSPHERE
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE INATMOSPHERES
PRESSURE IN PSIG
*
Mt. Everest 0.25 3.5
Sea level 1.0 14.1
10 m below sea level 2 28.2
Average abyssal pressures
(3 to 5 km below sea level) 300 to 500 4,200 to 7,050
Deepest ocean trenches
(> 10 km below sea level) > 1,000 141,000+
* Pounds per square inch exerted at ground (sea) level
1. Four ways high pressure affects metabolism:
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i. Disrupt pH systemsii. Shift velocity constantsiii. Collapse weak chemical bondsiv. Alter liquid to solid phase transitions
b. How do deep-sea animals withstand pressures of up 1000 atmospheres?
i. Colloidal biophysics adapted to different dissociation and velocity constants.ii. Enzymes show significant increases in strong disulfide bonds & salt bridges.
BODY SIZE
1. Total oxygen consumptionvs. Specific oxygen consumption
TABLE OF Oxygen Consumption in Mammals of Various Body Size
Animal
Body Mass
(g)
Total O2
consumption
(ml/h)
Specific O2
consumption
(ml/g h)
Mouse 25 41.0 1.65
Ground squirrel 96 98.8 1.03
Dog 11,700 3,870 0.33
Human 70,000 14,760 0.21
Horse 650,000 71,100 0.11
Elephant 3,833,000 268,000 0.07
2. Take-home Message
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3. The famous mouse-to-elephant curveIllustrated graphically
The famous mouse to elephant curve of metabolic rate on body size
a. linear relationship is represented by the equation:
VO/Mb(l/kg h) = 0.676 x Mb-0.25
b. If mass (Mb) is removed from the equation the equation becomes:
VO2= 0.676 x Mb0.75
c. Kleibers law.
0.01 0.10.01
1
0.1
10 1000100
10
1
Body Mass (kg)
Oxygen
consumption
(literO2h-1 Slo e = 0.75
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d. MaxRubner surface area hypothesis
i. Should this hypothesis be rejected completely?ii. Two examples: One hypothetical and one observed.
e. McMahonand Bonners (1983) cross-sectional area hypothesisf. Swansadditive scaling hypothesisg. Blumsfour-dimensional scaling hypothesis (1977)
h. Sernetzs fractal scaling hypothesis(1985)i. Can be defined by fractal dimensional analysis equationVo2= aM
b-f
Where: b= scaling exponent
a= constant for that group
f= fractal exponent (which changes with mass)
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TEMPERATURE AND METABOLIC RATE:Response of animals to minimize temperature effects
THE OBJECTIVES:
Understand the importance of temperature to animal life Enumerate the thermal physiological strategies and tactics used by ectotherms
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
Thermal Primacy The Arrhenius Principal Temperature Quotient Homeothermy Precht Type Curves
THE DETAILS:
1. Heat and Temperaturea. Thermal Primacy Paradigmb. Effects of heat on chemical reactions
i. The Arrhenius principal.ii. Consequences
c. Effects on enzyme systemsi. Jacobus van't Hoff - and the temperature quotient or Q10.
(1)vant Hoffs rule
(a)Temperature quotient(i) Q10= Rate (at T1+ 10C) Rate at T1(ii)Q10= (Rate at T2 Rate at T1)
10 (T2 - T1)
2. Terminologya. Warm-blooded & Cold-bloodedb. Homeothermic & heretothermic or poikilothermicc. Endothermic & ectothermic - Terms of origin
3. Metabolism and ambient temperaturesa. Endotherms.
(1)thermal neutral zone(2)upper and lower critical temperatures
b. ectothermsi. Relationship to vant Hoffs rule?c. The concept of compensation in ectotherms
i. Precht type compensation curvesd. Effects of extreme temperature on animal systems
i. Cell damageii. Equilibrium imbalancesiii. Loss of enzymatic control
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4. Endotherms - homeothermya. Thermogenesis in endothermsb. General physiological control- The futile cyclec. Specific physiological control
i. The hypothalamus
ii. Conclusions?d. Shivering thermogenesisi. Female Indian pythonsii. Honeybee swarms
5. Non-shivering Thermogenesisa. Brown adipose tissue or BAT.
i. termogeninb. Mechanisms to conserve metabolic energy
i. Dual set-point regulators(1)Hibernation(2)Diel torpor
(3)Carnivorus lethargyii. Brumationiii. Estivation
c. Regional homeothermy/heterothermyi. rete mirabile
(1)Warm bodied fishes - rete mirabileii. Regional endothermy - Swordfish
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SKELETAL SYSTEMS
THE OBJECTIVES:
Evaluate stress/strain curves and give their meaning.
Describe the types of skeletons found in the animal kingdom.
