STRUCTURED TRAINING COURSE “ON RURAL …...RURAL BIOENERGY PROJECT Training Plan on Bioenergy for...

RURAL BIOENERGY PROJECT Training Plan on Bioenergy for the agri‐food sector

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IO2 – STRUCTURED TRAINING COURSE “BIOENERGY IN RURAL AREAS”

Training Plan on Bioenergy for the agri‐food sector

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STRUCTURED TRAINING COURSE

“ON RURAL BIOENERGY”

SUPPORT MATERIAL FOR TEACHERS

AND FOR LONGLIFE LEARNING

INTELLECTUAL OUTPUT 2 (IO2)

2017‐2019

This publication only reflects the author’s point of view and the

Commission is not responsable for the use that can be made of it.


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INDEX

PRESENTATION 5

PART I. THEORETICAL CONTENTS 7

MODULE 1. BIOENERGY EXPLOITATION IN THE AGRIFOOD SECTORS IN RURAL AREAS 7

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOENERGY. IMPORTANT CONCEPTS AND EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK 7 1.1.1. BIOECONOMY AND CIRCULAR ECONOMY 7 1.1.2. BIOENERGY AS A RENEWABLE ENERGY 10 1.1.3. INTRODUCTION TO BIOENERGY 11

1.1.3.1. Raw materials and processes of transformation of the biomass 11 1.1.3.2. Advantages and disadvantages against the conventional sources 18

1.1.4. POLITICAL AND STRATEGIC CONTEXT OF BIOENERGY IN EUROPE 20

1.1.4.1. Europe 2020 strategy 20

1.1.4.2. Common agricultural policy 20

1.1.4.3. Directives for renewable energies 22

1.1.4.4. Strategic framework on climate and energy for the period 2030 26

1.1.4.5. Reindustrialization of UE 2030 28

1.1.4.6. Energy route map 2050 29

1.2. BIOENERGY AS A NEW OPPORTUNITY FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT 31 1.2.1. INTRODUCTION TO ITS USES IN THE AGRI‐FOOD AND FOREST SECTORS 31 1.2.2. USE AND MANAGEMENT OF ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE RESIDUES AS SOURCES OF ENERGY

IN THE RURAL ENVIRONMENT 33 1.2.2.1. Introduction to waste management 33 1.2.2.2. Biomass from residues from the agrifood sector 34 1.2.2.3. Uses in rural áreas. Somes examples 37

MODULE 2. WOOD‐ENERGY AND BIOMASS PLANTS 42

2.1. INTRODUCTION 43 2.1.1. THE WOOD‐ENERGY SECTOR IN EUROPE 44 2.1.2. STRATEGIES FOR PRODUCTION OF ENERGY FROM WOOD 47 2.1.3. WOOD‐ENERGY PRODUCTION CYCLE AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 48

2.2. THE PRODUCTION OF SOLID BIOFUELS: 50 LOGS, SPLINTERS, PELLETS AND MICRO WOOD CHIPS

2.3. TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE ENERGY CONVERSION FROM WOOD: 56 THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL CONVERSION, COGENERATION

2.4. INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATIONS, SMALL AND MEDIUM HEATING AND HEAT TRANSFER GRIDS 57 2.4.1. WOOD LOG FIRED BOILERS 57 2.4.2. WOOD PELLET FIRED BOILERS 58 2.4.3. WOOD CHIP FIRED BOILERS 58 2.4.4. COMBINED PRODUCTION OF HEAT AND ELECTRICITY. SMALL SCALE APPLICATIONS 58

2.5. BIOMASS AND AGRICULTURAL SECTOR 59


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INDEX

MODULE 3. BIOGAS INSTALLATIONS 61

3.1. INTRODUCTION 62 3.1.1. BIOGAS AS A FORM OF BIOENERGY 63 3.1.2. HOW IS BIOGAS USED? 63 3.1.3. BIOGAS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 65 3.1.4. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BIOGAS AND BIOMETHANE 65

3.2. BIOCHEMICAL AND MICROBIAL PROCESSES FOR BIOGAS PRODUCTION. 66 TECHNOLOGIES 3.2.1. METHANOGENESIS 66 3.2.2. TYPES OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION SYSTEMS 67

3.3. TYPICAL MAIN COMPONENTS OF A COMPLEX BIOGAS INSTALLATION INVOLVING ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND COGENERATION 68 3.3.1. RAW MATERIALS UNLOADING AND STORAGE SITE 68 3.3.2. PRETREATMENT EQUIPMENT 68 3.3.3. FEEDING LINE AND MIXING TANK 68 3.3.4. ANAEROBIC DIGESTOR 68 3.3.5. GAS HOLDER (GASOMETER) 68 3.3.6. PUMPS AND PIPES 68 3.3.7. SAFETY FLARE 69 3.3.8. DIGESTATE STORAGE 69 3.3.9. BIOGAS TREATMENT EQUIPMENT 69 3.3.10. CHP UNIT 69 3.3.11. TRANSFORMER / CONNECTION TO THE GRID 69 3.3.12. REMOTE MONITORING AND CONTROL SOFTWARE 69

3.4. RAW MATERIALS FOR BIOGAS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 71

3.5. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OR IMPACTS 73

3.6. THE ECONOMIC VALUE AND FEASIBILITY OF BIOGAS PLANTS 74

MODULE 4. ENERGY CROPS AND PRODUCTION OF BIOFUELS 75

4.1. ENERGY CROPS: SOWING, CARE AND COLLECTION 76 4.1.1. INTRODUCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ENERGY CROPS 76

4.1.1.1. What are energy crops? 76 4.1.1.2. Characteristics that they should have 77 4.1.1.3. Advantages and disadvantages 78

4.1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY CROPS 80 4.1.3. MAIN SPECIES FOR ENERGY CROPS AND AGRICULTURAL WORK 82

4.1.3.1. Lignocelllulosic crops: Cereals, thistle, Brasica carinata, sorghum 82 4.1.3.2. Crops for obtaining biofuels 86

o Oleaginous crops: sunflower, rapeseed, others o Crops for bioethanol: cane, corn, sorghum, beet

4.1.4. ENERGY CROPS IN EUROPE 93


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INDEX 4.2. PRODUCTION OF BIOFUELS 96

4.2.1. INTRODUCTION 96 4.2.1.1. Development of biofuels in Europe 96 4.2.1.2. Types of biofuels 98

4.2.2. BIODIESEL PRODUCTION 101 4.2.3. PRODUCTION OF BIOETHANOL AND ITS DERIVATIVES 103 4.2.4. BIOFUELS AND REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS (GHG) EMISSIONS 105

BIBLIOGRAFHICAL REFERENCES & SOURCES 107

PART II. PRACTICAL RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS 109

ANNEX 1. PRACTICAL EXAMPLES FOR CASE STUDIES 111

ANNEX 2. EXAMPLES FOR THE USE OF PROJECT BASED LEARNING METHOD 129 ANNEX 3. “FOR FURTHER LEARNING” 137

4


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PRESENTATION

5


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PRESENTATION

A structured training course has been designed, as a key intellectual output within the Training Plan on

Bioenergy of the project RURAL BIOENERGY, with the objective of facilitating skills and competences on

Bioenergy in rural areas, mainly in the agri‐food sectors, contributing to improve the Bioenergy study plans,

practically non‐existent in the Vocational Training curricula.

It is a structured course model that basically tries to facilitate the training of trainers and teachers, but it will

also serve for the permanent learning of anyone interested in the subject, given that renewable energies in

general, and bioenergy in particular, they have evolved a lot in recent years and concepts such as the circular

economy or the use of agricultural waste, among others, are not yet sufficiently present in the curricula.

The structured course consists of learning MODULES that, following the modular scheme proposed in the

development of the proposed Curriculum, develop the different themes established on rural bioenergy and

its use in the agro‐food sectors, also including the context of bioenergy in Europe, their policies and their

socio‐economic concerns, since knowledge of the global context will be essential for future rural workers

even though they operate at the local level.

It is an intellectual product with theoretical contents, developed in the different modules included in the first

part, and with practical contents to apply the proposed innovative methodologies (Project Based Learning

model‐PBL, case studies, cooperative and practical work, etc.) included in the second part, in order to provide

trainers with resources and examples through practical cases for analysis and project suggestions

corresponding to the different modules, easily adaptable and usable in their own teaching environment.

The methodology developed in the intellectual output 1 (Methodological guide), especially the PBL, applied

to a complex topic such as Bioenergy, can easily allow a transversal approach that combines the learning

process and practical services in a project in which participants learn while working according to real local

needs.

According to experts, these proposed methodologies have many important advantages for students, among

others: increasing motivation, connecting learning and reality, offering collaboration opportunities to build

knowledge, increasing social and communication skills, allowing students to do and see connections between

different topics, in short, prepare students for work.

This material tries to be totally transferable and adaptable to the different educational environments of

European trainers to improve and update training on subjects related to RURAL BIOENERGY.

THEORETICAL CONTENTSModule 1. Bioenergy exploittion in the agrifood sectors in rural areas 6


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Part I. THEORETICALCONTENTS

Module 1. Bioenergy exploitation in the agrifood sectors in rural areas



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1.1.‐ INTRODUCTION TO BIOENERGY. IMPORTANT CONCEPTS AND EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK.

1.1.1.‐ BIOECONOMY AND CIRCULAR ECONOMY

BIOECONOMY

Since the European point of view, bioeconomy is defined as "production of renewable biological resources

and the conversion of these resources and waste into value‐added products, such as food, animal feed,

bioproducts and bioenergy” (European Commission EC, 2012.) Besides, the European Commission

determines that: "the Biologically based economy integrates the entire range of renewable and biological

natural resources, land and sea resources, biodiversity and biological materials (plants, animals and

microbials), through the processing and consumption of these resources”.

Bioeconomy covers the sectors of agriculture, forestry, fisheries, food and biotechnology, as well as a wide

range of industrial sectors, from the production of energy to chemical products for construction and

transport (Ibid, 2012 cited by McCormick & Kautto, 2013). Although bioeconomy goes much further than

bioenergy, it will keep being a key component of the bioeconomy (Johnson & Alunan, 2014).

Thus the term bioeconomy defines the production of different goods and services from plant material and

animal materail ‐including pisciculture and microorganisms‐ and forestry, in which one of the main goals is

to replace fossil fuels and products derived from them with products derived from the processing of

"biomass". Thus, plastics, pharmaceuticals and all kinds of bioproduction would be considered part of the

bioeconomy (Brown and Brown, 2003, Johnson & Alunan, 2014).

An analysis by Schmidt, Padel, & Levidow (2012) shows that there are tensions among the different

definitions currently discussed on the subject, such as:

● The promotion of the concept at public level tries to favour the "social aspects" and the importance

of social innovation, of the goods public and farmers.

● The definitions that favour the production and transformation of biomass emphasize the inputs that

require high capital for agriculture and biomass processing technologies. These devalue the

knowledge and skills of farmers turning them into only recipients of knowledge and products

developed in the laboratory.

● The bioeconomy has been linked to the concepts of eco‐efficiency and/or resource efficiency, but it

remains to specify what kind of efficiency, through what means and for what purposes.

Bioeconomy promotes a more intelligent way of using and conceiving biological resources in general and

agricultural resources in particular. Giving biological resources, such as waste, a "second life" by converting

them into valuable resources means generating economic resources with the closure of the production cycle.

The bioeconomy consists of converting renewable biological resources from land or sea into other products

or into bioenergy.



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It is a way of preserving nature and biodiversity while

generating new economic activities and income for

farmers, ranchers, forest entrepreneurs, fishermen...

promoting employment, economic growth and therefore

local development in rural areas.

The bioeconomy also seeks to replace materials and

energy sources of fossil origin with renewable

alternatives.

Although the bioenergy concept could seem a new

concept, actually it is not. There are different authors who

mention the concept of bioeconomy referring to an

original idea, which is the management that makes the

biology of natural resources. A good example of

bioeconomy or biological economy is the grazing, which

allows the development of a human economic activity at

the same time that the work of cleaning the mountain is

carried out through transhumance. Another example

would be crops rotation, which consists of alternating the

type of plants that are sown in the same soil. This allows

the soil does not run out and ends up being sterile, given

that each plant has specific needs, the soil can be

recovered without problems and remains economically

useful.

But the examples of bioeconomy are not limited to the

primary sector of the economy, it could also be found in

models of sustainable tourism, waste management that

would allow the creation of circular economy models,

local and sustainable industries with the environment and

with society, etc. Actually, the bioeconomy could be

applied to any economic activity, since its fundamental

characteristic is the implementation of the economic

activity but doing it within a symbiotic model.

One of the European countries that leads the

implementation of the bioeconomy is FINLAND, for

example with a project of clothing made with wood

cellulose, plastic made with trees and fuel produced from

the excrement of microbes, are some of its technological

developments, as a result of the bioeconomy strategy

implemented since 2012.



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By 2025 Finland forecasts economic growth close to 4%, above the average of the euro zone, which in 2016

registered a gross domestic product (GDP) of 1,7%. In this way, they would expand their production to 100

billion euros, from 60 billion (209,3 billion), to create 100.000 new jobs and export more. In this sense, Finland

intends to consolidate itself as a global player in the bioeconomy, according to the Finnish Bioeconomy

Strategy document: "The idea is that competitive and sustainable solutions of the bioeconomy are generated

to increase the welfare of the whole country, considering that in by 2030, 50% more food will be needed, 45%

more energy and 30% more water".

ECONOMÍA CIRCULAR

Taking as an example the cyclical model of nature, the circular economy is presented as a resources utilization

system where the reduction of the elements prevails: minimizing the production to the indispensable

minimum and betting on the reuse of the elements that due to their properties can´t return to the

environment. That is, the circular economy advocates

using most of the biodegradable materials possible in

the manufacture of consumer goods so that they can

return to nature without causing environmental

damage after their useful life.

In cases where it is not possible to use eco‐friendly

materials (electronic components, metal, batteries ...)

the objective will be to give a new life reincorporating

them to the production cycle and to compose a new

piece. When this is not possible, it will be recycled in a

way that respects the environment.

Produce, use and throw? No, reduce, reuse and recycle.

The paradigm of the current linear economic model could be coming to an end and its place will be occupied

by the circular economy.

Principles of the circular economy. There are ten features that define how the circular economy should work:

1 The waste becomes a resource: it is the main characteristic. All the biodegradable material returns to nature and

the one that is not biodegradable is reused.

2 Reintroduce in the economic circuit those products that don’t correspond to the initial needs of consumers

anymore.

3 Reuse: reusing certain waste or certain parts of it, which can still be used to make new products.

4 Repair: find a second life to the damaged products.

5 Recycling: use the materials which are in the waste.

6 Valorisation: energetically take advantage of waste that can not be recycled.

7 Economy of functionality: the circular economy proposes to eliminate the sale of products in many cases to

implement a system of rental of goods. When the product finishes its main function, it returns to the company,

which will dismantle it to reuse its valid parts.

8 Energy from renewable sources: elimination of fossil fuels to produce the product, reuse and recycle.

9 Eco‐conception: considers the environmental impacts throughout the life cycle of a product and integrates them

from its conception.

10 The industrial and territorial ecology: establishment of a way of industrial organization in the same territory

characterized by an optimized management of stocks and flows of materials, energy and services.



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1.1.2. BIOENERGY A A RENEWABLE ENERGY

RENEWABLE ENERGY CONCEPT We call non‐renewable energies, those of quantity limited in nature. This type of energy is included in two

categories, according to its extraction: fossil fuels and nuclear. Although they are usually the ones that pollute

the most ‐generating emissions and/or waste‐, since they are classically used and all their mechanisms are

already built, they account for around 80% of the world's energy. The sources of energy, however, are only

found in certain areas of the planet, so their extraction and use has historically depended on international

trade and collaboration ‐or war‐.

However, renewable energies are of more recent use, taking as source infinite materials in nature ‐because

they are inexhaustible or due to their rapid regeneration‐, contaminating less in the process. Renewable

energy is energy from non‐fossil renewable sources, that is: ocean, wind, geothermal, solar, hydraulic,

aerothermal and hydrothermal energy.

TYPES OF RENEWABLE AND NON‐RENEWABLES ENERGY

RENEWABLE ENERGIES are the following:

Energy from the sea

Energy present in the oceans and seas in the form of waves, marine currents and tides, as well as the energy of temperature gradients and salinity gradients of the oceans.

Wind energy Both on land and at sea, a series of wind turbines capture the kinetic energy of the wind for its transformation into electrical energy. The electrical energy produced by each of the wind turbines, normally at medium voltage, is transported underground to a transformer station that raises its voltage and then, by means of an evacuation line, is injected into the distribution or transport network at the point connection granted.

Geothermal

energy

It is defined as the energy stored in the form of heat under the surface of the solid earth, therefore, it includes the heat stored in rocks, soil and groundwater, whatever its temperature, depth and origin, but not the content in surface, continental or marine water bodies.

Solar

Solar thermal

energy

It uses the heat of the sun to heat a liquid. For this purpose, it takes advantage of some sensors through which this liquid circulates, and different coatings and technologies to take advantage of the heat coming from the sun.

Thermoelectric

solar energy

It uses lenses or mirrors and solar tracking devices to concentrate solar radiation on a reduced surface. This concentration allows obtaining high temperatures and, correspondingly, high thermodynamic efficiencies for conversion in work.

Photvoltaic solar

energy

It takes advantage of solar radiation by transforming it directly into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect, which consists of the emission of electrons by a material when it is illuminated with electromagnetic radiation (in this case, solar radiation).

Hydroelectric Hydroelectric energy is that which is obtained by taking advantage of the potential energy of a body of water located at a point in the riverbed (the highest of the use) to convert it first into mechanical energy and finally into electrical energy available at the lowest point of the use.

Bioenergy It's the energy obtained by the transformation of biomass. Biomass means: the biodegradable fraction of products, waste and residues of biological origin from agricultural activities (including substances of plant and animal origin), forestry and related industries, including fisheries and aquaculture , as well as the biodegradable fraction of industrial and municipal waste; with the transformation of biomass, electricity, heating or biofuels are obtained.

Aerothermal

energy It’is the energy stored in the form of heat in the ambient air.

Hydrothermal

energy It’is energy stored in the form of heat in surface waters.

The NON‐RENEWABLE sources of energy are:

Those of fossil origin: oil, natural gas and coal.

The nuclear energy.



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1.1.3. INTRODUCTION TO BIOENERGY

Bioenergy is the transformation of biomass that leads to the generation of electricity, thermal energy or

biofuels.

1.1.3.1. Raw maerials and biomass transformation processes

Bioenergy is the energy produced from the conversion of biomass, where it can be used directly as a solid

biofuel or converted into liquid biofuel and/or gases.

Bioenergy offers the possibility of an energy supply with regional natural resources, reducing dependence on

imported fossil fuels. It is also an alternative for waste management and facilitates local economic

development.

The biomass resource comes from forestry and agricultural activities, and is usually classified as a primary

resource when its origin is the direct harvesting of forests and agricultural plantations; as a secondary

resource, when it comes to waste from the forest and agricultural industries; and as tertiary, when its origin

is urban wood waste derived from construction, demolition, packaging and other household waste.

The biomass must be collected, stored, transported and pre‐treated. Therefore, a key aspect for the use of

bioenergy is the availability and location of the resource.

CLASSIFICATION OF RAW MATERIALS OR SOURCES OF BIOMASS BY ITS ORIGIN

FOREST ORIGIN

AGRICULTURAL ORIGIN

Crops: mainly woody species produced through the cultivation activities in

forest land, harvest and, if necessary, the processing of raw materials

collected.

Forest exploitation: biomass originated as a product of forestry operations in

forest stands that require a cutting permit or management plan for their

extraction.

