Structuring Arguments

Classical Oration

Structure in arguments defines which parts go where.

People don’t always agree about what parts an argument should include or what the arrangement should be.

In arguments, a method of leading a reader to a logical conclusion must be employed:◦ inductive reasoning◦ deductive reasoning

In most arguments, these two structures work together.

Quick review of the types of reasoning

Induction & Deduction

The process of generalizing on the basis of a number of specific examples.

In making inductive arguments, first present the evidence and then the inductive conclusion.

Inductive Reasoning

Evidence:I get hives after eating crawdads.My mouth swells when I eat clams.Shrimp triggers my asthma.

Conclusion:Shellfish makes me ill.

Inductive Reasoning

A conclusion is reached by assuming a general principle (major premise) and then applying that principle to a specific case (minor premise). This forms a chain of reasoning called a syllogism.

Deductive Reasoning

Major Premise:Shellfish makes me ill.

Minor Premise:Lobster is a type of shellfish

Therefore:Lobster will make me ill.

Deductive Reasoning

Most people shorten syllogisms by leaving out the middle term when it seems obvious.

Example:Since all shellfish makes me ill, eating lobster

will make me ill.

Syllogisms shortened this way are called enthymemes.

Deductive Reasoning

Constructing sound inductive and deductive arguments and presenting them clearly will influence most audiences.

But arguments involve more than just tight reasoning.

You will also need to:◦ define claims, ◦ explain contexts, ◦ defend your assumptions, ◦ offer convincing evidence, ◦ deal with people who may disagree with you, ◦ and more.

The Classical OrationAn Ancient Greek and Roman Structure

A sequence of six parts:◦ Exordium◦ Narratio◦ Partitio◦ Confirmatio◦ Refutatio◦ Peroratio

The Classical Oration

Aristotle

Win the attention and goodwill of an audience while introducing a subject or problem.

Exordium

Present the facts of the case, explaining what happened when, who is involved, and so on.

Puts an argument into context.

Narratio

Divide the subject, explaining what the claim is, what the key issues are, and in what order the subject will be treated.

Partitio

Offer detailed support for the claim, using both logical reasoning and factual evidence.

Confirmatio

Acknowledge and then refute opposing claims or evidence.

Refutatio

Summarize the case and move the audience to action.

Peroratio

Classical PatternAn Updated Version

A five-part structure:◦ Introduction◦ Background◦ Lines of argument◦ Alternative arguments◦ conclusion

Updated Classical Oration

Gain the readers’ interest and willingness to listen

Establish your qualifications to write about the topic

Establish some common ground with the audience

Demonstrate that you’re fair and evenhanded

State your claim

Introduction

Present any necessary information, including personal narrative, that’s important to the argument

Background

Present good reasons, including logical and emotional appeals, in support of your claim

Lines of argument

Examine alternative points of view and opposing arguments

Note the advantages and disadvantages of these views

Explain why your view is better than others

Alternative arguments

Summarize the argument Elaborate the implications of your claim Make clear what you want the audience to

think or do Reinforce your credibility and perhaps offer

an emotional appeal

Conclusion

Not every piece of rhetoric, past or present, follows the structure of the oration or includes all of its components.

But, you can likely identify some of its elements in successful arguments if you pay attention to their design.