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
Material properties Elastic modulus Hydraulic skeletons Ridged skeleton types
THE DETAILS:
1. Functions of a skeletal systema. Major functionsb. Other functions
2. Material properties of skeletonsa. Density (g/cm3)
i. Some important ratios(1)Body fluids(2) Flexible biological materials(3)Rigid skeletal materials
b. Elastic modulusi. Elasticity
ii. Complianceiii. elastic modulus(1)Stress(2)Strain(3)Stress on Strain
c. Plasticityi. yield point
d. Ultimate strengthi. fracture point
3. Materialsa. Elastic organic compounds
b. Inorganic compounds that resist compressionTYPES OF SKELETONS1. Hydraulic skeletons - three elements
i. Fiber angle2. Hydrostat types
a. Fluid & soft wallsb. Fluid & muscle cells
i. Muscular hydrostats
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c. Fluid & rigid elements3. Rigid skeletons
a. Exoskeletoni. Advantagesii. Disadvantages
(1)Compressive bucklingiii. Arthropods exoskeleton(a)epicuticle(b)procuticle
(i) Exocuticle(ii)Endocuticle
iv. Mollusksb. Endoskeleton
i. Advantagesii. Disadvantages
(a)cancellous bone/pneumatized bone
6. Examples of endoskeletons1. Poriferiansi. sponginii. spicules
2. Echinodermsi. Ossicles - test
3. Vertebrate endoskeletona. Notochordb. Cartilage
i. Chondrocytesc. Bone
i. Osteocytes - hydroxyapatite(1)Lacunae
d. Bone typesi. Long bonesii. Short bonesiii. Flat bonesiv. Irregular bones
e. Bone structurei. Compact bone - osteon central Haversian canalii. Cancellous (spongy) bonetrabeculae
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MOVEMENT WITHOUT MUSCLE
THE OBJECTIVES:
Understand basic principles of non-muscular movement
Be able to describe and give the function of various molecules of motion Identify key physiological processes of ciliary, amoeboid, & flagellar movement
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
Basic movement types Molecules associated with motion Cytoplasmic streaming Cilia & flagella structure and function
THE DETAILS:
1. Basic types of movementi. Amoeboidii. Ciliary or flagellar bendingiii. Direct cell movementiv. Muscle contraction
2. Molecules of Motiona. Contractileproteins
i. Actin(1)G-actin & F-actin
ii. Intermediatefibersiii. Tubulin
(1)heterodimers(2)microtubules.
b. Molecularmotorsi. Myosin
(1)spontaneous cross-bridgesii. Dyneiniii. Kinesin
c. Regulatoryproteinsi. Tropomyosinii. Troponiniii. Calmodulin
iv. Alpha-actinin3. Amoeboid Movement
a. cytoplasmic streamingb. sol and gel state
i. actin regulatedii. myosin regulated.iii. How it works
(1)endoplasm
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(2)fountain zone.(3)gel-likeectoplasm.
4. Cilia and Flagellaa. Disadvantages?b. Differences between cilia and flagella
(a)Neuroidhypothesis(b)Coupledoscillator hypothesisc. Mechanism of movement
i. The doublet microtubulin structure
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MUSCLE MOVEMENT
1. Muscle types2. Muscle fibers or myofibers or muscle cell
a. sarcolemma
i. transverse tubule systemii. T tubulesb. Sarcoplasmic reticulum
i. Terminal cisternae(1)Primary functions
3. Myofibrilsa. sarcomeres - functional unit of muscle contraction.b. myofilaments or muscle filaments.
i. Thick filaments(1)myosin
ii. Thin filaments
(1)actin(2) Z-lineiii. Tropomyosiniv. Troponin
c. zonation and linesi. Z line (Zwischenscheibe or between disk)ii. I band (isotropic)iii. A band (anisotropic)iv. H (helleor bright) zone
MUSCLE MOVEMENT- the sliding filament theory
4. motor unit concept5. The neuromuscular junction
a. acetylcholine & neuromuscular junctionb. motor end plate
6. Excitation-contraction couplinga. inositol triphosphate
7. Muscle Contractiona. Resting stageb. Cross-bridge formationc. Power stroked. Release stage
8. Regulation of muscle contractionVARIATION AMONG MUSCLE TYPES
9. Two basic typesi. Tonic muscle fibersii. Slow phasic fibersiii. Fast phasic glycolytic fibersiv. Fast phasic oxidative fibers
b. Cardiac musclec. Smooth muscle
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(1) (varicosities)(2)calmodulin
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WATER WATER EVERYWHERE
THE OBJECTIVES:
Gain a general understanding of water balance budgets
Explain mechanisms used in direct and indirect water conservation and loss Evaluate water balance adaptations and explain how they complement animal lifehistory and environment
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
The Water Budget Concept Direct control vs. indirect control of water Resistance to evaporative water loss Water absorption from sub-saturated air
THE DETAILS:
1. Major water balance problems in different habitat types
a. The water budget concept
i. Potential avenues of water lossii. Potential avenues of water gain
2. Two major strategies of maintaining a water budget
a. Direct control of water balance
b. Indirect control of water balance by controlling osmotic flux (osmoregulation)
3. The Biophysics of Water Balance
a. In terrestrial animals EWL = -D xWV/ d
i. D = diffusion coeficieny
ii. xWV= difference in water vapor densityiii.d = diffusion path length
b. Not usually measured in this way but rather as resistance
i. Resistance r is substituted for D & xWVii. EWL xWV / r
Some Adaptations for Direct control of water
4. Contractile vacuoles
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a. spongiomelayer.b. Arginine vasopressin
5. Adaptations for retarding water loss across body surfaces
a. Mollusksb. Arthropodsepicuticlec. Fishd. Amphibians
i. Waterproof frogs wipingbehavior cutaneous lipid glandsii. Casque-headed frogs (Trachycephalus) - co-ossifiedskulliii. Estivating amphibians
e. Aminote vertebrates - Keratinized epidermal cells, stratum corneumf. Reptilesg. Mammals
i. Three possible adaptations for preventing water loss from mammalianrespiratory surfaces in the absence of heat stress.