Forest residues: residual biomass generated in the cleaning and maintenance

of forest and green spaces.

Crops: herbaceous or woody species produced through the cultivation

activities in agricultural land, harvest and, if necessary, the processing of raw

materials collected. Algae cultures are also included in this group, when

produced in aqueous medium.

Residues from agricultural activities: residual biomass originated during the

cultivation and first transformation of agricultural products.



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LIVESTOCK ORIGIN

INDUSTRIAL ORIGIN

ORIGIN MUNICIPAL WASTE

PROCESSES OF TRANSFORMATION OF THE BIOMASS

There are four types of processes that allow biofuel to be obtained from biomass, either in the solid, liquid

or gaseous state:

❶ THERMOCHEMICAL PROCESSES

They are based on the thermal decomposition of biomass, in the absence or lack of oxygen, through processes such as pyrolysis, gasification or combustion.

● Pyrolysis: thermal degradation of biomass in the absence of oxygen. Synthetic gas is generated for fuel, bio‐oils, activated carbon and light hydrocarbons (mainly olefins and paraffins).

● Gasification: the biomass is subjected to temperatures that can oscillate between 800°C and 1.500°C in the absence of oxygen. Gaseous products are produced that constitute a mixture known as synthesis gas, syngas or lean gas, and is mainly composed of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen in varying proportions.

● Combustion (complete oxidation): oxidation process at temperatures between 600°C and

1.300°C. It generates CO2, water and ash.

Organic waste generated in livestock farms. It is mainly the mixture of

droppings and the litter of cattle, commonly referred to as the species from

which they come in manure, slurry and chicken manure.

By‐products and waste from industrial facilities in the agri‐food sector:

production of olive oil, citrus processing, extraction of seed oil, wine and

alcohol industry, canning, brewing, animal breeding, nut production, rice

production and algae processing.

By‐products and waste from industrial facilities in the forestry sector: forest

industries of first and second processing (barks, sawmills, carpentry, etc.),

byproducts of the pulp industry (black liquor), from the recovery of

lignocellulosic materials (pallets, construction materials, old furniture, etc).

It is the biodegradable fraction of urban waste generated daily in all localities.

In addition, this category includes sewage sludge, wastewater and waste from

hotels, restaurants and bars (frying oils, etc.).



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❷ MECHANICAL PROCESSES

They consist of the physical transformation of biomass, in order to produce homogeneous and higher

density fuels such as pellets.

❸ CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Basic operations for the transformation of the material through chemical reactions and chemically

catalyzed conversions. Currently, the chemical process used for the production of biodiesel (methyl

esters of fatty acids) is transesterification.

This process consists in combining the oil, normally vegetable oil, with a light alcohol, usually

methanol, obtaining glycerin as the main byproduct, which can be used in different applications.

❹ BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES

They consist of the degradation of biomass by the action of microorganisms or enzymes. As a result,

biogas, bioethanol or other compounds resulting from the action of bacteria or yeasts can be

obtained.

Currently there are widely tested commercial technologies, such as direct combustion or anaerobic

digestion and another important number in stages of research and development that will improve

efficiency or take advantage of other sources of biomass.



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TECHNOLOGIES OF ENERGY PRODUCTION FROM THE BIOMASS

Therefore we can talk about different energy production technologies of biomass depending on the type of

conversion used, until we convert biomass into some of the products (mainly electric power/heat, fuel for

transport or chemical raw material).

Below we collect some data and advantages and disadvantages in relation to some of the most used biomass

transformation technologies.

THERMOCHEMICAL CONVERSION

Thermochemical conversion processes use heat as the dominant mechanism to convert biomass into another chemical form.

A.1. DIRECT COMBUSTION

Energy created by burning biomass is particularly suited for countries where the fuel wood grows

more rapidly, e.g. tropical countries.

The burning of biomass in the air is the most developed and most frequently applied process.

• FEEDSTOCK: moisture content of biomass < 50%.

• PRODUCT: heat, mechanical power or electricity.

• PROCESS EQUIPMENT: stoves, furnaces, boilers, steam turbines, turbo generators.

• Net bio‐energy conversion EFFICIENCIES: 20% ‐ 40%.

A



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A.2. COGENERATION. COMBINED HEAT AND POWER (CHP)

Some of the applications of thermal conversion are combined heat and power (CHP), which

integrates the production of usable heat and power (electricity).

This technology is highly efficient – provides increased levels of energy services per unit of biomass

consumed compared to facilities that generate power only.

A.3. GASIFICATION

Conversion of biomass solid raw material into fuel gas or chemical feedstock gas (syngas) takes

place at high temperature in the presence of an oxidizing gasification temperature 600–1.000°C.

A.4. PYROLYSIS

Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere:

conversion of organic material into a carbon‐rich solid and volatile matter by heating in the absence

of oxygen.

In general, pyrolysis of organic substances produces volatile products and leaves a solid residue

enriched in carbon, char.

Pyrolysis is the basis of several methods for producing fuel from biomass, i.e. lignocelluloses

biomass.

PROS CONS

• Biomass has low sulphur content, which results in lower SOx emission.

• The high alkali contents in biomass, like sodium and potassium, cause slagging and fouling and rust problems in gasification equipment.

• Biomass is more reactive and has higher volatiles content than coal, biomass gasification occurs at a lower temperature.

• Lower temperature reduces the extent of heat loss, emissions and material problems associated with high temperatures.

Comparison of standard power plant energy production and CHP energy production



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CONVERSION BIOCHEMICAL

Biochemical conversion makes use of the enzymes of bacteria and other microorganisms to break down biomass into gaseous or liquid fuels, such a biogas or bioethanol. In most cases, microorganisms are used to perform the conversion process: anaerobic digestion, fermentation, and composting.

B.1. FERMENTATION

Fermentation is an anaerobic process (occurs in the absence of oxygen) that breaks down the glucose

within organic materials. It is a series of chemical reactions that convert sugars to ethanol.

The basic fermentation process involves the conversion of a plant’s glucose (or carbohydrate) into an

alcohol or acid. Yeast or bacteria are added to the biomass material, which feed on the sugars to

produce ethanol (an alcohol) and carbon dioxide. The ethanol is distilled and dehydrated to obtain a

higher concentration of alcohol to achieve the required purity for the use as automotive fuel. The

solid residue from the fermentation process can be used as cattle‐feed and in the case of sugar cane;

the bagasse can be used as a fuel for boilers or for subsequent gasification.

The future belongs to bioethanol produced from lignocelluloses biomass, not from corn starch or

sugar cane.

B.2. ANAEROBIC DIGESTION

Anaerobic digestion is a natural process and is the microbiological conversion of organic matter to

methane in the absence of oxygen.

The decomposition is caused by natural bacterial action in various stages. It takes place in a variety

of natural anaerobic environments, including water sediment, water‐logged soils, natural hot springs,

ocean thermal vents and the stomach of various animals (e.g. cows). The digested organic matter

resulting from the anaerobic digestion process is usually called digestate.

Anaerobic digestion is used as part of the process to treat biodegradable waste and sewage sludge.

As part of an integrated waste management system, anaerobic digestion reduces the emission of

landfill gas into the atmosphere. Anaerobic digesters can also be fed with purpose‐grown energy

crops, such as maize.

B

Fermentation process



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Anaerobic digestion is widely used as a source of renewable energy. The process produces a biogas,

consisting of methane, carbon dioxide and traces of other contaminant gases. This process takes

place in a digester; a warmed, sealed airless container. The digestion tank is warmed and mixed

thoroughly to create the ideal conditions for biogas conversion. This biogas can be used directly as

fuel, in combined heat and power (CHP) gas engines or upgraded to natural gas‐quality biomethane.

The nutrient‐rich digestate also produced can be used as soil fertilizer.

CHEMICAL CONVERSION

A range of chemical processes may be used to convert biomass into other forms, such as to produce

a fuel that is more conveniently used, transported or stored, or to exploit some property of the

process itself. Chemical processes such as converting straight and waste vegetable oils into

biodiesel are called transesterification.

BIODIESEL

Conventionally, the biodiesel is

produced from vegetable oil

(rapeseed, soybean, mustard,

flax, sunflower, canola, palm oil,

hemp, jatropha) with the

presence of alcohol/alkaline/acid

catalyst. This process is known as

transesterificaiton or alcoholysis.

To avoid competition fuel vs.

food a biofuel production from

alternative non‐food feedstock

(microalgae biomass or waste oil)

should be promoted.

BENEFITS

• Ability to treat high moisture containing biomass and various types of biomass and waste.

• Very easy conversion into biogas (it is a naturally occurring process).

• Very limited generation of pollutants.

• Robustness and applicability on small scale.

C

Biological conversión: Anaerobic digestion



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1.1.3.2. Advantages and disadvantages against the conventional resources

To understand that bioenergy is a clean energy that does not interfere in climate change, it is necessary to

know the carbon cycle on the planet: Carbon is dissolved in seawater and as a result of chemical reactions

and exchanges between the sea and the atmosphere, the sea as a whole turns out to be an absorber of

atmospheric CO2 and an oxygen emitter in the long run.

Through photosynthesis plants also absorb carbon dioxide and accumulate it in plant tissues in the form of

fats, proteins and carbohydrates. Later the herbivorous animals feed on these vegetables, from which they

obtain energy for later, following the trophic chains, transferring it to the other levels of the food chain. This

energy follows several paths:

‐ On the one hand, it is returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide by breathing.

‐ On the other hand, it drifts into the aquatic environment, where it can remain as organic

sediments or combine with water to produce carbonates and bicarbonates (which account

for 71% of the Earth's carbon resources).

In addition to the activity carried out by the plant and animal kingdoms in the carbon cycle, the carbon

released by putrefaction and combustion also enters.

The balance achieved with this cycle is breaking because human activity has raised the level of carbon in the

atmosphere, especially by burning fossil fuels (coal, oil or natural gas) to produce energy.

The result is that we emit more carbon dioxide than the planet can absorb.

It is considered that the biomass has a neutral balance in CO2 emissions because its combustion does not

contribute to the increase of the greenhouse effect, since the emitted CO2 has been captured from the

atmosphere previously by the plants through photosynthesis.



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The main ADVANTAGES of the use of bioenergy against conventional energy sources are the following:

● It contributes to reducing dependence on oil imports in the transport sector.

● The mobilization of biomass only means obtaining a renewable fuel, neutral in terms of CO2 emissions and competitive in price with fossil fuels that are imported from outside EU.

● It plays an important role in the preservation of the environment, thanks mainly to the reduction of CO2 emissions due to the substitution of fossil fuels and the valorisation of certain biomass residues that generate diffuse emissions (such as cattle droppings, intensive in generation of methane), thus taking advantage of native biomass and contributing to convert potentially problematic waste into resources.

● Plays a fundamental role in the improvement of the management of the mountains, helps the cleaning of forests and to prevent fires.

● Positive impact on regional and local development, export prospects, social cohesion and employment opportunities in a new sector, especially with regard to SMEs and independent energy producers. Its economic impact is especially positive for the region in which it is installed.

● As local sources, there is greater security in the local energy supply, shorter transport paths and lower losses in the transmission of energy.

● They do not pollute and are respectful with the environment, which is why they are also called "clean energies".

● They are safer for the health of people since they do not generate waste and are easy to dismantle.

As DISADVANTAGES of its use compared to other conventional energy sources we can point out:

● It requires innovation, research and investments.

● It can promote extensive monoculture, and reduce biodiversity.

● They can emit toxic particles in their combustion.

● It can increase soil erosion and degradation.

● The supply‐consumption relationship is often defined by the same agent, without an explicit assessment of the resource.

● Bioenergy systems generally have comparatively higher capital costs than conventional systems based on fossil energy.

● Normally there is no efficient institutional framework to stimulate the production and rational use of bioenergy.



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1.1.4. POLITICAL AND STRATEGIC CONTEXT OF BIOENERGY IN EUROPE

1.1.4.1. Europe 2020 Strategy

The Europe 2020 strategy is the growth and employment agenda of EU in the current decade to ensure

Europe's economic recovery after the economic and financial crisis. It points to smart, sustainable and

inclusive growth as a way to overcome the structural deficiencies of the European economy, improve its

competitiveness and productivity and sustain a sustainable social market economy.

Its objectives are aimed at different areas: Employment, Research and development (R & D), Education,

Poverty and social exclusion, etc. With regard to climate change and energy, its main objectives are that

greenhouse gas emissions are 20% less than 1990 levels; that 20% of energy is from renewable sources and

an increase of 20% in energy efficiency.

These objectives are also supported by other flagship initiatives at European level, including "A Europe that

uses resources effectively" which promotes energy efficiency, supports the shift towards a low carbon

economy, increased use of renewable energy sources, the development of green technologies and the

modernization of the transport sector an industrial policy for the era of globalization.

This Europe 2020 initiative insists on the need to make an urgent transition towards efficient ways of using

natural resources. This affects consumers and producers alike in areas such as energy, transport, climate, the

environment, agriculture, fisheries and regional policy. European Comission has submitted a proposal for the

revision of outdated rules on the taxation of energy products in the European Union. With the proposed new

rules, it is intended to restructure the methods of taxation of energy products, in order to eliminate the

current imbalances and take into account their CO2 emissions and their energy content. The new standards

also aim to promote energy efficiency and encourage the consumption of products that are more respectful

of the environment.

1.1.4.2. Common agricultural policy

The common agricultural policy (CAP) of

the EU, created in 1962, represents an

association between agriculture and

society, between Europe and its farmers,

to:

● Improve agricultural productivity, so

that consumers have a stable supply

of food at affordable prices.

● Ensure a reasonable life for EU

farmers.



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At present, the EU must face more challenges:

● Food security: globally, food production will have to double to feed a world population of 9 billion

people by 2050.

● Climate change and sustainable management of natural resources.

● Landscape conservation across the EU and the maintenance of a living rural economy.

THE COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY (CAP) has two pillars:

FIRST PILLAR: Support for the market for agricultural products and the income of farmers.

Through:

● The Common Market Organization (CMO) for agricultural products (market support), financed through the

European Agricultural Guarantee Fund (EAGF). The CMO indicates the agricultural products covered, covers

the rules on competition applicable to companies and the rules on public aid, and also has general provisions

relating to exceptional measures and a reserve for crises in the agricultural sector.

● Direct payments to farms with a payment system to support farmers' income: 1) a basic payment per hectare; 2) an ecological component 3) a supplementary payment to young farmers; 4) a "redistributive payment" to reinforce aid to the first hectares of a holding; 5) an additional help to the rents in the areas conditioned by natural limitations; 6) aid linked to production for certain areas or types of agriculture for economic or social reasons; 7) an optional simplified regime for small farmers.

SECOND PILLAR: The rural development policy.

To support the rural areas of the Union and to respond to the many economic, environmental and social challenges of the 21st century. A greater degree of flexibility (compared to the first pillar) allows regional, national and local authorities to formulate their own seven‐year rural development programs on the basis of established measures. Unlike the first pillar, financed entirely by the Union, the second pillar programs are co‐financed by Union funds and regional, national or local funds.

The EU's priorities for rural development policy are: 1) Promote the transfer of knowledge in agriculture, forestry and rural areas; 2) Improve the competitiveness of all types of agriculture and increase the viability of farms; 3) Promote the organization of the food chain and risk management in agriculture; 4) Restore, preserve and improve the ecosystems dependent on agriculture and forestry; 5) Promote the efficiency of resources and encourage the transition to a low‐carbon economy, capable of adapting to climate changes in the agricultural, food and forestry sectors; 6) Promote social inclusion, poverty reduction and economic development in rural areas.

The CAP helps farmers to:

• cultivate in a way that reduces greenhouse gas emissions

• use ecological farming techniques

• comply with the rules on the protection of public health, the environment and animal welfare

• produce and market the food specialties of your region

• make more productive use of forests and forest space

• develop new uses for agricultural products in sectors such as cosmetics, medicine and craft



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1.1.4.3. Directives for renewable energies

Renewable energy shares in EU gross final energy consumption vs Renewable Energy Directive and

National Renewable Energy Action Plan trajectories (Source: Fourth report on the State of the Energy Union

published on April, 9, 2019 by the Commission).

In 2017, 11 Member States (Bulgaria, Italy, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Croatia, Lithuania, Hungary,

Romania, Finland and Sweden) already had a renewable energy share above their 2020 targets. In addition,

21 Member States (in addition to the previous ones: Germany, Greece, Spain, Cyprus, Latvia, Malta, Austria,

Portugal, Slovakia, and the United Kingdom) met or exceeded their average indicative trajectory from the

Renewable Energy Directive12 for the two‐year period 2017‐2018. The remaining 7 Member States13

needed to step up efforts to comply with the average 2017‐2018 trajectory towards 2020.

Directive 2009/28/EC, of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009, on the promotion of

the use of energy from renewable sources, establishes a common framework and sets mandatory national

targets in relation to the share of energy coming from renewable sources in the final gross consumption of

energy (minimum quota of 20%) and with the share of energy from renewable sources in transport (minimum

quota of 10%).

As of 2014, each member state has been obliged to demand the use of minimum levels of energy from

renewable sources in new and existing buildings that make a major renovation, as well as in public buildings;

and to encourage the use of heating and cooling systems and equipment from renewable sources. In the case

of biomass, it was forced to promote conversion technologies that allow a conversion efficiency of at least

85% in residential and commercial applications and at least 70% in industry.



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Each member state must make known to citizens the support measures as well as the preparation of

information, awareness and training on renewable energies and their availability and environmental benefits

for transport.

The Commission will monitor the origin of the biofuels and bioliquids consumed and the effects of their

production (especially if the production of biofuels has an increase in food products).

Sustainability requirement of biofuels and bioliquids. The Directive indicates that the production of biofuels

must be sustainable. The biofuels used to meet the objectives set out in the Directive and those that benefit

from the national support systems must therefore necessarily comply with sustainability criteria. Articles 17,

18 and 19 include the sustainability requirements for biofuels and bioliquids as well as the reduction of

greenhouse gas emissions. For the consumption of biofuels to be taken into account in meeting the

objectives, it must provide at least a 35% reduction of greenhouse gases (GHG) with respect to fossil fuels.

The minimum emission savings is 60% after 2018.

Biofuels and bioliquids will not be produced from raw materials of high biodiversity value:

● Primary forests and other wooded areas.

● Protected areas.

● Meadows or pastures with a rich biodiversity.

● Biofuels and bioliquids will not be manufactured from raw materials from land with high carbon

reserves, that is, land that in January 2008 belonged to one of the following categories: a) Wetlands

b) Continuous wooded areas c) Lands with extension greater than one hectare, with trees of a

height greater than five meters and a canopy cover of between 10% and 30%. d) Peat bogs.

Member States should require economic operators to demonstrate that the sustainability criteria have

been met. You can mix lots of different characteristics with respect to sustainability. Operators must submit

information audited by an independent agent. The auditor must ensure that the system and information are

accurate, reliable and protected against fraud.

To demonstrate compliance with the obligations imposed on operators in the field of renewable energy and

the objective established for the use of energy from renewable sources in all forms of transport the

contribution of biofuels obtained from waste, materials non‐food cellulosics and lignocellulosic material

will be considered to be twice the equivalent of other biofuels.

Biofuels used to meet the objectives set in the Directive and those that benefit from national support systems

must comply with sustainability criteria.



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Modification of Directive 2009/28/EC, the sustainability requirements of the biofuels established in the

Renewable Energy Directive have been modified through the approval of Directive (EU) 2015/1513 of the

European Parliament and of the Council, of September 9, 2015, by which the Directive is modified 98/70/EC,

on the quality of gasoline and diesel, and Directive 2009/28/EC, on the promotion of the use of energy from

renewable sources.