ii. Do not fully saturate expired air.iii. Higher oxygen extraction. (Greater than 5%)iv. Exhale air at lower than body temperature.v. Temporal counter-current heat exchanger
h. Female mammals have an additional water burden during lactation.
6. Direct water vapor absorption from sub-saturated air via hygroscopic organs.
a. agranular cellsb. eversible bladderc. rectal sacs containing hygroscopic fluid
7. Storage of water
a. Chiroleptes,
OSMOREGULATION AND EXCRETION
Secretory Organs of Excretion
THE OBJECTIVES:
Describe the relationship between osmoregulation and excretion Explain the two basic types of excretory organs List and describe the basic function of various cells/organs present in various animal
groups
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THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
Ultrafiltration, reabsorption and secretion Chloride cells Salt glands
Malpigian tubules
THE DETAILS:
1. Basic Processes of Excretion
a. Ultrafiltrationb. Active transport
i. Active secretionii. Active reabsorption
2. The following are secretion (not filtration) organs and thus are specific to certaincompounds.
3. The teleost gill - Chloride cells
a. Gill filament - Secondary lamellae
(1)Lamella epithelium(2)Chloride cells
b. Keys and Willmer
(1) (trans-cellular transport)(2) (para-cellular transport)
4. Salt glands
a. Control
i. Hypothalamus and osmoreceptorsii. Hormonesiii. Major advantage
b. Location
(1)Birds and reptiles.(2)sea turtles and marine iguanas.(3)Chocadillians(4)sea snakes
c. Structure
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i. Knut Schmidt-Nielsenii. Secretory tubular system, tubular capillaries and a central duct.iii. counter current system
5. Maligian tubules
a. Structure/Function
i. midhindgut junctionii. passive movement chloride
WATER BALANCEORGANS OF EXCRETION
THE OBJECTIVES:
Gain a general understanding of excretory organs
Explain distribution and basic function of ultrafiltration organs in various animalgroups
Explain how various adaptations differ for animals in different environments
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
Protonephredia and metanephredia The vertebrate kidney Counter-current magnification systems
THE DETAILS:
1. Protonephridia and metanephridia.
a. Protonephridia
i. "flame calls"
(1)Found mainly in acoelomate or psuedocoelomate animals.
b. Metanephridia
i. Found ONLY in eucoelomate animals, but the reverse is not true i.e., someanimals with a coelome have protonephridia.
c. Function
2. Vertebrate Kidneys
a. Functionb. Structure
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i. The Renal Tubular system
(1)Renal Corpusle
(a)Glomerulus(b)Bowmans capsule
(2)Nephron (all of the above plus the following)
(a)Proximal convoluted tubule(b)Loop of Henle
(i) Counter-current magnification
(c)Distal convoluted tubule
(3)Collecting ducts
(4)Renal blood flow
(a)Afferent arterioles(b)Glomerulus(c)Efferent arterioles(d)Peritubular capillaries
c. Variability of kidney morphology among marine vertebrates.
i. Excretion in fish
(1)Aglomerular kidneys
(2)Examples(3)Elasmobranchs have a reabsorption mechanism for urea.
ii. Excretion in the crab-eating frog
(1)Crab-eating frogs
iii. Excretion in reptilesiv. Excretion in marine birdsv. Excretion in mammals
The Oxygen Environment, Diffusion, & Respiration
Behavior of Gases in Aerial and Aquatic Environments
THE OBJECTIVES:
Understand the physical laws that affect excretory organ form and function Explain how each law dictates basic function of respiratory organs in various animal
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groups
Explain how diffusion and gas absorption differ between aerial and terrestrialenvironments
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
Daltons Law Henerys Law Ficks Law Ficks famous silo problem
THE DETAILS:
1. Importance of Oxygen2. Gases in air - the aerial environment
a. What is the fate of oxygen in aerobic organisms?