The main changes introduced are summarized below.

Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions derived from the use of biofuels and bioliquids will be at least 50%, in the case of biofuels and bioliquids produced in facilities as of January 1, 2018.

The share of energy from biofuels produced from cereals and other crops rich in starch, sugars, oilseeds and crops on agricultural land as main crops mainly for energy purposes will not exceed 7% of final energy consumption in transport in 2020. Biofuels produced from the raw materials listed in Annex IX will not be counted for the purposes of this limit.

Biofuels produced from raw materials listed in Annex IX shall be deemed to be twice their energy content.

Specific objective of advanced biofuels: Each Member State will seek to achieve the objective that a minimum proportion of biofuels produced from raw materials and other fuels listed in Part A of Annex IX be consumed in its territory. Each Member State will set a national objective, which it will endeavor to achieve. A reference value for this objective is 0,5 percentage points in energy content for the share of energy from renewable sources in all forms of transport in 2020, which should be achieved with biofuels produced from raw materials and other fuels, listed in Part A of Annex IX.

For information purposes, the determination of the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions due to the use of biofuels and bioliquids will be taken into account and the provisional average values of the estimated emissions resulting from the indirect change of land use will be communicated to the Commission, established in Annex VIII.

Annex VIII

Part A. Estimated provisional emissions of biofuel and bioliquid raw materials, resulting from the indirect

change in land use (gCO2eq/MJ)

Raw materials Overage

Cereals and other crops rich in starch 12

Sugars 13

Oilseeds 55

Part B. Biofuels and bioliquids for which emissions resulting from the indirect change of land use are

considered zero. Those produced from the following categories of raw materials: 1) Raw materials not included in part A of this annex. 2) Raw materials whose production has led to a direct change in land use, that is, to a change in one of the following land cover categories established by the IPCC: forest lands, pastures, wetlands, settlements and other lands, to farmland or vivacious crops. In this case, a value must have been calculated (emissions resulting from the direct change of land use), in accordance with Annex V, part C, point 7.



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Annex IX

Part A. Raw materials and fuels whose contribution will be considered double its energy content:

a) Algae grown in terrestrial or photo‐bioreactor ponds.

b) Fraction of biomass of mixed municipal waste, but not of separate domestic waste subject to the recycling objectives established in Directive 2008/98/EC.

c) Biowaste according to the definition of Directive 2008/98/EC collected from private homes, subject to the separate collection established in article 3, paragraph 11, of said Directive.

d) Fraction of industrial waste biomass not suitable for use in the human or animal food chain, including material from retail or wholesale and from the agri‐food industry or fisheries and aquaculture, excluding raw materials listed in part B of this annex.

e) Straw.

f) Animal manure and sewage sludge.

g) Effluents from palm oil mills and empty palm bunches of fruit.

h) Resin oil tar.

i) Crude glycerol.

j) Bagasse.

k) Grape pomace and wine lees.

l) Nuts shells.

m) Wraps.

n) Clean corn husk residues.

o) Fraction of biomass from industrial waste and waste from forestry and from forest‐based industries, ie bark, branches, pre‐commercial thinnings, leaves, needles, tree crowns, sawdust, shavings, black bleach, brown bleach, sludge fiber, lignin and resin oil.

p) Other non‐food cellulosic substances defined in art. 2, second paragraph, letter s).

q) Other lignocellulosic materials defined in art. 2, second paragraph, letter r), with the exception of sawlogs and logs for sheet metal.

r) Liquid and gaseous renewable fuels of non‐biological origin for transport.

s) Capture and use of carbon for transport purposes, if the energy source is renewable in accordance with article 2, second paragraph, letter a).

t) Bacteria, if the energy source is renewable (article 2, second paragraph, letter a).

Part B. Raw materials whose contribution will be considered twice their energy content:

a) Used cooking oil.

b) Animal fats classified in categories 1 and 2 according to Regulation (EC) No 1069/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council.



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1.1.4.4. Strategic framework on climate and energy for the period 2030

Greenhouse gases exist naturally in the atmosphere (except fluorinated gases) but the rapid increase in their

concentration due to anthropogenic activity has made them a threat to the climate.

Greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),

perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). Of these, it is CO2 that contributes most to climate

change, since it represents approximately 80% of total emissions.

The main source of CO2 emissions is the combustion of fossil fuels. This is done mainly to obtain energy,

either electrical energy in power plants or either mechanical or thermal energy, such as internal combustion

engines of vehicles or heating boilers in buildings. In this way, the main sectors involved in the emission of

this gas are the energy sector and the transport sector.

Much emphasis is placed on the importance of efficiency in the field of energy, that is, the relationship

between the results obtained and the resources, in this case energy resources, used to achieve them. In other

words, energy efficiency is defined as the relationship between the production of a performance, service,

good or energy, and the expenditure of energy. The improvement of energy efficiency is the increase in

energy efficiency as a result of technological, behavioral and/or economic changes.

The fundamental objectives of the climate and energy framework for 2030 are three:

● at least 40% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (relative to 1990 levels)

● at least 27% share of renewable energy

● at least 27% improvement in energy efficiency

This framework ‐ adopted by the EU leaders in October 2014 ‐ is based on the climate and energy package

until 2020.

In addition, it conforms to the long‐term perspective contemplated in the Roadmap to a competitive low

carbon economy in 2050, the Energy Roadmap for 2050 and the White Paper on Transport.

Greenhouse gases: reduction of at least 40%

By 2030, the framework establishes a binding objective of reducing EU emissions by at least 40% compared

to 1990 levels.

This will allow the EU to take cost‐effective measures to achieve its long‐term goal of reducing emissions by

80‐95% by 2050, in the context of the reductions that must be made by developed countries and contribute

in an equitable and ambitious way to the Paris Agreement.

In order to achieve the reduction target of at least 40%, the sectors included in the EU Emission Trading

Scheme (ETS) should achieve a reduction of 43% compared to 2005 levels, for which it would be necessary

to reform and strengthen the ETS; In addition, sectors not included in the ETS should achieve a reduction of

30% compared to 2005 levels, for which purpose binding targets would have to be established in each

Member State.



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Renewable energies: at least 27% of quota

The framework establishes a binding objective at European level to encourage renewable energy to

represent at least 27% of the EU's energy consumption by 2030.

Energy efficiency: at least 27% improvement

Based on the Energy Efficiency Directive, the European Council has approved by 2030 an indicative energy

saving target of 27%.

That objective will be revised in 2020 with another 30% present.

New national measures must guarantee important energy savings for consumers and the industry alike. For

example:

● Energy distributors or retail energy sales companies must achieve energy savings of 1,5% per year through the implementation of energy efficiency measures.

● EU countries can choose to achieve the same level of savings through other means, such as improving the efficiency of heating systems, installing double‐glazed windows or insulating ceilings.

● The public sector in EU countries should buy energy efficient buildings, products and services.

● Every year, the governments of the EU countries must carry out energy efficiency renovations at least 3% (per area) of the buildings they own and occupy.

● Energy consumers should be empowered to better manage consumption. This includes easy and free access to data on consumption through individual measurement.

● National incentives for SMEs to submit to energy audits.

● Large companies will conduct audits of their energy consumption to help them identify ways to reduce it.

● Monitoring of efficiency levels in new power generation capacities.

New governance system

Progress will be made in the development of a transparent and dynamic governance process that contributes to establishing the Energy Union and to achieving the climate and energy objectives by 2030 in an effective and coherent manner.

Benefits

A joint approach up to 2030 contributes to guarantee the regulatory security demanded by investors and to coordinate the efforts of the EU countries. The established framework favors the advance towards a low carbon economy and the creation of an energy system that:

‐ guarantee affordable energy for all consumers

‐ increase the security of the EU's energy supply

‐ reduce our dependence on energy imports

‐ reate new opportunities for growth and employment

In addition, it entails a series of benefits for health and the environment (for example, by reducing air pollution).



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Required investments

According to the forecasts, the average annual additional investments for the whole of the EU during the period 2011‐2030 would amount to 38.000 million euros. These investments would be compensated to a large extent by fuel savings. More than half of the investments should go to the residential and tertiary sectors.

Countries with lower levels of income would have to make a relatively greater effort compared to their GDP (however, the conclusions of the European Council address the issue of sharing and include measures of equity and solidarity, which also seek to ensure overall efficiency).

Costs of the energy system

The costs do not differ substantially from those that would involve the renovation, already inevitable, of an

aging energy system. According to the forecasts, in 2030 the total cost of the energy system will have

experienced an increase equivalent to 0,15% of the EU GDP if the objectives are met in a profitable manner.

Overall, there is a shift from operating costs (fuel) to capital costs (investments).

1.1.4.5. Reindustrialization of the EU 2030: of a rural economy and a circular economy base don the rural environmet

With regard to sustainability in agriculture, livestock and rural development, as well as in terms of food

security, the policy established in the European Union sets the direction and strategy in most aspects related

to production agricultural and livestock, the transformation of agricultural products, and the sustainable

supply of sufficient quantities of safe food to the EU's inhabitants, through the Common Agricultural Policy

(CAP). Likewise, the reformed common fisheries policy aims to contribute to sustainable food supply through

sustainable aquaculture and fisheries.

In the framework of the New European Consensus for Development, regarding Agriculture, the EU proposes

paragraphs 26, 55, 56 and 110, focusing on the sustainability of water resources, agriculture, sustainable

fisheries and livestock and systems sustainable food And in the same sense the Common Agricultural Policy

(CAP) of the EU represents an association between agriculture and society, between Europe and its farmers.

Its main objectives have evolved since that time, after a radical reform in 2013 in order to be fairer, greener,

more efficient and more innovative and now includes among its main objectives, with funding at European

level, as much as 38% of the continental budget:

• helps farmers produce enough food for Europe

• guarantees that food is safe (for example, through traceability)

• protects farmers from excessive price volatility and market crises

• helps them to invest in the modernization of their farms

• maintains viable rural communities with diversified economies

• creates and maintains jobs in the food industry

• protects the environment and the welfare of animals



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1.1.4.6. ENERGY ROUTE MAP FOR 2050

The European Commission is studying cost‐effective procedures to make the European economy more

climate‐friendly and consume less energy. It has established a Roadmap towards a low‐carbon economy,

with a series of measures for this viable and economically feasible transition.

By 2050, the EU should have reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 80% in relation to 1990 levels,

exclusively through internal reductions (ie without recourse to international credits). This objective is in line

with the European commitment to reduce emissions by 80‐95% in 2050, in the context of the reductions that

must be made by developed countries.

To achieve this, you will first have to achieve a reduction of 40% in 2030 and 60% in 2040. To save costs later,

it is advisable to act soon. If we postpone the measures, we will have to reduce emissions much more

drastically at a later stage. Therefore, the previous stages established are:

o A reduction of 40% in 2030 compared to 1990 levels (this goal is already part of

the framework for 2030)

o A reduction of 60% in 2040

It is necessary that all sectors contribute to the transition towards a low carbon economy, based on their

technological and economic potential. Although measures will have to be taken in all sectors that are mainly

responsible for emissions in Europe, there are differences in the importance of the reductions that can be

expected.

‐ Production and distribution of electricity: The electricity sector, which has the greatest reduction

potential, could almost completely eliminate CO2 emissions by 2050. In transport and heating,

electricity could partially replace fossil fuels. Electricity will be obtained from renewable sources

(wind, solar, hydroelectric, biomass) and from other sources of low emissions, such as nuclear power

plants or thermal power plants equipped with carbon capture and storage technologies. For that, it

will also be necessary to make important investments in smart grids.

‐ Transport: In 2050, emissions from transport could be reduced by more than 60% compared to 1990

levels. In the short term, most of the advances will be concentrated in gasoline and diesel engines,

which can still be more efficient in the fuel consumption. In the medium and long term, plug‐in

vehicles, both hybrid and purely electric, will make possible an even greater reduction in emissions.

Biofuels will be increasingly used in aviation and road transport, since not all heavy vehicles of the

future will be electric.

‐ Buildings: Residential and office building emissions could be reduced almost completely (around 90%

in 2050). Energy efficiency will be radically improved by:

● the application of passive housing technologies in new constructions

● the renovation of old buildings to improve their energy efficiency

● the replacement of fossil fuels with electricity and renewable energies for heating, air

conditioning and food preparation purposes



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‐ Industry: By 2050, energy‐intensive industries could have reduced their emissions by more than 80%.

The technologies used will increase their cleanliness and energy efficiency. Until shortly after 2030,

there would be a gradual decrease in CO2 emissions thanks to advances in the reduction of energy

intensity. As of 2035, carbon capture and storage technologies would be applied in the sectors (steel,

cement, etc.) where it is not possible to reduce emissions by other procedures. In this way, much

greater reductions could be obtained in 2050. Regarding the emission of gases other than CO2 in the

industries that are part of the EU's emission trading scheme, the estimates already forecast a

decrease to very high levels low.

‐ Agriculture: As the global demand for food increases, the weight of agriculture in total EU emissions

will increase to represent one third in 2050, approximately. However, here reductions are also

possible. The agricultural sector will have to reduce emissions from fertilizers, manure and livestock

and can contribute to the storage of CO2 in soils and forests. The evolution towards a healthier diet,

rich in vegetables and with less meat, can also reduce emissions.

The roadmap concludes that the transition towards a low carbon society is viable and economically possible,

but requires innovation and investments.

This transition:

● it would give a boost to the European economy, thanks to the development of clean technologies

and energies with very low or no carbon emissions, and would encourage growth and employment

● help reduce the use of essential resources such as energy, raw materials, soil and water in Europe

● make the EU less dependent on costly oil and gas imports

● it would entail a series of health benefits (for example, by reducing air pollution)

To make this transition, the EU would have to invest an additional 270.000 million euros (that is, an average

of 1,5% of its annual GDP) over the next forty years.



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1.2.‐ BIOENERGY AS A NEW OPPORTUNITY FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT

1.2.1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOENERGY USE IN THE FOREST AND AGRO‐FOOD SECTORS

The Associations for the energy valorisation of the Biomass that group bioenergy promoters, forest and

agricultural owners, the forest industry of first transformation and the waste recovery industry, that try to

defend the use of the bioenergy as the engine of the rural economy due to the employment generation

capacity that this use has, estimate that 135 direct jobs can be created for every 10.000 habitants of biomass,

compared to the 9 that are created using oil or natural gas (Miguel Trossero, FAO). That is, the capacity to

generate employment of bioenergy is 14 times higher than fossil fuels.

In a hypothetical development, in which bioenergy reached all citizens in Spain, 594.000 jobs could be

created. An example that has occurred is that of Italy, which a few years ago saw how, in only 4 years, a heat

market with biomass of 3.500 million euros and 6.500 jobs was created.



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Some European countries are among the top 10 in the ranking of countries worldwide with the most installed

capacity for bioenergy exploitation (Italy, Sweden, United Kingdom and Germany).

In the forestry sector the use of bioenergy contributes to a sustainable forest management, being perfectly

compatible also with other industrial uses. The use of forest residues after felling improves the problem of

underutilization of forests and reduces the risk of fires.

A greater use of the forest masses would increase the productivity of the forests and improve the socio‐

economic conditions of the territory. In Europe, it takes advantage of an average of 61% of the annual growth

of the masses, and in the Nordic countries, almost 90% thanks to which the economy has been able to be

boosted by retaining population in rural areas. This gives an idea of the enormous possibilities in the southern

European countries where the potential productivity of the forests is much greater, since the long vegetative

period in these latitudes is up to 3 times longer.

But also in the rural environment there is a huge potential for the use of different residues from the various

agricultural, livestock and agro‐food processing activities. There are many examples of waste and by‐products

that are produced in rural areas with enormous energy potential. Olives wastes (“Orujillos”, “alpechines”

and olive bones) as remains of the olive industry; remains of pruning of fruit trees; vine shoots, skin and grape

grains, scrapes and grape beetles as remnants of winemaking activity; serum of milk and other remains and

sludge from the wine industry, brewing industry and agri‐food industry in general; slurry and other cattle

manures; cereal straws and other remains of agricultural activities; waste from the meat industry; remains

of the mushroom growing substrate, and many more.

Finally, there is also the possible agricultural economic activity aimed at cultivated crops with the unique

objective of obtaining biomass (energy crops, agricultural or forest crops of fast‐growing plant species that

are planted for the purpose of harvesting to obtain energy or as raw material for obtaining other combustible

substances).



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1.2.2. USE AND MANAGEMENT OF ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE RESIDUES AS SOURCES OF ENERGY IN RURAL AREAS

1.2.2.1. Introduction to the management of agro‐food waste

Waste management or waste disposal is all the activities and actions required to manage waste from its

inception to its final disposal. This includes amongst other things collection, transport, treatment and disposal

of waste together with monitoring and regulation. Waste management within an agricultural enterprise is all

about how to dispose of all the things you don't want on the farm.

The use of agricultural and livestock waste as bioenergy apart from solving the problem of the elimination of

this waste implies the economic valuation of a new resource that can suppose an economic income or

important savings if it is used for self‐consumption.

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT BY FARMERS

In addition, the use of agro‐food waste as a raw material for energy production can solve other problems

associated with this waste (smells, soil contamination, etc.).

When organic wastes are broken down by microorganisms in a heat‐generating environment, waste volume

is reduced, many harmful organisms are destroyed, and useful, potentially marketable, products are

produced.

• Because of not knowing what to do, the wastes are indiscriminately discharged leading

to contamination of soil, air and water.



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• Some wastes are also used as cooking fuel or burnt into ashes openly, polluting the air.

• In the case of livestock farmers, wastes pose more dangers to their animal if not properly

disposed of.

• Where environmental regulations are being enforced, farmers face further challenges.

These amongst other challenges could be converted into opportunities by using the wastes to generate

several products both of own use and sales. This also offers farmers a form of shock absorber from likely

price fluctuation.

Where there is fall in price, the income from waste could provide additional support.

It also makes degree energy dependent to a significant portion.

Energy products from waste can be:

Biogás Residues of raw material for power plant

Other biofuels Electricity

Pellets Steam for heating and drying

Most of these products may not be consumed by the farmer. They could be sold to generate additional

income and boost the business.

1.2.2.2.‐ Biomass from residues from the agrifood sector

Biomass is a source of renewable energy derived from organic materials from various activities:

• agricultural crops

• forestry activities

• agricultural residues,

livestock, industrial, forestry

and urban waste



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Energy obtained from biomass can be used for:

• Production of heating, used in own livestock facilities or in industrial processes or in district heating

systems, supplying heating and hot water to groups of homes and buildings, to neighborhoods or

towns and entire cities.

• Electric generation (in small scale for self‐consumption but more usually in large power plants to

pour into the grid).

• Fuels production.

Recently, biomass usage as a source of energy has been increasing in the EU and significantly contributes to

Europe's energy supply diversification. The industry related to biomass energy creates new job for people

and lowers greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs).

Biomass is any organic matter—wood, crops, seaweed, animal wastes—that can be used as an energy source.

Biomass is probably our oldest source of energy after the sun. For thousands of years, people have burned

wood to heat their homes and cook their food. Biomass gets its energy from the sun. All organic matter

contains stored energy from the sun. During a process called photosynthesis, sunlight gives plants the energy

they need to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and sugars. These sugars, called carbohydrates,

supply plants and the animals that eat plants, with energy. Foods rich in carbohydrates are a good source of

energy for the human body. Biomass is a renewable energy source because its supplies are not limited. We

can always grow trees and crops, and waste will always exist.

Forms of Biomass Energy/Fuels: Biomass fuels or bio‐fuels are in various forms: Solid (wood, sawdust,

garbage, etc.), Liquid or Ga (Biogas or swamp gas).

Biomass exists in the thin surface layer of the earth called biosphere It represents only a tiny fraction of the

total mass of the earth but it is an enormous store of energy. This store is being replenished continuously.

Sun is the main source for supplying energy. In fact, very small fraction i.e., about 0,5 percent of the solar

energy striking the earth is believed to be captured by plants through photosynthesis on world basis. Biomass

includes mainly trees and plant wastes (eg. wood, sawdust, leaves, twigs), agricultural residues, animal waste,

etc.

Biomass and bio‐waste resources: Typically, biomass refers to the non‐food part of plants. Various biomass

resources include woody and herbaceous species, wood wastes, agricultural and industrial residues, waste

paper, municipal solid waste, bio‐solids, waste from food processing, animal wastes, aquatic plants and algae,

and so on Major organic components of biomass can be classified as cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin.



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Main ways to use biomass energy: There are four major ways to use biomass energy: direct combustion,

gasification, pyrolysis, and anaerobic digestion. In countryside regions of developing nations, combustion of

dry agriculture waste has been the most important method for heating and cooking.

• Dry biomass can also be burned to produce electricity, gasified to produce methane, hydrogen, and carbon

monoxide, or converted to a liquid fuel.

• The wet form of biomass, such as sewage sludge, cattle manure, and food industry waste, can be fermented

to produce fuel and fertilizer.

Because biomass can be converted directly into a liquid fuel, it could supply much of our transportation fuel

needs in the future for cars, trucks, buses, airplanes, and trains. Solar and wind energy supported systems

can be used in biomass conversion processes.

TYPES OF BIOMASS RESIDUES IN THE AGRIFOOD SECTOR

AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES AS AN ENERGY SOURCE ADVANTAGES

• No competition with food production

• Large biomass resource from existing agricultural land (avoid land use change)

• Reducing environmental problems (e.g. emissions from open field burning)

• Additional source of revenue for farmers – income generation

• Rural development

• Community based energy system



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1.2.2.3. Uses of bioenergy in rural áreas. Some examples.

We describe as follows some exploitations in more detail, classifying biofuels according to whether they are

solid or liquid‐gaseous, and some examples of applications in the agri‐food sectors are included.

SOLID BIOFUELS

Solid fuels obtained from biomass that can be used for the production of heat are not only the forest crops

or the rest of forest activities; there is a great diversity of remains and byproducts of agricultural activities

and the agro‐food industry with great potential such as firewood and pruning remains (with their possible

transformation into chips, pellets, etc.), olive bones, husks of nuts, cereals straw and many others.

FOR THERMAL USE

The thermal applications of the biomass can be carried out mainly through boilers, stoves or

fireplaces. The boilers are the only equipment capable of heating and hot water at the same time,

while the stoves and fireplaces allow to heat the room in which they are located.

An especially interesting option are the district heating, which due to their greater energy efficiency

and the use of economies of scale, allow reaching a greater number of users. There are examples of

these district heating in Spain, from installations of 400 kW of power and several hundred meters of

pipes that provide service to several municipal and private buildings (such as the El Atazar city council

network in Madrid), to installations of around 15 MW and more than 10 km of network, such as those

already in operation in the cities of Soria and Móstoles or at the University of Valladolid.

These solid fuels can also be used within the agri‐food sector to produce the heating and hot water

needed in the production processes of farms and livestock farms, wine industries, food industries,

etc. Here are some examples:

Use of waste from the process of production of wine as solid biofuels in Cellars.

The waste used are the branches of the wine

pruning, the barrels in disuse, remains of grapes

after pressing. Through the combustion of

biomass in the boiler, the heating of the

installations is obtained and the hot water and

the water used in the industrial processes of the

cellars are obtained.

A



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Use of biomass in pig farms, poultry farms, etc.

The boilers of conventional fuels like diesel fuel can be replaced by biomass boilers (of pellets or

polyvalent that allow different solid biofuels) to produce the necessary heating in some types of

farms (maternity areas).

It can be done through a contract with an Energy Services Company that deals with installation and

maintenance.

Use of olive seeds as a solid biofuel.

The olive seed is a fuel with excellent characteristics: high density, humidity around 15%, very

uniform granulometry and calorific value around 4.500 kcal/kg in dry basis. It is very suitable for

thermal uses, both in the industrial sector as domestic and residential. Traditionally it has been used

in boilers of olive grove industries, both oil mills and extractors. It has also been used in other sectors

such as the ceramic industry, farms, etc.

Nowadays its uses in the domestic and residential sector for the supply of hot water and heating are

becoming increasingly important. The technology has experienced a great advance, currently

importing equipment with very high performance and low emission levels. To facilitate the collection

of fuel, olive seeds are being sold in 15 kg bags, easy to distribute and handle, optimal for use in the

domestic sector, and with a considerably lower price than other fuels with similar benefits, such as

wood pellets.

FOR ELECTRICITY GENERATION

Biomass can also generate electricity. The production of electricity requires even more complex

systems given the low calorific value of biomass, its high percentage of moisture and its high volatile

content. This requires specific thermal power plants with large boilers, with larger household

volumes than if using a conventional fuel, which involve high investments.

The great demand for fuel from these electric plants requires ensuring a continuous supply, which

has the duality of increasing its price by the distance at which the supply must be sought, but can

also reduce it by acquiring large quantities. There are few electricity production plants that exist in

Spain and most of the installed power comes from installations located in industries that have their

own production assured. This is the case of the paper industry and, to a lesser extent, of other forest

and agro‐food industries, which take advantage of the waste generated in their manufacturing

processes to reuse them as fuels.

One of the explanations for this limited progress is the lack of energy crops that supply fuel

continuously to certain plants.

B



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In order to improve the performance of the facilities and therefore their economic profitability,

technological innovation in this field is oriented towards the development of biomass gasification

and subsequent conversion into electricity through motor generators or other gas combustion

systems. The immediate future will be the promotion of biomass co‐combustion, that is, the joint

combustion of biomass and other fuel in thermal power plants already installed.

1. Among the fuels most used in electrical applications are the residues of the olive oil industry such as

the pomace (olive residues called in Spanish “orujo” and “orujillo”) there are large plants in the south

of Spain that feed on these fuels.

Orujo: The process of obtaining olive oil in the mills, mainly by centrifugation and in a small number

by pressing, generates as by‐product this. For every ton of processed olives, approximately 0.8 tons

of pomace are obtained, which has an approximate humidity of 60% ‐65%. The pomace generated in

the oil mills is stored in rafts for further processing, which can be a physical process of second

centrifugation or a chemical process in the extractors, obtaining olive residue oil, but it can also be

subsequently used for the production of electricity, previous drying up to an approximate humidity

of 40% to facilitate its combustion. Around 30% of the pomace generated in Andalucia (Spain)

undergoes this process.

Orujillo: The pomace, once dried and subjected to the process of oil extraction, is transformed into

orujillo. It is a by‐product with a humidity of around 10% that has good properties as a fuel, with a

calorific value of around 4.200 kcal/kg on a dry basis, and which can be used both for generating

thermal energy in industries and for generation of electric power.

There are 7 electric power generation plants with orujillo, with a total installed capacity of 67 MW,

which means a consumption capacity of 422.000 Tm/year. The rest, 262.000 Tm/year, would be

available for thermal consumption.

A part of this residue generated in the extractors is self‐consumed in the installation itself, both in

the drying of the pomace and in boilers to generate steam for the process. In some cases, and more

and more frequently, the drying in the extractors is done by cogeneration with natural gas, which

supposes for the extractors an additional source of income for sale of the electric energy produced.

The cogeneration implies a lower self‐consumption of the residue “orujillo” in the extractor, which

makes it available for other uses.

2. Forest industries and other agri‐food industries (such as corn industries and alcohol industries) also

have their share of importance in producing electricity with their own waste (chips, sawdust, rice

husk, grape pomace...).

One of the largest biomass power plants in Spain is located in Sangüesa (Navarra‐Spain), in this case

supplied with cereal straw. Another example is in Biomass of Cantabri (Spain), where biomass is used

mainly as forest biomass from the remains of eucalyptus felling and other fast‐growing forest species.

Biomass of Cantabria (Spain).



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LIQUID (or GASEOUS) BIOFUELS

Generically called liquid biofiels refer to all fuels, both liquid and gaseous, which are obtained from biomass

and can be used for any energy application, whether thermal, electrical or mechanical, to feed boilers and

internal combustion engines. However, the terms commonly used for its definition are:

‐ Biofuels: liquid or gaseous biofuel used for transport.

‐ Bioliquids: liquido or gaseous biofuels intended for energy uses other than transport,

including electricity and the production of heat and cold.

BIOGAS FOR THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL USE

Biogas is a gas composed mainly of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2), in varying proportions

depending on the composition of the organic matter from which it was generated. It has enormous

potential in the agri‐food sector because the main sources of biogas are livestock and agro‐industrial

waste, but also sludge from urban wastewater treatment plants and the organic fraction of

household waste.

Biogas is the only renewable energy that can be used for any of the major energy applications:

electric, thermal or as fuel.

It can be channeled for direct use in a boiler adapted for combustion and thus produce heat in

industrial processes or for homes. It can be injected after purification to biomethane in existing

natural gas infrastructures, both transport and distribution.

Biogas can be used as fuel in a cogeneration facility for electrical and thermal energy. Basically it is a

gasoline engine connected to a generator. The engine activates the generator which in turn produces

the electricity. As a result of internal combustion, the gas engine also generates heat. The engine

releases this heat through the exhaust gases and the cooling water. The exchangers allow to capture

and use this thermal energy in a productive way since the water temperature reaches 90ºC.

The agri‐food industry needs a large amount of electrical and thermal energy that biogas production

can satisfy.

Examples in the agri‐food and forestry sector:

Use of biogas in small agrifood small‐scale companies for self‐consumption, for example for the

production of heat needed in the maternity areas of the farms, in addition to the production of

electrical energy. The problem is that small and medium enterprises (SMEs) have a small

production of waste or by‐products susceptible to produce biogas. This requires the adaptation

of technology to small‐scale plants or the association of several farms or agro‐food industries

for joint production. It has the advantage that the fertilizer obtained is also very interesting for

agricultural operations. There are many examples of successful cases of small‐scale plants for

self‐consumption.



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There are biogas plants adaptable to small livestock farms (compact, modular, easy to install and

simple operation for small and medium sized livestock farms, which would allow organic waste

to be valued through the production of biogas and a fertilizer that can be used in situ in the

farms, which allows obtaining biogas with a methane content of up to 64% that can be used as

fuel in engines for heat and electricity generation, and the resulting liquid digestate shows better

fertilizer capacities than the manure.

Production of biogas to produce electricity from waste and by‐products with high water content:

sera (by‐product of the dairy industry) manures and slurry from the pig sector and other by‐

products of agri‐food origin (remnants of the wine and beer industry).

THEORETICAL CONTENTSModule 2. Wood‐energy & biomass plants 42


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Module 2. Wood‐energy & biomass plants.



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2.1.‐ INTRODUCTION

Wood energy is a term which denotes

both wood for fuel and cycle of energy

production using natural wood

resources. Wood as any other plant

biomass is the product of

photosynthesis, i.e., production of

carbohydrates from solar energy. This

is the third most widely used source of

energy in the world after petroleum

and coal.

It is generally accepted that its reasonable use contributes to the maintenance of the biochemical equilibrium

on the planet (renewable carbon does not contribute to the greenhouse effect, sulphur content is

insignificant, etc.).

The interest in wood energy has been encouraging the development of new technologies integrating

automation of fuel loading and combustion management for several decades. These new technologies are

characterized by their very good parameters both for the energy industry and environment.

The sources of this energy are very important and are obtained from:

1. Forest (stumps, residue, small dry branches...)

2. Agriculture (waste products from pruning of trees, young offshoots from clearing, waste from farm

products...) or human activities (wood for recycling...)

3. Industrial activities (chips, shredding, shavings, pellets, briquettes...)



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2.1.1.‐ THE WOOD‐ENERGY SECTOR IN EUROPE

The role of wood energy in the European scenario of renewable sources Europe has many forests, starting

from the subarctic regions down to the Mediterranean sea. Forest areas cover approximately one third of

the territory of Europe). Some European states are very rich in forests, for example, over 45 % of the

territories of Austria, Sweden and Finland are occupied by forests. Technologies for production of energy

from wood have been developing in Europe more and more. Today there is a clear will to use this energy

source – the first renewable fuel which is available in the greater part of the member states of the European

Union.

A resource still widely available on the whole, the area in Europe covered by forests is growing. In most of

the states this process is still going on, mainly through afforestation of abandoned farmland. The yield of

timber is much lower than the annual growth. In the average, only 50 % of the annual growth of forests in

Europe is used for production.

Energy supply has always been one of the main uses for wood. Policy interest in energy security and

renewable sources of energy, combined with relatively high oil and gas prices, has led in recent years to a

reassessment of the possible use of wood as a source of energy. The use of renewables is enshrined in legally

binding targets that have been set for each EU Member State concerning the role to be played by renewable

energy sources through to 2020. The 2016 edition of the indicator report on the Europe 2020 Strategy

Smarter, greener, more inclusive? Provides information on the progress being made towards the target of

achieving a 20 % share of renewable energy in final energy consumption by 2020. This goal is designed to

help reduce emissions, improve the security of energy supply and reduce dependence on energy imports.

Between 2005 and 2016, the consumption of renewable energy within the EU‐28 increased by 78,6%. Some

renewable energy sources grew exponentially. Among renewable energy sources, total biomass (i.e. wood

and charcoal, biogas and biofuels, and municipal waste) plays an important role, accounting for two thirds

(65%) of the gross inland energy consumption of renewables in the EU‐28 in 2016. As part of this biomass

total, wood and agglomerated wood products such as pellets and briquettes provided the highest share of

energy of biological origin, accounting for almost half (45 %) of the EU‐28’s gross inland energy consumption

of renewables in 2016.

Gross inland consumption of renewable energy, EU‐28, 2005 and 2016 (1.000 tonnes of oil equivalent) Source: Eurostat (nrg_107a)



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In many EU Member States, wood was the most important single source of energy from renewables. As

shown in the next figure, wood and wood products accounted for 6,0% of the total energy consumed within

the EU‐28 in 2016. The share of wood and wood products in gross inland energy consumption ranged from

over 20% in Latvia and Finland down to less than 1% in Cyprus and Malta. Wood was the source for more

than three quarters of the renewable energy consumed in Estonia, Lithuania, Hungary, Latvia, Finland, and

Poland. By contrast, the share of wood in the mix of renewables was relatively low in Cyprus and Malta

(where the lowest share was reported, 4,5%); this was also the case in Norway (6,4%).

Wood as a source of energy, 2016 (% share of wood and wood products in gross inland energy

consumption, in TOE).

Source: Eurostat



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The EU promotes sustainable forest management, aiming to:

create and preserve jobs and otherwise contribute to rural livelihoods

improve the competitiveness of forest‐based industries in the internal market

protect the environment by preserving the soil, minimising erosion, purifying water, protecting aquifers, improving air quality, absorbing carbon, mitigating climate change, and preserving biodiversity

reducir la pobreza en los países en desarrollo fomentando la aplicación de la ley forestal, las condiciones de comercio justo y deteniendo la deforestación y la tala ilegal

monitor the state of forests to meet environmental agreements

promote the use of wood and other forest products as environmentally friendly products

The European Commission presented a new

EU forest strategy (COM(2013) 659) for

forests and the forest‐based sector in 2013,

in response to the increasing demands put

on forests and to significant societal and

political changes that have affected forests

over the last 15 years.

The strategy is a framework for forest‐

related measures and is used to coordinate

EU initiatives with the forest policies of the

Member States. In March 2010, the

European Commission adopted a Green

paper on forest protection and information

in the EU: preparing forests for climate

change (COM 2010, 66 final). The paper

aimed to stimulate debate concerning the

way climate change modifies the terms of

forest management and protection, and how

EU policy should develop as a consequence.

Forestry, along with farming, remains crucial

for land use and the management of natural

resources in the EU’s rural areas, and as a

basis for economic diversification in rural

communities. Rural development policy is

part of the EU’s common agricultural policy (CAP) which has been the main instrument for implementing

forestry measures in recent years. In this context, it is estimated that spending on forest‐related measures

— through the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development — amounted to EUR 9–10 billion during

the period 2007–13.



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2.1.2. STRATEGIES FOR PRODUCTION OF ENERGY FROM WOOD

A correct and integrated strategy for production of energy from wood, must consider the whole production

chain, involving many subjects, many professional figures. Each step along the chain, needs a deep analysis

considering:

Technological aspects

Models of management

Economical analysis, evaluating the relationship costs/benefits

Contractual aspects

The main steps to consider are the following:

Supply of fuel

• Type and characteristics of fuel

• Harvesting management

• Storage management

Type and characteristics of plants

• Technology of combustion

• Correct dimension of plants, in relation to the energy needs

• Logistic aspects

• Environmental impact

• Financial aspects

Chain management

• Involvement of professional and business figures

• Definition of tasks and relevant benefit

• Definition of contractual agreements



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2.1.3. WOOD‐ENERGY PRODUCTION CYCLE AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Long‐term development, very favourable world situation for wood energy is present in all fields of human

activity. Fossil energy sources are of finite quantity and are a cause of serious pollution and wars. Developing

states with a limited access to the exceptionally expensive fossils energy sources are in the most unfavourable

position and at the same time they have to cope with the increase of population and improvement of living

conditions. As for the developed states, they are suffering the results of a very expensive energy dependence

and serious environmental problems. Most of the states have already started a process for solving this

situation, which includes measures for environmental protection, development of the economy, and in other

words – they have prepared plans for a long‐term development. The energy from wood is the most widely

used renewable energy in the world and is an important part of the long‐term plan of development.

Wood as renewable fuel.

Wood is an energy source which regenerates through photosynthesis. Its reasonable utilization will nor harm

what will be left to future generations. It allows to save the fossil energy sources (petroleum, natural gas,

coal, uranium) which are of finite quantities and of non‐uniform distribution. The time for regeneration of

wood is much shorter compared to the other energy sources, as shown in the following table:

Energy Period of regeneration Estimated reserves

Wood from 15 to 200 years Renewable

Coal from 250 to 300 million years 500 years

Petroleum from 100 to 450 million years 50 years Source: Eurofor, Inestene.

The main advantage of wood energy is, however, that it does not contribute to the greenhouse effect. The

quantity of CO2 which is released in combustion of wood, is comparable to the quantity produced during its

natural decomposition. This quantity of CO2 corresponds to the quantity absorbed through photosynthesis

in the growth process. In this way, equilibrium is maintained and therefore the CO2 balance is equal on both

sides.

Impacts on soils and biological diversity.

Forest exploitation is not necessarily a synonym of deforestation. If it is not intensive or illegal, as in Europe,

it will have no negative impact on quality of soil or water conditions, or still less on biological diversity.

The best approach, and the one requiring the least investment at the same time, is an exploitation based on

the natural regeneration of forests in which nature is following its own course and man is harvesting what

nature has produced. That is why, it is necessary to conduct a reasonable exploitation with a careful

monitoring of forest conditions.

In many states the exploitation of forests for production of wood for energy meets this requirement. In other

states, however, it will be necessary to impose both legal measures and educate the population.



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Harmful emissions

To determine the main sources of pollution it will be good to consider the various factors of harmful emissions. Comparison between all harmful emissions shows the following trends:

• Wood produces about 20 times less net harmful emissions of CO2 than natural gas and 30 times less than fuel oil.

• Wood produces about 20 times more emissions in the form of particulate matter than the natural gas and 10 times more than the fuel oil.