i. Energy Production by Cellular Respiration.ii. Electron Transport Chain
O2+ 4H++ 4e
-= 2H2O
b. Composition of Gases in the Atmosphere
i. Nitrogen 78.09%ii. Oxygen 20.95%iii. Argon 0.93%
iv. Carbon Dioxide 0.03%
c. Dalton's Laws of Partial Pressure (Three parts but only two are important to us)
i. Effects of altitude on gas concentration and partial pressure
3. Gases in Water
a. Gas tensionb. Defined by Henry's Law which states - Tension of a gas in water is precisely
equal to the partial pressure of that gas in the gas phase with which it is in
equilibrium
c. Solubility - solution dissolves a specific amount of any gas it comes intoequilibrium with
i. Solubility coefficient ()
ii. Bgasg PPLmlsV )(/
d. Factors determining the Vgin water
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i. Nature of the gasii. Pressure of the gas in the gas phaseiii. Temperatureiv. Other dissolved solutes
4. Diffusion of gases
a. Diffusion of gas between two gases or between two liquids.b. Diffusion occurs in response to partial pressure (tension) gradients onlyc. Diffusion is the only mechanism of gas exchange between environment and living
cells
5. Animal Systems and the Movement of Gases Respiratory Membranes
a. Important definitions of respiration
i. Ventilation(Breathing) - Bulk air or water movement across a respiratory
surfaceii. Respiration- exchange of O2and CO2in all living organisms.iii. Cellular respirationCellular O2& CO2exchange resulting in ATP
production
iv. External Respiration- O2and CO2exchange across a respiratory membranev. Internal Respiration- Exchange of O2and CO2at the tissue level
FICK'S FIRST LAW OF DIFFUSION
11. J = -D A (C2-C1) xvi. Where:
(a)J = Total O2or CO2flux per unit time (moles per sec)(b)D or K = Diffusion coefficient or Kroghs diffusion constant; a
physical constant.
(c)A = respiratory surface area (cm2).(d)C2-C1= Difference in the concentration (or partial pressure whichever
is appropriate) between the medium and the organism.
(e)x = distance over which diffusion occurs (cm)
6. Fick's famous silo problem
Think like an ecological physiologist!!
7. Based on these limitations, how would you design a respiratory gas exchanger?
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEMSAll I need is the air that I breathe
THE OBJECTIVES:
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Describe how temperature, pressure and diffusing gas attributes affect diffusion Explain how V/Q relationships are useful in maximizing oxygen uptake List and describe major respiratory structures in the major animal phyla
THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:
Utilization coefficient V/Q properties Diversity of respiratory systems Adaptations that enhance animal respiratory systems
THE DETAILS:
12.1. Factors affecting diffusion of oxygen and their consequences
a. Temperatureb. Nature of the biological material
i. Nature of the mediumii. Utilization coefficient
1.
iii. 1002
22
O
OO
WCi
CoCi
E
2. Engineering a respiratory structuresome general physiological considerations
a. Convection - ventilation/perfusion considerations
i. Thin membranesii. V/Q match
(1)V/Q ratios are highly variable(2)Properties of respiratory medium(3)Temperature(4)Type & concentration of respiratory pigment
iii. V/Q flow patterns
iv. Ventilated pool
v. Parallel or con-current flow arrangement
vi. Cross-current arrangement
vii.Counter current arrangement
3. Diversity of respiratory structures
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a. Integumentb. Gillc. Water lungd. Tracheae. Tracheal gill
f. Compressible gillg. Incompressible gillh. Air lung
4. Respiratory systems in the animal kingdom
a. Cutaneous respiration
i. Limiting thickness
(1)2
][8 2OM
KO
(2)Boundary layers
b. Gills & branchial gas exchange - Expansion of the body wall to form gills
i. Invertebrate gills
(1)Polychaetes(2)Echinoderms
(a)Retractile dermal papillaeskin gills
(i) Perivisceral system
(b)Tube feetpodia(c)Holothuroidianswater lung or respiratory tree
(3)Molluscs
(a)Ctenidiagills of broad flattened filaments with ciliated margins
(4)Gilled arthropods
(a)Crustaceans
(i) Ventilated by scaphognathitederived from the 2ndmaxilliaped
(b)Horseshoe crabsbook gills(c)Aquatic insects
(i) Gills pass oxygen into branched trachea(ii)Diffusion gill(iii)Plastron gill
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(a)Air sacs
(b)parallel cylindrical tubes called parabronchi
(c)air capillaries