• Nitrogen oxide emissions are two times higher than in fuel oil and 4 times higher than in natural gas.

• Petroleum produces emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) 3 times higher compared to wood and natural gas.

• The total quantity of hydrocarbons released by wood in the atmosphere is the least.

Use and removal of ash.

Ash from natural wood can be used as fertilizer in agriculture if complying with certain criteria. Requirements

which it must meet and quantities that will be used are determined in conjunction with local agricultural

authorities. Ash from fully natural wood can be used in small quantities as a fertilizer in vegetable gardens.

An area of 100 m2 can get up to 30 liter per year which corresponds to 5 cubic meters of wood.

Excess quantities are disposed of together with household wastes or are spread over other sites with the

owner’s approval. Ash from the processed wood shall in no case be used as a fertilizer and it shall be disposed

of in accordance with the current legislation. Normally, the law prohibits the use of fertilizers for forests.

Wood ash is considered as fertilizer. Organic and mineral fertilizers can be used only in nursery gardens and

also in planting or setting out.

Ash for fertilizer shall not exceed the following recommended levels (in mg/kg dry matter).

Recommended concentration of heavy metals Source: ITEBE

Wood energy and quality of air.

In the last years many local authorities, in the frame of the actions against climate change, have paid

attention about the theme of air quality. Heating plants and mobility are the main factor of air pollution, but

in some areas the wood‐energy sector can contribute to increase the pollution from fine powders.

The wood‐energy sector is strength involved improving technologies and methods to break down the

emission of fine powders, focusing on two main directions:

• Ensuring a high quality of wood‐fuels, through rigorous certification systems.

• Improving the combustion technologies.

Lead Cadmium Chrome Cobalt Copper Molybdenum Nickel Mercury Zinc

100 3 100 12 150 6 60 1 600



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2.2. THE PRODUCTION OF SOLID BIOFUELS

TYPES OF WOOD‐FUELS

In the frame of strength increasing of renewable energies and wood‐energy, the last years known a

continuous technologic evolution in the production process for wood‐fuels. In the context of forestry activity,

have been developed new products adapted to different needs.

The main wood‐fuels available on the market are:

1. Wood logs 3. Pellets

2. Wood chips 4. Micro Wood chips

❶ WOOD LOGS

In many European states the wood in the form of wood logs is the most widespread wood fuel for

heat. The main problems for this sector are the high price of production, no uniform quality of fuel,

inconvenience of use.

The production of wood logs involve the following phases:

• Forestry

• Harvesting

• Preparation of logs



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So, there is a prompt necessity to improve quality of products and minimize production costs in order

to develop this market. The harvesting and preparation of the firewood has to be improved. These

have been done mostly with conventional means until most recently. Today they are being

modernized through extensive mechanization:

‐ There is a trend to move from conventional wood production methods to production on

permanent sites.

‐ The logistics of firewood production is often not covered by process specifications since

firewood is still being considered as only a secondary product from the production of wood for

industrial applications.

‐ In the last ten years the new equipment intended for the whole process of firewood production

(for example, wood felling machines, combined felling‐cutting machines, measuring machine

for wood volume, etc.) made it possible to improve and provide specifications as a whole for

the logistics of firewood production and preparation for immediate use.

❷ WOOD CHIP

The wood‐chip is a very interesting wood‐fuel, adapt to be used in a wide range of heating plants,

from the domestic needs to the community heating networks. The production of chips from wood

is a rather simple forestry or agricultural activity, involving the following phases:

• Forestry

• Harvesting


• Splitting of logs in chips

• Storage and drying

In fact, the difficulties in the production of quality chips at competitive prices come from the

planning of the operations and the logistics of the delivery:

‐ There is a wide range of alternatives for wood splitting both in terms of organization and

productivity.

‐ There is a good choice of high quality machinery from different manufacturers available in the

market.

‐ Normal operation of heating systems requires that the composition of the chips will be very

uniform by size.

There are five types of splitting machines: small splitters transported by farm tractors, tractor‐

attached splitters, mobile or self‐propelled splitters, heavy‐duty stationary splitters mounted on a

lorry or semi‐trailer and stationary splitters.



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❸ PELLETS

The consumption of this type of wood‐fuel, have strength increased in the last years, for many

reasons:

• High caloric power

• Easiness of management (packaging and transport)

• Easiness of use at domestic level in little stuffs

The production of pellet can be a forestry or agricultural activity, but requires a more complex

production process, including these phases:

• Forestry

• Harvesting


• First splitting of logs in chips

• Milling aimed to obtain a fine chip

• Drying until a humidity between 8 and 12 %

• Storage

• Refinement finalized to obtain sawdust

• Pelletisation

❹ MICRO WOOD CHIPS

In the last years some farmers began the production of this new wood‐fuel, a wood‐chip very little

and dry, that put together the advantages of wood chip with those of pellet:

• The production process is the same of the traditional wood‐chip.

• The use of micro wood chips is the same of pellet, as wood‐fuel for domestic pellet‐stuffs.

• The micro wood chip is more adapt in a short chain, based on the use of local forestry

production.

• The cost of micro wood chip is lower than pellet.

• Wood energy production cycle.



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A very important step of the recent evolution towards the specialization of wood‐fuel production, has been

the adoption of a quality system through the certification schemes UNI‐EN‐ISO.

The rules concerned with the certification of solid biofuels from wood are the following:

• UNI EN ISO 17225: 2014 ‐ 1 Solid biofuels ‐ Specifications and

classification of the fuel – Part 1: General requisite.


classification of the fuel – Part 2: Wood pellets.


classification of the fuel – Part 3: Wood briquettes.


classification of the fuel – Part 4: Chippings.


classification of the fuel – Part 5: Wood.

The main quality factors defined from the certification scheme, for each type of wood biofuel, are:

PROCESOS EN LA FABRICACIÓN DE PE

• Origin of the product:

this parameter is very important because it allows to know if the product come effectively from forestry and agricultural activity, and the area of origin.

• Dimension:

is an essential evaluation element, because this parameter is a straightly connected with the correct running of the heating/power plant. The optimal dimension of wood biofuel depends from the type of heating/power plant.

• Water content:

this parameter is connected both with efficiency of the energy conversion and calorific value. Some type of heating/power plants requires a low water content (i.e. pellet stuffs or heating plants using wood chips).

• Calorific value:

is a very important economic parameter: the higher calorific value (MJ/Kg or kWh/Kg) is the main element for setting the price of wood biofuel.

• Content of ashes:

is a very important environmental parameter, because the ash is a potential pollution factor.



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PROCESSES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PELLETS

Debarking and chipping line

Conceived with the purpose of being able to receive, classify and treat different types of forest residues and

1st transformation. In this way the raw materials can be sawdust, wood chips, firewood, felling trees,

discarded logs for sawing, etc.

The chipping line consists of a first chipping step that is carried out with a chipper with blades that provides

a uniform splinter size, using logs and debarking as input material.

The rest of the chipping line consists of several stages of intermediate storage, screening and size reduction

by means of a hammer mill designed for the crushing of wood chips with a large amount of humidity (60%).

The mill provides a production of micro‐tops.

Wood pellet production line

The pellet production line consists of a dehydration process carried out by machines designed by specialized

brands with long trajectories in Europe.

Boiler of biomass thermal oil: A boiler of thermal oil provides us with the heat necessary for drying. The fuel

normally used is biomass not suitable for the manufacture of wood pellets. Normally we can say that the

pelletizers are integral managers of forest residues and of the 1st transformation, since they classify it and

allocate it, according to its characteristics, to fuel or raw material for production, taking advantage of

everything in the best possible way.

The thermal oil biomass boiler has a mobile grate hearth and wet ash extractor, which gives it great versatility

in the use of biomass fuels. The installation has an oil‐water exchanger to transmit to the water the necessary

heat that requires drying, providing water at a temperature of around 105‐85ºC.

System of drying of band at low temperature: The raw material is subjected to a 90ºC (max.) To dry it,

respecting its nature to the maximum during the process avoiding roasting or burning.

The low temperature thermal drying is fed with hot water from the thermal oil biomass boiler.

Advantages of this drying system:

‐ It is an indirect drying that does not contribute ashes and other particles to the product to pelletize,

allowing its certification within the most demanding quality standards as those established as long

as the starting raw material have the right characteristics for it.

‐ Low emission of particles.

‐ Possibility of using low temperature residual energies, such as hot water and / or steam from a

cogeneration plant.

‐ Optimal product quality.

‐ Automatic operation with low maintenance costs.



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The wet product is evenly distributed on the conveyor belt by means of a feed thread. The belt transports the product layer along the drying tunnel. By means of another conveyor thread, the product is recirculated and the product is deposited again in the band, forming a second layer of product. After passing through the drying tunnel for the second time, the dried product is extracted from the system by means of a discharge thread.

By measuring the continuous humidity of the final dry product, the speed of advance of the conveyor belt is controlled.

By a fan the ambient air passes through an air‐water exchanger where it is heated before passing through the drying band and producing the evaporation of the water contained in the product. The capacity of the fan is adjusted by a frequency converter according to the energy available in the heat exchanger.

To ensure optimal operation of the system, the belt is continuously cleaned by a rotating brush and a high‐pressure intermittent system that is automatically activated.

Pelletization line and product output

It consists of a mill where the "Wood Flour" and granulating presses are generated, with pellet output that

allows to store in bulk or in silos, passing the product before by a final sieve to later go to the bagging and

palletizing line and / or load in truck, eliminating the possible fines generated by the pellets during transit to

the final point.

It can include some system of automatic bagging and system of telescopic loading for bulk.



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2.3. TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENERGY CONVERSION FROM WOOD: THERMAL AND ELECTRIC CONVERSION, COGENERATION

The wood combustion process takes place generally in three stages which are depending on temperature of

the process:

1. Drying

2. Decomposition

3. Combustion

Drying

Water contained in wood starts to evaporate even at temperatures below 100°C as evaporation is a process

which uses the energy released during the combustion process, temperature in the combustion chamber

decreases and slows down the combustion process.

In fact, "fresh" wood requires such quantity of energy to evaporate the water contained in it that the

temperature in the combustion chamber drops under the minimum level required for maintenance of

combustion. For this reason, water content of wood fuel is among the most important quality parameters.

Thermal decomposition (pyrolysis/gas generation)

After the drying process at a temperature of about 200°C the wood undergoes thermal decomposition which

leads to evaporation of the volatile matter contained in it. Volatile substances make up over 75 % by weight

of wood and because of this it can be asserted that their burning will mean basically burning of the gases

included in their composition.

Combustion

It is complete oxidation of gases and this is a phase that

starts at 500°C and 600°C, and continues at

temperatures up to about 1.000°C. Within the range of

800°C ‐ 900°C fixed carbon burns and also resin burns

together with it.

“The rule of the three T” demonstrate that the lack of

suitable conditions will lead to incomplete combustion

of wood and consequently to an increase of noxious

emissions. The main causes for incomplete combustion

are the following negative conditions:

1. Unsuitable air‐fuel mixture inside combustion chamber and general shortage of oxygen

2. Low temperature of combustion

3. Short time of combustion

From the point of space inside boilers running on wood logs, these stages run separately, while especially in boilers of larger size with automatic feeding for the travelling grate, these processes take place in separate sections of the grate.

Therefore, quality of combustion depends

on three main factors:

Time, Temperature and Turbulence



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2.4. INDUSTRIAL INSTALLATIONS, SMALL AND MEDIUM HEATING AND HEAT TRANSFER GRIDS

Wood fired boiler systems can be divided in the following categories depending on the type of the wood fuel

used, generating capacity and boiler feeding system:

• Boilers fired on wood logs, manual feeding.

• Small boilers fired on wood pellets, automatic feeding.

• Small and medium sized boilers fired on wood chips, with inclined (i.e. fixed) grate and

automatic feeding with a feed screw.

• Medium and large sized boilers with travelling grate and automatic feeding with a feed

screw or a pusher.

2.4.1. WOOD LOG FIRED BOILERS

Wood log fired boilers can be divided in two categories depending on the combustion principle: bottom

combustion and reverse combustion.

Bottom combustion boilers normally use natural draught and pressure drop requires to feed primary air from

outside which is then transferred to the combustion chamber; flue gases are transferred to the bottom part

of the furnace (secondary air) and after it to the second combustion chamber. As the air flow passes under

the furnace, it is very important to have the wood arranged in the proper way so that air could move

uniformly to the combustion zone.

The reverse combustion boilers with induced draught are the most innovative solutions for boilers in terms

of technology. Gases are discharged through a hole under the furnace into the second refractory lined

combustion chamber as a result of a forced pressure drop created by a fan located at the bottom. The

resistance of the flue gas flow is high and it requires an ID fan with electronic controls. The fan allows for

precise modulation of the primary flow air (normally, preheated) and secondary air flow inside the

combustion chambers. Normally, there is a lambda probe in the first section of the flue stack for continuous

measurement of O2 concentration in the flue gases and regulation of the fan, and in boilers with

automaticfeeding ‐ the rate of fuel feeding. This oxygen concentration sensor is exceptionally useful in wood

log and wood chip boilers since these fuels have typically variable water and energy content. Also, the lambda

probe helps to obtain a continuous maintenance of a combustion process of high performance and

consequently minimize harmful emissions. Wood fired boilers are normally ignited manually, however, more

advanced models have also automatic ignition.

In wood log fired boilers it is very important to provide energy storage through Hot Water Accumulator

(known also as buffer tank), that is adequately sized depending on a number of heat engineering parameters.



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2.4.2. WOOD PELLET FIRED BOILERS

The wood pellet boilers can fully meet the annual heat needs

of a single or double‐family house. In general, there is an

option to have either a compact semi‐automatic or fully

automatic system. The compact semi‐automatic system

consists of a boiler with a fuel tank next to it (this can be a tank

for daily or weekly needs), normally with manual feed. A large

quantity of fuel (for example, packed in bags) have to be kept

in stock in another place.

Pellet fuel is automatically fed to the combustion chamber by

the feed screw. The fuel tank has to be of a volume at least

400 litre. Then the fuel can be sufficient for up to one month

depending on the dwelling area to be heated and outside

temperature. In an ideal case, the owner will be informed

about reaching of the lower level of the fuel charge by an indicator fitted either on the boiler or in a remote

place, and then the system should remain in operating mode to control the shut down temperature.

In the fully automatic system a hopper is located near the weekly fuel tank and is automatically loaded with larger quantities of fuel (for example, for one year; feeding is by means of a feed screw or a pneumatic extraction system. In an ideal case, the hopper is loaded, for example, by a tank.

2.4.3. WOOD CHIP FIRED BOILERS

The wood chip boilers are divided in two categories:

Boilers with inclined grate these are small to medium‐sized boilers rated from 25 kW up to some 400‐500 kW

suitable for domestic applications in small heat transfer systems. They have a fixed combustion chamber with

different types of feeding. The most widespread boilers are these with grates with bottom feeding by means

of a pusher where primary air is active under the grate and contributes to drying of the wood and gas

production, while the secondary air is active under the grate and contributes to efficient oxidation of released

gases.

2.4.4. COMBINED PRODUCTION OF HEAT AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY. SMALL‐SCALE APPLICATIONS

The combined production of heat and electric energy (CHP, combined Heat and Power or cogeneration) from

wood biomass is by means of closed thermal processes in which the combustion cycle of the biomass and

production cycle of electric energy are separated by the phase of heat transfer from the combustion gases

to the transfer medium used in the second production. This is done so to avoid damaging of the internal

combustion engines by the aerosols, metals and chlorine compounds contained in the gases released in the

combustion process. to achieve steady energy development and environmental protection, the production

of electric energy from biomass fuel shall involve also production of heat energy according to the following

principle: "Production of kWel only when there is a need also of its heat equivalent!" otherwise, the process

will lead to waste of resources and therefore loss of huge quantities of energy. And so, cogeneration requires

use of heat and electric energy at the same time, something which is not easy.

1. Boilers with inclined grate 2. Boilers with travelling grate



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2.5. BIOMASS AND AGRICULTURE

A new model of energy production the prospects for energy saving and promotion of new energy sources

are connected with economic models, focused on the sustainable local development. this requires an explicit

choice of strategies, targeted towards general energy saving and a wide‐scale use of renewable sources by

means of small and medium capacity installations, utilizing the energy sources on spot. This will reduce to

the minimum the negative environmental effect and will foster both the economics and the environment of

these territories. Therefore, a new model of energy production should comply with the following objectives:

Economic sustainability: the prospects for dedicated energy agricultural and forest production are

connected with the economic benefit of this activity for the business: i.e. with the added value which remains

for the entrepreneur as a result of the energy transformation of the agricultural product.

In a production requiring industrial processing of agricultural product with/without huge expenses for

transportation of the product to the processing facilities, the economic profit for the agricultural enterprise

will be considerably lower. Therefore, the promotion of local production chains for direct utilization of

agricultural and forest product is a solution, viable and economically feasible for the agricultural businesses.

The following results will be achieved in this way: promotion of new agricultural and forest production

regions and markets; lowered energy consumption of the businesses; territory valuation.

Environmental sustainability: as a result of the energy transformation of the agricultural and forest biomass,

a neutral balance of the carbon dioxide will be achieved, i.e. the quantity of released CO2 during burning will

be equal to the quantity absorbed in the biological cycle. Whether the consequences of the biomass

utilization would be favourable, however, will depend on the utilization conditions. For example, the biomass

processing in the large electric‐energy production facilities is connected with the following negative effects:

low efficiency of energy conversion with considerable heat dissipation; high energy consumption for fuel

transportation to the station; negative effect on the territory environment therefore, even in regards to the

natural habitat, optimum results from the utilization of renewable sources can be achieved by short

production chains.

Local development consistency: in the last years, the rural areas did a lot for the revival of the local

businesses and tourism, creating a model of local development, perfectly incorporating the energy

production from renewable sources. For this purpose measures should be undertaken for: stimulation of

large‐scale construction of small installations; Promotion of agreements for production chains; Promotion of

information and educational activities.

In conclusion, we can say that the promotion of renewable energy sources as part of the local development

policy requires a vigorous financial support and, mostly ‐ explicit norms and standards, outlined political

targets and complex constructive methods. In our opinion, the following factors are of key importance:

Undertaking measures, coordinated with the production sectors and the competent institutions (in the field

of agriculture, environment, production operations, territorial arrangement, transport); attracting the local

authorities and the economic major circles.



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Another aspect deserving attention refers to the possible organizational models of energy chains, their effect in the conditions of the new opportunities for development of agricultural farms as well as their role in the separate models. For this purpose we’ll outline three basic models, affirmed in the last years:

1. The model of energy production of closed‐loop type, (i.e. for satisfying the needs of the family/the

farm).

2. The model of selling waste materials for energy production.

3. The model of energy sale.

In the first organizational model, the agricultural company produces itself the necessary energy and consumes it entirely. The thermal energy, required for heating of residential and company premises can be produced, for example, by small boilers using waste wood, fragmented wood or pellets. (Besides the need of electricity could be satisfied by photovoltaic roofs or wind‐power mini installations). In this case, the entrepreneur will achieve considerable energy economy since he uses products or sub‐products from the farm or natural energy sources. Obviously, careful evaluation should be made of the installation costs, of the achieved economy and of the respective terms for investment pay‐back.

The model of selling waste material for energy production is an entrepreneur activity, whose characteristics differ, depending on the organization type of the production chain. As we have already mentioned, in the case of industrial energy production in large power stations which, in most cases are far away from the facilities for waste material production, the agricultural companies will be seriously harmed since the cost for processing and transportation of the waste materials will considerably decrease the added value for the producer. Different is the situation with the small and medium‐scale installations, implemented on local level and characterized by a short production chain, in which the producers also participate. This both decreases the negative environmental effect and ensures larger income for the farmers. This is the case, for example, with the heating networks, fired with fragmented wood, used for heating of small municipalities, public structures or residential areas. In this case the local origin of the waste material and the direct negotiation of the price between the participants in the production chain ensures a higher added value for the producer.

In the last years, predominantly in some countries, the model of selling energy from the agricultural farms was set up. In this case we have more or less complex types of organization. The simplest case, which we’ll call “warm up your neighbour” is the case with businesses, constructing small heating networks which both satisfy the needs of the business and deliver heat to the closest neighbours as well. In other cases the entrepreneurs create small closed‐loop production chains, thus providing their clients with an installation, waste material and installation maintenance. Another type of energy sale is the supply of electric energy for the grid, produced by photovoltaic panels or by wind power installations.

State‐of‐the‐art experience has been accumulated of associations or agricultural cooperatives, devoted to energy production. These are really existing agroenergy businesses where the farmers both supply waste material for the business and possess a share in its profit – either directly or, through energy recovery (for example, biofuels).

In conclusion, we can say that the energy production from renewable sources is a good opportunity for the agricultural companies. The profitability and gain of this activity depend on how successfully the farm manages the separate phases of the production chain.

THEORETICAL CONTENTS

Module 3. Biogas installations 61


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Part I. THEORETICAL CONTENTS

Module 3. Biogas installations.




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3.1. INTRODUCTION

With climate change, global warming, rising CO2 emissions and depleting natural resources, it is no wonder

that biogas has entered the spotlight and is included in many policies and long‐term strategies of the EU and

world‐wide.

Also called renewable gas, biogas is very similar to what we know as natural gas in the sense that their main

chemical element is methane or CH4.

While natural gas is artificially extracted from natural underground deposits and is supplied to the consumer

through a complex pipeline infrastructure, biogas is generated on the earth’s surface in natural environments

such as marshlands, dung landfills, or in human‐controlled environments called anaerobic digesters.

The technology of biogas production and use by the human will be explored in more detail in the following

chapters.

Photo credit: Pixabay. Artistic interpretation: we take the environment for granted but the world is aimed at irreversible processes which can turn our home into a desert




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Natural gas and biogas have low CO2

emissions compared to other sources of

energy, such as coal and diesel oil for

example, and are thus considered as

environmentally friendly sources of

energy. While natural gas as a fossil fuel

is finite and its extraction can have

controversial impact on the environment

(consider shale gas for example), biogas is

renewable energy and is a way to use

waste for a cleaner environment and as a

free source of energy.

3.1.1. BIOGAS AS A FORM OF BIOENERGY

Biogas is one of the main forms of bioenergy, along with biomass and other biofuels. In particular, biogas can

be considered as one of the biofuels obtained from the transformation of biomass.

It is a by‐product from the decomposition of biomass in the absence of oxygen, a process also known as

anaerobic digestion. This process and the required equipment for it will be explored in more detail in a section

below.

3.1.2. HOW IS BIOGAS USED?

There are three main ways in which biogas can be used ‐ biogas to heat, biogas to electricity, and biogas to

transport fuel.

Heat. Biogas as a source of heat can function in several ways. The first and simpler one is when biogas

is burnt as fuel in a gas boiler at the same place where it is produced, for example in a farm.

There is also a centralized and more complex

way for use of biogas as heat source. The biogas

produced in a larger biogas installation (also

called biogas plant) undergoes purification and

treatment in order to meet specific quality

standards (read more on biomethane further

below) and is then injected in the centralized

natural gas distribution pipeline. From there on,

it is used in the same way as natural gas – mainly

for cooking appliances, hot domestic water,

space heating, etc.

Photo credit: Pixabay.




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Electricity. Biogas for electricity is probably the most efficient way to use biogas. In the most efficient

installations, the generation of electricity is combined also with recovery of the waste heat which is

created in the process. This technology, known as combined heat and power generation

(cogeneration), can be based on an internal combustion engine or a steam turbine, and can serve

both large‐scale and small‐scale projects. Large‐scale projects can range from thermal power plants

and district heating utilities of 10 GW for example, whereas small‐scale projects can be from 20 kW

(serving a house) to several hundred kilowatts (serving a hotel, hospital, factory, etc.). The energy

efficiency which can be achieved in this combined generation process is up to 96%, compared to

approximately only 40% when heat and electricity are generated separately by a boiler and a power

plant.

In addition to electricity and heat, cogeneration plants can be upgraded to provide also cooling

energy. It can provide the air‐conditioning of a whole building, or can ensure the cooling needed in

an industrial process. This upgraded technology is called trigeneration, after the three types of

energy – combined cooling, heat and power.

QuattroGi ‐Termogamma

Group

Work in progress for the

construction of a small‐

scale cogeneration plant,

supplying electricity and

heat, for indoor

installation

Transport fuel. Biogas in its role as fuel for vehicles such as buses in the public transport network will

be explored in more detail in the next module dedicated to biofuels. Similar to the scenario of

centralized biogas supply for heat purposes, in this case biogas is again upgraded to biomethane and

supplied through the filling stations or as compressed gas in bottles (like the compressed natural gas

– CNG).

Difference between biogas and other biofuels: Biogas and other biofuels are produced through

different technologies and from different sources, either waste or crops grown especially for that

purpose. They will be explored in the next module dedicated to biofuels.

Foto: QuattroGi / Termogamma Group.




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3.1.3. BIOGAS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

The chemical composition, as well as the quality and the quantity of the biogas which is produced in biogas

plants (anaerobic digesters) depends on the quantity and type of its raw materials and on the design of the

biogas plant. The available raw materials undergo tests in specialized laboratories, which then recommend

the best “recipe”, i.e. the best combination of raw materials and their proportions in order to achieve the

best biogas output.

Generally, the main component of biogas is methane (CH4) whose concentration is from 40% to 60%,

followed by carbon dioxide (CO2) – 40% to 20%, water (H2O), and small amounts of other chemical

components such as nitrous oxide (N2O), sulfides, etc.

3.1.4. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BIOGAS AND BIOMETHANE

Biomethane is purified (or upgraded) biogas, which means that all other components of the biogas (other

than CH4) have been removed. Biomethane has a quality similar to that of natural gas and can be injected in

the natural gas distribution network or supplied as fuel. There are different available technologies for biogas

upgrading to biomethane, the most modern one being through a special membrane.

[Suggested content: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GTNUdfiQ8U8]




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3.2. BIOCHEMICAL AND MICROBIAL PROCESSES FOR BIOGAS

PRODUCTION. TECHNOLOGIES

3.2.1. METHANOGENESIS

When biomass is decomposed by microorganisms in the presence of oxygen (aerobic environment), we

witness a process called composting which gives us a rich soil fertilizer. When there is no oxygen, this process

is called anaerobic digestion and in addition to the fertilizer (called digestate) it gives also biogas.

The formation of biogas is called methanogenesis (its main component) and it happens in the final step in

the biological decomposition of biomass in the absence of oxygen. It is the biological production of methane

mediated by anaerobic microorganisms from the Archaea domain commonly called methanogens1.

Over the years, people have learned how to create the necessary environment in order to produce biogas

through this process and have engineered biogas plants involving anaerobic digestion.

1 http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId‐a0000573.html

Photo credit: Pixabay. Photo showing anaerobic digestors for the production of biogas.




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3.2.2. TYPES OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTION SYSTEMS

There are different types of anaerobic digestion systems depending on the temperature they maintain, the

percentage of dry matter in the biomass, the rate at which biomass is fed into the digester, and others.

Below is a description and comparison of the main categories of anaerobic digestors (as presented by

www.biogas‐info.co.uk). [http://www.biogas-info.co.uk/about/ad/, 28.02.2019)

2 http://www.biogas‐info.co.uk/about/ad/ 28.02.2019

Mesophilic or Thermophilic

Mesophilic systems operate at 25‐45°C and thermophilic systems operate at 50‐60°C or above. Thermophilic systems have a faster throughput with faster biogas production per unit of feedstock and m³ digester and there is greater pathogen kill. However, the capital costs of thermophilic systems are higher, more energy is needed to heat them and they generally require more management.

Wet or Dry

The difference between what is considered a wet process and a dry process is quite small. Effectively, in wet AD the feedstock is pumped and stirred (5‐15% DM) and in dry AD it can be stacked (over 15% DM). Dry AD tends to be cheaper to run as there is less water to heat and there is more gas production per unit feedstock. However, wet AD has a lower set‐up capital cost.

Continuous or Batch Flow Most digesters are continuous flow as opening the digester and restarting the system

from cold every few weeks is a management challenge. They also generally give more biogas per unit feedstock and their operating costs are lower. Some dry systems are batch flow, however. To overcome peaks and troughs in gas production there is usually multiple batch digesters with staggered changeover times.

Single, Double or Multiple Digesters

As explained above, AD occurs in several stages. Some systems have multiple digesters to ensure each stage occurs sequentially and is as efficient as possible. Multiple digesters can give you more biogas per unit feedstock but at a higher capital cost, higher operating cost and greater management requirement. Most digesters in the UK are single or double digesters.

Vertical Tank or Horizontal Plug Flow

Vertical tanks simply take feedstock in a pipe on one side whilst digestate overflows through a pipe on the other.

In horizontal plug‐flow systems a more solid feedstock is used as a 'plug' that flows through a horizontal digester at the rate it is fed in. Vertical tanks are simple and cheaper to operate, but the feedstock may not reside in the digester for the optimum period of time. Horizontal tanks are more expensive to build and operate, but the feedstock will neither leave the digester too early nor stay in it for an uneconomically long period.

The best system for you will be determined by what feedstocks are available, what output you want to maximise (e.g. is the goal energy production or waste mitigation?), space and infrastructure2.”

GOOD TO KNOW: Hydraulic Retention Time. A term which is often mentioned in relation to anaerobic digestion systems is Hydraulic Retention Time. It determines how much raw material should enter the anaerobic digester and how long it should stay inside in order to obtain optimal biogas output.




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3.3. TYPICAL MAIN COMPONENTS OF A COMPLEX BIOGAS INSTALLATION

INVOLVING ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND COGENERATION

3.3.1. RAW MATERIALS UNLOADING AND STORAGE SITE

There are separate storage facilities for liquid raw materials (tanks) and solid raw materials (silos). The

storage compensates for the seasonal fluctuations in the supply of raw materials.

3.3.2. PRETREATMENT EQUIPMENT

Animal by‐products (blood and slaughterhouse wastes) might contain pathogens of animal diseases which

might spread through the digestate if such materials are used in anaerobic digestion. In order to avoid that

risk, animal by‐products must be thermally treated before they are loaded in the mixing tank and the

anaerobic digestion system, in order to destroy possible pathogens.

FURTHER READING: heck existing Regulations on animal health safety (such as EC Regulation Nr. 1069/2009

– Health rules for animal by‐products and derived products not intended for human consumption).

3.3.3. FEEDING LINE AND MIXING TANK

An automatic feeding line ensures the proper supply of raw materials in the digestor. For liquids it consists

of pipes and pumps while for solid raw materials it might be a vertical mixer feeder. Depending on the type

of raw materials, there might be need for an area (a receiving tank) dedicated to mixing and homogenising

them before entering the anaerobic digestor.

3.3.4. ANAEROBIC DIGESTOR

The heart of the process, a gas‐resistent reactor where the raw materials decomposition takes place in the

absence of oxygen, and the biogas is produced. In the European climate conditions the anaerobic digestors

must have thermal insulation and must be heated.

3.3.5. GAS HOLDER (GASOMETER)

This is an airtight and watertight membrane, resistant to pressure, atmospheric agents, meteorological

conditions and ultraviolet radiation. It serves as a storage of the produced biogas and also as a cover of the

anaerobic digestor.

3.3.6. PUMPS AND PIPES

The separate components of the biogas plant are interconnected through pipes and the circulation in them

is ensured by pumps.




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3.3.7. SAFETY FLARE

When there is excessive biogas which cannot be stored or used, combustion is the last possible solution to

prevent risks for the security and to protect the environment. This is ensured by a safety flare.

3.3.8. DIGESTATE STORAGE

The residuals from the digestion are pumped outside the digestor and transported through ducts to a

separator where the solid and liquid digestates are separated.

The liquid digestate is transported through channels to temporary storage ponds ‐ artificial lagoons equipped

with membranes.

3.3.9. BIOGAS TREATMENT EQUIPMENT

In addition to the methane (CH4), the biogas exits the digestor with water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), and a

certain quantity of hydrogen sulfide (H2S). When combined with the water vapor in the biogas, it creates

sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Hydrogen sulfide is toxic, corrosive and has a specific unpleasant smell, and can damage

the cogeneration engine. To prevent such damage, it is necessary to include equipment for desulphurization

and drying of the biogas.

3.3.10. CHP UNIT

This is the area where the biogas is transformed into energy. It consists of an internal combustion engine

with pistons whose shafts are connected to electric generators.

The cooling water and the exhaust gases of the internal combustion engine are directed to heat exchangers

for production of hot water. The generated heat covers the needs of the anaerobic digestion process.

3.3.11. TRANSFORMER / CONNECTION TO THE GRID

The complex must include also a step‐up transformer (from low to medium voltage), if the electricity is going

to be sold to the grid.

3.3.12. REMOTE MONITORING AND CONTROL SOFTWARE

As already illustrated, biogas plants are complex installations where all components are interdependent.

Their proper functioning and efficiency are best ensured by a centralized and automated monitoring and

control.

This software records vital parameters (temperatures, energy consumptions, biogas production rates, etc.)

to allow continuous monitoring and adjustment of the system’s performance, as well as preventive

maintenance.




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Some of the collected data are:

• The type and quantity of the loaded raw materials.

• The process temperature.

• The pH value.

• The quantity and composition of the gas.

• How full are the tanks, digestors and the gas storage tanks.

MAINTENANCE

Maintenance is essential for the sustainability of biogas plants. Maintenance activities include scheduled

and ad hoc preventative maintenance and repairs, change of spare parts and consumables, as well as an

overhaul (a major repair) of the cogeneration engine when a certain number of operation hours is reached.

An overhaul can extend the useful life of the system twofold.

An invaluable part of the maintenance activities which ensures reliability and fast intervention is the real time

remote monitoring and control software.




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3.4. RAW MATERIALS FOR BIOGAS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

The agri‐food sector is rich in waste and residues which are valuable sources of energy – raw materials for

biogas production. Here are the main sources, but they often have to be combined to give good results.

ANIMAL ORIGIN WASTES

Animal breeding farms – manure. In

the design of biogas systems it

should be considered that the

manure from different animals has

quite different contents and

potential for biogas production.

Consider pigs and chicken for

example.

Dairy farms – milk whey. It is often used as a raw material for biogas production in combination

with other feedstocks (straw, corn silage, etc.).

Slaughterhouses – liquid waste (waste waters and blood) and solid waste (edible and non‐edible

offal, hide and skin, hairs, bristles, etc)3. Slaughterhouse waste is a significant environmental

challenge.

“In most of the developing countries, there is no organized strategy for disposal of solid as well as

liquid wastes generated in abattoirs [slaughterhouses].

The solid slaughterhouse waste is collected and dumped in landfills or open areas while the liquid

waste is sent to municipal sewerage system or water bodies, thus endangering public health as

well as terrestrial and aquatic life. Anaerobic digestion is one of the best options for

slaughterhouse waste management which will lead to production of energy‐rich biogas, reduction

in GHGs emissions and effective pollution control in abattoirs.

The biogas potential of slaughterhouse waste is higher than animal manure, and reported to be

in the range of 120‐160 m3 biogas per ton of wastes. However the C:N ratio of slaughterhouse

waste is quite low (4:1) which demands its co‐digestion with high C:N substrates like animal

manure, food waste, crop residues, poultry litter etc.”4.

3 https://crimsonpublishers.com/apdv/pdf/APDV.000542.pdf 4 https://www.bioenergyconsult.com/biogas‐from‐slaughterhouse‐wastes/

A




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VEGETABLE ORIGIN WASTES

Plant growing estates: sunflower stems, heads and husks, stems and husks of cereals, bagasse,

corn stems and leaves.

Food and beverage production pressed olive seeds after olive oil production, pressed grapes after

wine production, fruit peels and seeds, wastes from breweries and distilleries, etc.

Food wastes: Incredible quantities of food are discarded every day from restaurants,

supermarkets, and households. Few countries have centralized systems for food waste

management.

Learn more about the impact of food waste, good practices for its management and how it is used

in anaerobic digestion in the report prepared by the World Biogas Association in 2018 – “Global

Food Waste Management – An Implementation Guide for Cities”, available at

http://www.worldbiogasassociation.org/food‐waste‐management‐report.

Forest waste (dendromass): In general, forest waste is not suitable for biogas production because

of the lignin component in wood, which cannot be digested by the methanogenic bacteria.

METHANE POTENTIAL

Organic waste is characterized above all by its composition of dry matter (MD) and volatile matter (MV). The

Methane Potential is the volume of methane biogas produced during anaerobic degradation in the presence

of bacteria of a sample initially introduced, expressed under Normal conditions of Temperature and Pressure

(CNTP: 0°C, 1013 hPa).

The bio‐degradation is estimated

starting from the production of

methane biogas obtained during the

tests compared to the theoretical

maximum production. The protocol is

based to the measure of the production

of methane by a closed engine in which

are put in contact a known quantity of

the sample to test and a known quantity

of anaerobic micro‐organisms, the

latter being placed under favourable

conditions for the degradation of the

sample.

The table shows the potential for

methane production of some waste (in

m3 of methane per ton of raw material).

B

Methane potential of waste bio‐degradation

Matter Methane potential

(m3 CH4/Ton of raw material)

Liquid bovine manure 20

Contents of paunch 30

Bovine manure 40

Potatoe pulps 50

Brewery waste 75

Shearing of lawn 125

Corn residues 150

Lubricate from slaughter‐house 180

Molasses 230

Used grease 250

Cereal waste 300

Source: http://www.biogas‐renewable‐energy.info/waste_methane_potential.html




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3.5. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OR IMPACTS

Impact on local community

Does it smell? Earlier biogas plants caused

discomfort to surrounding towns or villages

with the bad smell due to the decaying biomass

(hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia, volatile fatty

acids, etc.).

However, it should be considered that biomass

left untreated in its original location causes the

same bad smells – manure landfills in farms for

example, or can even cause health problems,

like the case with wastes from slaughterhouses.

This is not the case with modern technologies

for odor treatment and containment including biological filters, ventilation air treatment, feedstock unloading and

storage in closed space, and specific sealed and impermeable membranes which do not allow any smells and gases

to escape.

The digestate – the waste which is obtained after biogas production – serves as fertilizer intended to be spread on

soil. It also emits some smell but it is much less compared to untreated manure. In addition, digestate can receive

additional treatment for further reduction of any remaining smell. In fact, the longer the retention time – i.e. the

longer the biomass stays in the anaerobic digestor, the less smell it will have.

Positive impacto on air pollution: methane and CO2

Biogas plants produce energy which replaces other energy sources with high level of CO2 emissions, such as coal

or diesel fuel, and in this sense it has a positive environmental impact.

If manure or organic waste is left untreated, it emits methane in the atmosphere. Methane itself is a greenhouse

gas, much stronger than CO2. Through biogas plants, this methane is captured and delivered as useful source of

energy, instead of harming the environment.

It is estimated that biogas can reduce global climate change emissions by 20%.

Saving energy: a perspective on digestate

The byproduct of anaerobic digestion plants, called digestate, is a rich fertilizer which replaces the chemical

fertilizers produced by energy‐intensive chemical industries. It saves both the energy and the raw materials

consumed in the chemical fertilizer manufacturing process.

What happens to the CO2 produced along with the CH4 in biogas?

Modern installations are able to capture the CO2 and deliver it to greenhouses which need it for the photosynthesis

of vegetables or to industries which use it in the manufacturing process (carbonated drinks, medical gas). This

process is called quadgeneration – combined heat, power, cooling and CO2.

Photo credit QuattroGi / Termogamma Group. Membrane covering storage area




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3.6. THE ECONOMIC VALUE AND FEASIBILITY OF BIOGAS PLANTS

Biogas can become a global sustainable industry worth £1trn and create millions of jobs, many in rural areas,

according to the World Biogas Association.

The worldwide construction of new biogas plants is expected to continue, and by 2025 the installed capacity

is expected to increase to 9.600 MWel, while the number of biogas plants will grow to 15.000, says a report

on the trends in the biogas plants sector by Reports and Markets.

https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20170606005904/en/Biogas‐Energy‐World‐Market‐Biogas‐Plants‐2016‐2025

The report further projects that subsidies for electricity, heat or fuel produced in biogas facilities will remain

the main driver for this development. However, as many (especially European) countries cut their support

schemes, this development will not be as dynamic as in the early 2010s. Many technology providers are

currently developing their service business related to optimizing existing plants (repowering).

The sustainability and long life of biogas plants is ensured by their good maintenance after they are installed,

and by the careful calculation of economic and energy benefits in the conceptual phase before the project is

undertaken.

First of all, biogas projects must be evaluated in terms of their total energy efficiency, which means that all

the energy that they will produce – electricity, heat and/or cooling – must be fully used, either on site or sold

to the grid or to nearby end users.

Then comes also a calculation of the balance between the investment and the payback period, which will

define the choice between the different available technologies, described in one of the previous chapters,

and between the different available raw materials.

THEORETICAL CONTENTSModule 4. Energy crops and biofuels production 75


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Module 4. Energy crops and biofuels production



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4.1. ENERGY CROPS: SOWING, CARE AND COLLECTION

4.1.1. INTRODUCCION Y CARACTERÍSTICAS DE LOS CULTIVOS ENERGÉTICOS

In recent decades there has been increasing environmental concern both with regard to greenhouse gases

and the need to reduce the use of fossil fuels.

There are many benefits of using biomass for energy production, including environmental benefits (reduction

of GHG emissions), energy (reducing dependence on non‐renewable resources), social benefits (job

creation), fire prevention improving forest productivity and rural development. Dipti and Priyanka (2013) and

FNR (2009) argue that biomass is not only available in large quantities but has the considerable advantage of

being the only source of renewable energy that can be stored and used in the production of biofuel when

needed. (In Energy crops: Biomass production and Bioenergy. Author: Ana Luísa Diogo Ferreira. Coimbra,

July, 2015).

Bioenergy can be obtained from the processing industries of agricultural and forestry products, from waste

from livestock farms, from the remains of forest exploitation and from crop residues.

But it is also obtained from exploited crops with the sole objective of obtaining biomass. The latter are called

energy crops, but they are still agricultural or forest crops. The fundamental advantage of the crops is the

predictability of their disposition and the spatial concentration of the biomass, ensuring the supply. We will

focus on agricultural crops because forestry is better known and has traditionally been used.

4.1.1.1. What are energy crops?

Energetic crops are defined as fast growing plant species that are planted for the purpose of harvesting to

obtain energy or as raw material for obtaining other combustible substances.

Energy crops are an interesting option as alternative energy sources to oil that can, in addition to reducing

dependence on conventional fuels, represent a potential opportunity for the agrarian sector contributing to

the rural development of marginalized areas, motivating investment, revaluing lands and avoiding rural

emigration and the abandonment of land.



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4.1.1.2. Characteristics that they should have

Energy crops, like any other, must respond as much as possible to criteria of sustainability and environmental

respect as well as being economically profitable for producers. Therefore they must respond to the following

characteristics:

Adapt to the edapho‐climatic conditions: productivity will be higher in those places that meet more

favorable conditions so it is important to find the type of crop that best suits the characteristics of the soil

and the conditions of the place. In addition, its edaphic and climatic requirements should be similar to the

crops in retreat (so that they can be cultivated in the lands previously used by them).

Have high levels of productivity in biomass and low production costs, trying to obtain the highest economic

and energy efficiency possible. It is important that the crops do not call for much cultural attention to save

on operating costs and be more profitable. They tend to be fast growing crops and short rotations with a high

annual production as well as having a high performance in the subsequent energy transformation. The

requirements of production inputs must be reduced, so that the needs of fertilizers, phytosanitary, water for

irrigation or fuel to perform all tasks, are not high.

That they do not have an important food advantage in parallel, with the objective of guaranteeing supply

without a price increase that is detrimental in the long run.

Have a simple handling. Energy crops, although they have their own requirements and conditions of

exploitation, it is important that they are as similar as possible to any other crop during their development

process and require common agricultural work among farmers as well as the use of conventional machinery

existing in the majority of farms, without the need for large investments in specific machinery for cultivation.

Have a positive energy balance: the energy they produce must be greater than the energy needed in their

development, that is to say that the energy extracted from them is more than the energy invested in the crop

and its planting.

To be sustainable and not contribute to the degradation of the environment: for biomass to be effective in

reducing greenhouse gas emissions, it must be produced in a sustainable manner bearing in mind that

biomass production implies a chain of activities that range from the cultivation of raw materials until the final

energy conversion.

These crops should not impoverish the soil allowing easy recovery of the land, to subsequently implement

other crops when the rotation is possible and beneficial or if the farmer decides to raise the surface for a

crop, the plot remains at least in the same conditions that when you started with the energy crop. It is also

important that it does not pose a danger to the rest of the flora, taking into account its propagation

characteristics outside the cultivation area (their dissemination should be weak or easily controllable).

The European Commission has issued recommendations on sustainability criteria for biomass (in energy

installations of at least 1 MW of thermal heat or electrical energy):

Prohibit the use of converted forest biomass from forest and other areas with high carbon

content, as well as areas of high biodiversity.



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Ensure that biofuels emit at least 35% less greenhouse gases throughout their life cycle

(cultivation, processing, transport, etc.) compared to fossil fuels. For new facilities, this

amount increases to 50% in 2017 and 60% in 2018.

Favoring national systems to support biofuels for highly efficient installations.

Encourage the tracking of the origin of all biomass consumed in the EU to ensure its

sustainability.

4.1.1.3. Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of energy crops

Reduce GHG emissions. Energy crops have a neutral or positive balance in CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. The

combustion of biomass produces water and CO2, but the amount emitted from this gas was previously captured by

the plants during their growth (biomass, as this has been previously photosynthesized and for that the plant has

required that CO2 to perform photosynthesis and form carbohydrates, which is what the plant has in its chemical

composition). They therefore represent an advantage over conventional petroleum‐derived fuels and contribute

positively to the environment because they do not produce sulphurated or nitrogenous emissions or even solid

particles.

In addition, a part of that fixed carbon dioxide remains in the roots of the plant and these are not used to obtain energy, so more CO2 is absorbed than is emitted into the atmosphere, contributing positively to the environment.

External dependence decreases for the supply of fuels, and non‐renewable resources, contributing to ensure a stable supply of local origin or close to the area of use.

Energy crops contribute to ensure the sustainable supply of biomass.

It has important socioeconomic advantages especially for the rural environment given the complicated situation it is going through in many areas (depopulation, aging, loss of purchasing power, etc.) for which this type of crops can contribute to their solution or, less, to reduce its impact:

o They favor the development of new economic activities and the establishment of the rural population by

requiring important agrarian labor.

o They represent an opportunity for the agricultural sector, since it allows the reuse of land for withdrawal or diversification into new crops, presenting an alternative to the decoupling of the CAP.

o They have a sustainable economic return: the farmer can obtain a long‐term contract at a certain price,

thus eliminating one of the great uncertainties of the agrarian world.

o Farmers do not need any reconversion for their work since they already have the necessary technologies for the start‐up of energy crops.

o Maintenance and even creation of agricultural employment in rural áreas.



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Disadvantages of energy crops

The compatibility of the crops with the type of soil and climatic conditions as each species has some

requirements. It is estimated that in order for the net economic margin for the farmer to be attractive,

species are required that allow obtaining at low cost of the order of 20 Tons of dry matter (with less than

30% moisture) per hectare.

Lack of development of agro‐pelets and combustion equipment for small‐scale or domestic‐level

herbaceous materials. Lack of market development.

The location of the crop should be close to the consuming plant so that the crop is profitable (it is

estimated that distances less than 50 km in order to reduce transportation costs).

Being seasonal crops require storage for a regular supply to the plant and this storage involves a risk of

spontaneous ignition of the material or deterioration of the quality of the biomass.

The main environmental impact is the possible risk of strengthening intensive monocultures and the use

of pesticides and herbicides with the consequent contamination and environmental degradation.

The production of biofuels requires a complex previous transformation that causes contamination. In the

case of bioalcohols, the distillation causes, with respect to gasoline or diesel, a greater emission in carbon

dioxide.



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4.1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY CROPS

They can be classified according to various criteria.

❶ Depending on the nature of the biomass of the energy crop, it is possible to distinguish between:

Herbaceous crops: those in which their crop cycle develops for less than a year. Example: wheat,

barley, thistle, etc.

Woody crops: with a slower growth than the herbaceous ones, their cultivation cycle develops

during several years. Example: poplar, eucalyptus, willow, etc.

❷ Depending on the knowledge you have of the plant species or the number of hectares that are

historically cultivated in a certain place, you have the following:

Traditional crops: those plant species that are historically cultivated in a certain region or region

for the feeding or obtaining of raw materials of interest for the industry. Example in Spain: wheat,

sunflower, corn, poplar, etc.

Alternative crops: those species that, in spite of having aptitudes for their development with

energetic aims, or they are not known in a certain place or they are known, but they are not

cultivated. Example in Spain: cardoon, pataca, sorghum, etc.

❸ Considering the environment in which energy crops live, these can be classified as follows:

Terrestrial crops: those that live on the mainland. Example: rapeseed, thistle, poplar, etc.

Aquatic crops: plant species that necessarily live in places where water is present. Example:

Chlorella sp., Alaria sp., etc.

❹ Depending on the type of biomass they produce and their final use, they can be classified as follows:

4.1.‐ Crops producing lignocellulosic biomass

They are the ones that have an important cellulose content that makes them especially suitable for

direct combustion in boilers for the production of electrical or thermal energy, with or without

transformation, and can be used for different applications:

Thermal, such as air conditioning of buildings, sanitary hot water and industrial

applications (preparation of any process fluid).

Manufacture of more elaborated fuels, with an added value to the gross biomass,

such as chips or pellets.

Cogeneration generally associated with an industrial activity or simple electricity

generation.



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Obtaining second generation biofuels. It is known by this name those biofuels that

are obtained from lignocellulosic biomass from crop residues and by‐products of

the food and forestry industries (although they can also come from crops

specifically destined for their production such as algae or Jatropha). Unlike the first

generation, these waste not only have no economic value in the context in which

they are generated, but usually cause environmental problems in their elimination.

Crops are abundant and fast growing in short cycles, so that the land can be easily

recovered for the use that is considered or dedicated specifically to the production

of biomass for energy purposes.

The lignocellulosic crops in the Mediterranean area are those of woody species

cultivated in short rotation shifts (poplar, eucalyptus, etc.), or the crops of

herbaceous species, among which the thistle.

Therefore, they come from the forestry, agricultural or transforming industries

sector and are destined to the generation of thermal or electrical energy.

4.2.‐ Crops for the production of biofuels.

They are those that are destined to biofuels or liquid fuels obtained from agricultural products and

in turn are classified into two groups:

Crops of oil plants: those from which oil is obtained, and through a series of chemical processes that

oil is transformed into biodiesel usable in all diesel vehicles. Example: sunflower, rapeseed, thistle,

etc.

Crops of alcoholic plants: those from which bioethanol is generated, and through a series of chemical

reactions in which said bioethanol participates, ETBE (ethyl‐tert‐butyl‐ether) is obtained, used as an

additive for gasoline. Example: wheat, barley, pataca, sorghum, etc.

The EU has been supporting the use of biofuels for years with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions,

diversifying sources of supply and developing alternative fuels to oil.

In the EU, the mandatory minimum target for the use of biofuels as fuel in vehicles will be 10% by 2020. For

example, in Spain, the average content of bioethanol in gasoline was already between 6 and 7.5% in 2012

and between 8.1 and 8.9% of biodiesel in gas oil.

The production of biofuels is subsidized through the exemption of the hydrocarbon tax or through aid to

producers of energy crops in the European Union.

According to the previous classification, the same energy crop can be classified into different groups

according to the criteria followed. Example: barley is a traditional terrestrial, herbaceous and alcoholic

culture; while, for example, thistle is an alternative, herbaceous, terrestrial and lignocellulosic crop.



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4.1.3. MAIN SPECIES FOR ENERGY CROPS AND AGRICULTURAL WORK

What is sought is the type of crop that best suits the characteristics of the soil and the conditions of the place,

trying to obtain the highest profitability.

4.1.3.1. Lignocellulosic agricultural crops

SPECIES OF TRADITIONAL AGRICULTURE

Among these species are the annual plants that have traditionally been cultivated with the objective of using

their fruits and seeds for other purposes (human or animal feed, industry, etc.) such as cereals or rapeseed,

among others. It is important to distinguish between winter and summer crops as their characteristics and

especially the irrigation requirements will be important when assessing the suitability and profitability of

crops. In certain places where water is available and the climate is adequate, the most promising summer

species are corn and sorghum.

CEREALS

Although there is a wide range of possibilities for

new crops to produce biomass, cereals are one of the

most appropriate for the production of biomass (for

the production of heat or both heat and electricity)

given the existing cultivation tradition.

All species of winter cereals are susceptible to be used in the production of energy (wheats, barley, triticales, oats and ryes mainly), although some will be more favorable than others for energy use.

The triticales, oats and ryes are the best ones for the use of their integral biomass to produce energy because they are the species with the lowest harvest index (grain biomass/total biomass). The oats and the ryes have the advantage of being less demanding of nitrogen and, therefore, less expensive to produce. Although it should not be forgotten that they are also more sensitive to bedding and less advisable in high productivity areas.

The cultivation system is the same if we talk about a grain production that if we speak of a biomass production, the collection being the only different element to take into account (harvest of the whole plant and subsequent packing). In this way, the production costs are similar to the traditional costs of producing cereals, although the harvesting of the biomass is more economically costly than the harvesting of the grain.



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The total costs of producing biomass are higher than grain production, although current biomass collection

systems still have much to evolve, improving their efficiency and therefore reducing the final cost. It is

reasonable to think that the final costs of producing biomass with cereals are close to 20% above grain

production in the near future (according to ITGA estimates from Navarra‐Spain).

In a simple way it can be estimated that the prices of biomass of cereals should be close to half the price of

grain of the same cereal. Cereals also have energy possibilities although they are cultivated for other uses

because the waste such as cereal straws can be a supplement of income for farmers because they can be

burned as solid biomass.

NEW SPECIES

Among the so‐called new species for the production of lignocellulosic biomass are Cynara cardunculus, Brassica carinata and Sorghum bicolor.

THISTLE (Cynara cardunculus)

The thistle is a lively species very well adapted to the Mediterranean climate of dry and hot summers that

can reach good productions for biomass: when the crop is established it can reach total productions superior

to 18‐20 Tm of dry matter per Ha and year.

The cultivation of thistle we can say that it enters into production from the second year, being able to remain

in the same terrain an unlimited number of years, provided that a minimum of care necessary for its

maintenance is carried out.

In the cultivation of thistle one must bear in mind the consideration that the first year is of implantation, with

a slow development since it comes from seed. Subsequent years later the plant re‐springs from the remaining

buds of the root neck and quickly forms a rosette of basal leaves thanks to the reserves accumulated in the

root.

Below we include a list of tasks with the breakdown of costs of these and products as orientation of the cost of the implementation of the crop and the annual operation cost of the cultivation of thistle: (Source: J. Fernández, Fernando Sebastián, CIRCE, and IDAE España)

Cost of implementation in €/Ha Annual operating cost in €/Ha

Elevation 100 Fertilization 0,5 Tm/ha 105

Grade 13 Harvesting, packaging and transportation 300

Fertilizer 13Land rental 100

Fertilizer 0,7 Tm/ha 150

Sowing with pneumatic machine 26

Impact cost of implementation in 7 years 65 2 cultivator passes 100

Seeds 15

Sale of seed ‐200 Land rental 100

Total implementation cost 517 Annual cost per Ha 359



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The production of the thistle oscillates on the 18 tons of dry matter to the year by Ha, plus the production of

2 tons of oleaginous seed, that also has market.

For an average production like the above, during the seven years of duration of the strain, the cost is 20€ per

tonne, put into the plant. This price is competitive for thermal applications, with respect to the cost of fossil

fuels.

Brassica carinata

The Brassica carinata is a cruciferous plant although this one unlike others is not cultivated as an oilseed

because the cake of the grain is toxic, and that loses much value to the seed.

But it is an interesting plant for the production of biomass due to its high productivity, being less demanding

than Brassica napus and integrating very well in the rotations, being more profitable than a year of fallow

which makes it economically sustainable, since it has been shown that produces yield increases in subsequent

crops, for example cereal.

Work and handling (Source: ITGA of Navarra‐Spain): Brassica carinata as a crop for the use of its biomass is

well suited to fresh and intermediate dry land, with productions that are around 6‐8 Tm/Ha of biomass. As

for the cost of production, including harvesting and transport to the factory, it is around 50‐70 €/Tm.

The cultivation of brassicas is perfectly integrated into the cereal rotation, improving the yields in the

following cereals and allowing the reduction of the use of nitrogen fertilizers and phytosanitary products.

Rotation of crops for production of herbaceous biomass.

1 HEAD CULTIVATION FOR BIOMASS (BRASICAS) 1/6 year, 1/6 surface

2 CEREALS Humid weather: Wheat, barley Dry weather: barley

LEGUMINOUS plant

Brassica carinata is recommended to be the head of a rotation cycle, followed by a cereal and a leguminous.

This system of rotation consists in the fact that in the first year a header crop of biomass is implanted (for

example, brasicas), the next two years a cereal crop and, finally, one of legumes, achieving a much higher

yield in each crop do to the interaction that occurs between them.

The harvest involves a series of different tasks: mowing, swathing, packing and handling. Different solutions

have been studied regarding the collection method so that the biomass losses in the different operations are

as low as possible and the mass yield is greater.

The harvest is made when the siliques begin to form and before the grain has been completely formed, since

what is intended is a greater development of the vegetative part than of the reproductive part. It is important

an adequate adaptation of the machinery for the collection of the vegetative part to achieve a maximum

amount of biomass collected.

The mown biomass has an initial moisture content of 60‐80% that can be reduced in the field up to 15%

before being swarmed and packed.



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The yields of Brassica carinata very greatly depending on the collection technique with the following yields

(source: ITGA Navarra‐Spain): 7.000 kg biomass/Ha with mower, 4.000 kg biomass/Ha with mower‐harvester

(more approximately 1.100 kg grain/Ha) and about 2.200 kg biomass/Ha with harvester (and about 1.900 kg

grain/Ha).

Both the cultivation and the harvesting of the biomass of this species can be done with conventional

machinery, without the need for extraordinary investments by the producer.

The energy balance of some agricultural species that can be used to produce lignocellulosic biomass has been

studied in the project "Bioelectricity crops" funded by the EU. The results are the following:

CULTIVATION PRODUCTION DRY

MATTER ENERGETIC OUTPUT

ENERGETIC INPUT

BALANCE (OUTPUT‐INPUT)

YIELD

B. carinata A. Braun 5,2 95.609 16.402 78.873 5,8

Brassica napus 4,8 88.702 15.407 73.315 5,7

Sorghum bicolor 21,4 386.719 39.713 347.006 9,7

Source: “Bioelectricity crops” project. Contract NNE‐2001‐0065. ITGA of Navarra and J. Fernández

Note: the calculation of the energy input has taken into account even the manufacture of the machinery necessary for the cultivation and harvest.

SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor)

Sorghum is an annual species of the family of grasses of tropical origin. Among the varieties for crops for the

production of lignocellulosic biomass, the most important is sorghum for fiber.

The sorghum for fiber, with the limitations of temperature and need for irrigation, is one of the most

interesting crops in terms of bioenergy production due to its possible double use: the production of the grain

to obtain biofuels, and the rest of the plant (which can grow up to 4 m in height) for the use of biomass for

thermal or electrical purposes.

The yields are very variable depending on the growing area; in the Mediterranean area very positive data can

be obtained regarding the production of dry matter under demanding cultivation conditions (fertility, water

availability and mild temperatures).

To obtain good yields, medium to good quality soils are needed, sowing to obtain 150.000 to 200.000

plants/Ha and irrigation of 7.000 m3/Ha and year. Some studies carried out in Spain point to a productivity

of 80 Tm/Ha and about 10 kg of sugar and 17 Tm of dry matter per Ha.

Indicative values of the losses

produced in the biomass harvest of

brassicas.

Source: ITGA of Navarra (SPAIN).

Operation % lost

Mowing 3

Swath 9

Packed 6

Total 18



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Other species with possibilities

There are others rapidly growing energy herbaceous plants can be directly burned to produce heat and

electricity. The most commonly used species are Miscanthus spp. and Arundo donax because, besides the

high productivity, they are not demanding in edaphoclimatic conditions. Staiss and Pereira (2002) indicate

that, in regions with good water conditions and solar radiation and high temperatures, yields of 32 Tm dry

matter/ha/year of Miscanthus spp. and up to 40 Tm dry matter/Ha/year of Arundo donax. Brás et al. (2006)

adds that the demonstrated high productivity of Miscanthus spp. announces an increase in the area devoted

to its production, especially in fallow land. On the other hand, despite the potential of Arundo donax, both

productive and end‐use, prudence in its adoption is necessary since this species reveals invading behavior in

different circumstances, as it is mentioned in the literature.

4.1.3.2. Crops for obtaining biofuels

The International Energy Agency has considered that 27% of the fuel used in the world in 2050 will be

biofuels. Although we are still far from that percentage, progress is being made due to the climatic

advantages and the fight against the contamination of biofuels.

One of the most beneficial alternatives to mitigate the emission of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide into

the environment are biofuels, such as bioethanol or biodiesel. This has been corroborated by several

international studies and, above all, by the World Energy Agency. According to his calculations, the addition

of bioethanol to fuels can reduce the emission of the most toxic pollutants by an average of 30%.

Globally, two classes of biofuels can be distinguished:

1. biofuels for compression ignition or diesel engines. The oil plants are used for the production of

biodiesel, extracting the oil from their seeds, with the objective of replacing the diesel that is consumed

in the transport sector.

2. biofuels for spark ignition engines. Bioalcohols are an alternative to gasoline, either as a total replacement element or as an element that improves their octane number.

❶ OLEAGINOUS PLANT CROPS

A large number of plants can be used to produce biofuels provided that good agricultural and environmental

practices are observed during their cultivation and that they do not compete with food.

With respect to biodiesel, although initially it was produced largely from sunflower oil and rapeseed oil, other

crops were also adopted as raw materials, such as soybeans and palm (Rosa, 2008), although some showed

higher productivity than others. However, other oil plants, less demanding in soil, humidity and climate, have

proven to be better solutions for the use of poorer soils, such as jatropha curcas and castor oil. In addition,

they have better productivity indexes than the first generation crops used for the production of biodiesel

(Marques, 2008).



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SUNFLOWER

The most traditional crop is sunflower.

Staiss and Pereira (2002) indicate that

the new varieties of sunflower can reach

yields of 2,5 to 4,0 Tm of seeds/Ha with

an oil content of 40 to 50%.

Agricultural tasks

• Land preparation: The deeper the soil, the more development capacity the plant will have given that the sunflower has a pivoting root, which can reach up to 2 meters under favorable conditions, although most of the secondary roots develop between 5 and 30 cm deep. It will also depend on the management: in

direct sowing, in strong lands or if the soil is compacted and root development is difficult, although the soil is deep the crop may have problems of implantation. In irrigation, it can be cultivated in first sowings or as second crop after a winter crop (barley, rapeseed, fodder, etc.). For these second harvests, sprinkler irrigation and direct sowing will favor that the crop can be implanted in the shortest possible time after the previous harvest.

• Sowing: The sunflower can start its germination when the temperature of the soil reaches 5 to 7ºC, but then the germination is slow, so it is considered that at least the temperature should be 10ºC. At higher temperature in the soil, the germination is faster and the loss of seeds is smaller. The proper planting depth is 3 to 6 centimeters. When deeper the number of plants that emerge is lower.

In rainfed crops, with water as one of its limiting factors, we must try that the planting is done in the first days in which its surfacing is feasible, to achieve the greatest possible development when the heats reach the strongest and the humidity is insufficient.At the end of the 80s, planting seasons were carried out in Aragon (Spain) in dry season, observing that plantings in late March and early April were the ones that gave the highest yields. Excessively early plantings had no interest, since the emergence and flowering were matched with later plantings and the number of plants in the harvest was lower.

The usual sowing density is 150.000 seeds to sow 2 Ha in irrigated land and 3 Ha in dry land (84.000 plows/Ha in irrigated land and between 40‐60.000 plows/Ha in dry land).

• Fertilizer: The sunflower is a demanding crop in nutritious principles and thus, with extractions of nitrogen of 50 kg/Tm. 70‐90% nitrogen is absorbed from 3‐4 leaves until full bloom.

It is not recommended, for 3.000 kg of production, more than 150 units of nitrogen. For low productions all the nitrogen can be contributed in seed and with higher yields it could be of interest to add part of the nitrogen in covert. In sprinkler irrigation, the incorporation of fertilizer into irrigation water would be more rational.

• Control of pests and diseases: The worms of the soil are those that can cause greater damages to the crop being able to be treated against them in the sowing.



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RAPESEED

The rapeseed, or colza, is a plant of the cruciferous family that has traditionally been used for oilseed

production. It is sown in fresh and fertile soils in climates not excessively cold and with a reasonable rainfall.

Rapeseed oil, which produces a high production of grain and produces an oil of excellent quality, is the most

cultivated oilseed in the EU, with Germany being the main producer. Under the environmental conditions of

the Iberian Peninsula, this crop can be planted in September‐October and harvested in May, which offers

advantages over the cultivation of sunflower under rain‐fed conditions, since only in June does the critical

phase of flowering begin (Lourenço y Januário, 2008).

Agricultural tasks

In the culture of rapeseed it is important to sow correctly to assure good plant germination and observe the

crop to detect pests and treat them at the right time.

Rapeseed is a crop that can be planted both in dry and irrigated areas. In dry land you can have productions of 2.200 kg/Ha while in irrigation you can reach 4.500 kg/Ha. For these productions the key is a good implantation and reach the winter with some plants of good size (usually about 8 leaves) and a root length of 15 to 20 cm so that it can withstand low temperatures of up to ‐17ºC.

• Preparation of the land: Rapeseed requires deep, well‐drained soils with good structure. The preparation of the soil is similar to that of cereals. The main difference is that rapeseed by having a pivot root is more sensitive to deep compaction. It is also sensitive to crusting but planting with moisture avoids this problem.

Due to the small size of its seed, it needs a careful preparation of the top 20 cm of the soil. For a proper germination we must ensure a soft and fine preparation that allows an intimate contact between the soil and the seed. Rapeseed adapts to almost all types of soil, well tolerated saline soils and with optimal pH range between 5,5 and 8. If the cultural preparation of the soil does not ensure a good planting bed, it is preferable to resort to planting direct.

Fertilizer: The needs of fertilizer in rapeseed will depend on the productive potential of the land and its level of fertilizers, so it is recommended to perform a soil analysis of the plots and know the level of nutrients of these. As a general rule, we will apply to rainfed on 80‐90 UF of nitrogen (30‐40% in the bottom), 60 UF of phosphorus (in the bottom) and 60 UF of potassium (in the bottom). In irrigation, it will be necessary to increase these contributions by 15‐20%.

A background fertilizer is a good help for the establishment of rapeseed, a very demanding crop with respect to phosphorus. Therefore it is recommended to make a fertilizer with a fertilizer NPK that provides the three macronutrients (for example, an 8‐15‐15) since rapeseed does not need much nitrogen for implantation, but needs it at winter.

Sulfur is an essential element for rapeseed, which we will apply in coverage along with nitrogen in quantities of 60‐65 UF per hectare.



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• Sowing: The first weeks of October would mark the limit for winter rapeseed plantings in Atlantic areas taking advantage of the first autumn rains in the spring to reach the rosette state before the first frosts. It is therefore possible to plant in these areas from the beginning of September to mid‐October, but the sooner the better to ensure a good‐sized plant at the beginning of winter and in any case ensuring the necessary humidity in the soil to facilitate its emergence.

In Mediterranean areas, autumnal rapeseed sowing begins in September and lasts until the last week of November, as there is no winter stop or risk of frost.

Sowing is one of the most critical times for cultivation, it is very important to get the soil right and apply the appropriate seed dose as the critical factor for a good development of the crop is a good installation of it (with a population of sufficient plant and distributed homogeneously). The seed dose to be used should guarantee a final population of plants between 30 and 40 per square meter, that is, in normal or poor dry land, densities of 4 kilograms of seed per hectare (between 65 and 75 seed/m2) and in fresh dry and irrigation of 2,5‐3 kilograms of seed per hectare (between 45 and 55 seeds/m2).

In addition, the cost of seeds is high, especially in the case of hybrid varieties. Thus, the recommended dose of seed for non‐hybrid varieties is 50 to 100 seeds/m2 and hybrid varieties of 40 to 60 seeds/m2 (the latter require lower doses because they have greater branching capacity). If there were problems with snails, this planting density could be slightly increased to offset the losses caused by these.

The distance between lines should be between 20 and 45 cm, while the ideal planting depth will be

about 2 centimeters due to the small size of the seed.

To achieve maximum performance it is important that at the end of winter there is a maximum of 40 plant seed/m2 distributed evenly in the field, because if there are more plants, they compete with themselves and the yield is significantly reduced.

Rapeseed is a very versatile crop compared to the planter to be used, being able to use both

conventional cereal seeders or precision, which allow a reduction in the dose. It is types you can get a

good implantation of the crop if the depth of planting is respected.

It can even be sown with a precision planter like the one used in corn. With this type of precision planter

the maximum homogeneity of the crop is achieved and can reach high yields, of up to 5.500 kg/Ha in

irrigation of aspersion.

Within the varieties of rapeseed we find hybrids and no, more and less rustic, more and less precocious, of more and less high size, etc. It is important to analyze the specific needs before choosing the variety.

• Weed and pest control: Making a crop rotation helps control weeds. Being a broad‐leaved crop, it is relatively easy to control narrow‐leaved weeds such as or mad oats. Doing rotation with rapeseed also shows that the yield of the next crop, wheat or barley, is increased by 10%, respecting a monoculture of cereals.

For good control of weeds it is important to plant with the soil clean of weeds, so it is important to carry out a treatment with a broad spectrum herbicide. In pre‐emergence (until the crop has 3 leaves) it is interesting to apply metazachlor for the control of the ryegrass and broad‐leaved weeds such as poppies. With these applications of herbicides it is relatively easy to control weeds until the winter leaves.

In the cultivation of rapeseed it is important to control certain pests throughout the crop. The snail and flea beetle are the two main plagues that affect the implantation. The snails and slugs feed on the tender leaves, so they should be controlled by specific treatments available in the market to achieve a good implantation.



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In some cases it is sufficient to apply it only in the margins of the field. The flea beetle is a rape insect that feeds on the leaves and can cause very important damage until the plants have 3‐4 leaves, so it is essential to treat quickly when the pest is detected.

At the beginning of the cycle, there may be some flea attack, while at the end aphid populations may

appear that, with treatments at the beginning of incidence on the edges of the plot, allow good control.

Special attention must also be paid to the possible appearance of weevils during the spring. Diseases such as foot disease or sclerotinia may represent a serious problem depending on the stage of the culture in which they occur.

OTHER CROPS

Crops such as thistles or jatropha have been tried to replace sunflower crops, especially in soils with less

water retention.

Thistle is a perennial plant with an active growth phase in autumn and spring and can produce 20 Tm of dry

matter per hectare per year and approximately 2 to 3 Tm of seeds per hectare per year, with an oil content

of 25% (Staiss and Pereira, 2002). In addition, as already mentioned, thistle can be cultivated with the dual

capacity of, in addition to seed oil, it can also supply solid biomass as a raw material for energy production

(Brás et al., 2006; Lourenço and Januário, 2008), giving interesting returns when compared to the cellulose

plants.

Of the less studied oilseeds, Jatropha is the one that has generated more expectations due to the success

obtained in countries such as India or China. However in Europe it is difficult to keep the plants viable during

the winter, mainly due to frost.

Rapeseed or sunflower are the traditional crops for obtaining biodiesel, although there are new crops that

are being rapidly implemented.

CROPS FOR BIODIESEL (Ecas Project 2007)

Conventional

Rape Sunflower Soy Palm

Alternative

Jatropha Thistle Castor Brassica carinata

As in any other crop, climate will influence the development of crops, for example, from one hectare of palm

in tropical regions you get between 3.700 and 5.400 L of biodiesel, while if the crop is thistle in dry regions

of Mediterranean climate is between 150 and 360 L and also between 9 and 13,5 tonnes of dry matter.



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❷ CROPS FOR BIOALCOHOLES OR BIOETHANOL

Ethyl alcohol of vegetable origin or bioethanol is a chemical product obtained from the fermentation of

sugars found in plant products (such as cereals, beet, sugar cane or biomass). It is obtained by fermentation

of sugary raw materials with an initial alcoholic strength of 10 to 15%, being able to concentrate later by

distillation until obtaining the so‐called hydrated alcohol, 4‐5% of water, or reaching the absolute alcohol

after a specific process of dehydration.

Hydrated ethanol can be used directly in conventional combustion engines with slight modifications, and

performance similar to that obtained in gasoline, if they are well regulated. Absolute ethanol can be used in

a mixture with normal gasoline to increase the octane number and eliminate the additives of lead in the

super fuels. These fuels are known as "gaso‐holes".

Ethanol is used in mixtures with gasoline in concentrations of 5, 10%, and even 85%, E5, E10 and E85

respectively, which do not require modifications in current engines.

The raw materials used to produce this type of alcohol should be low‐cost hydrocarbon products, either

sugary or starchy type, susceptible to undergo a fermentation process directly, such as fructose, glucose or

sucrose, or after a process of hydrolysis, as is the case with starch or inulin.

Crops such as sugar cane, sugar sorghum or beet among those of the first group and cereals, cassava,

potatoes, among those of the second group, may be economically interesting in some circumstances for the

production of fuel ethano.

Approximately one liter of ethanol

can be obtained from 2,5‐3 kg of

cereal grains, 10 kg of beet roots or

15‐20 kg of sugarcane. Through the

cultivation of one hectare of

irrigated beet 6.000 liters of

ethanol can be produced, while if

corn or sweet sorghum is grown

only 3.700 liters are obtained, or if

the crop is sugarcane, up to 10.000

liters are produced. If the crop is

dry land, one hectare of wheat

would produce 880 liters, while the

sweet sorghum would produce 700

liters (Project ECAS 2007).

As in biodiesel, production with traditional crops such as corn is giving way to the emergence of new species

with higher yields.



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CROPS FOR BIOETHANOL (Ecas Project 2007)

Conventional

Cereals (wheat, corn, barley …) Beet Sugar cane

Alternative

Potato Sorghum saccharine Prickly pear

PERFORMANCE OF BIOETHANOL AND BIODIESEL OF DIFFERENT CROPS

CROPS BIODIESEL LITRE/Ha BIOETHANOL LITRE/Ha

African palm 4.000‐5.000 Rape 900‐1.300 Soy 300‐600 Sunflower 600‐1.000 Castor 1.000‐1.200 Jatropha Curcas 800‐2.000 Cane 4.500‐8.000 Corn 2.500‐3.500 Sweet Sorghum 2.500‐6.000 Switchgrass 3.000‐7.000 Beet 2.500‐6.000

BIOETHANOL BIODIESEL

Energy balance (Returned unit of energy for each unit of energy used)

Wheat 2 Sunflower 3,2

Beet 2 Canola 2,7

Corm 1,5 Soy 3

Sugar cane 8,3 Palm 9

Environmental balance (Emissions of greenhouse gases‐GHG per Tm of oil in Tm equiv of CO2)

Beet 2,17 Soy 2,6 Wheat 1,85 Canola 1,79

Sugar cane 0,41 Palm 1,73

Straw 0,33 Wood 0,27

Comparison of biodiesel and bioethanol yields (IICA 2007). Source: ADEME European Commission



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4.1.4. ENERGY CROPS IN EUROPE

Many EU countries have great potential for the implementation of energy crops, due to the availability of

agricultural land and abandoned land, and may have enough space for energy crops without affecting

traditional crops and cover the needs of biofuels, in accordance with the objectives set by the European

Union.

The previous development of agricultural work and the main energy crops corresponds mainly to the Iberian

Peninsula. Now we mention now some specific details of other countries especially those that are part of the

RURAL BIOENERGY project:

PORTUGAL‐SPAIN

The most traditional culture of oleaginous crop in Portugal and Spain is the sunflower. However, crops such

as rapeseed (colza), thistle or Jatropha have been tried to replace sunflower crop, especially in soils with less

water retention. Rapeseed oil, which has a high production of grain that produces excellent quality oil, is the

most widely grown oilseed in the EU, with Germany being the main producer. Under Iberian peninsula´s

environmental conditions, this crop can be sown in October and harvested in May, which offers advantages

over sunflower cultivation under rainfed conditions, since only in June the critical flowering phase begins

(Lourenço and Januário, 2008).

The thistle is a perennial plant with an active growth phase in autumn and spring and can produce 20 Tm dry

matter per hectare per year and approximately 2 to 3 Tm seeds per hectare per year, with an oil content of

25 % (Staiss and Pereira, 2002). In addition, the thistle can be cultivated with the dual ability of, besides the

seed oil, it can also supply solid biomass as a raw material for energy production (Brás et al., 2006; Lourenço

and Januário, 2008), yielding interesting yields when compared to the cellulosic plants.

Of the less studied oleaginous, Jatropha is the one that has generated more expectations due to the success

obtained in countries like India or China. However, domestic producers have found it difficult to keep the

plants viable during the winter, mainly due to frost.

ESLOVAQUIA

The energy potential of agricultural biomass in Slovakia is quite high and represents theoretically 20,4% of

the annual energy consumption in the Slovak Republic, which is 800 PJ. This is equal to an area in Slovakia of

approximately 30.000 hectares. Prognoses indicate that, under climatic conditions of Slovakia, within the use

of biomass 6 to 12% share of total energy consumption is realistic one.

According to current available sources, the energy crops acreage does not increase, but rather stagnant. At

present, the following plants are grown in Slovakia as energy crops:

Elephant grass (Miscanthus x giganteus) True hemp (Cannabis sativa, L.)

Great millet (Sorghum bicolor) Giant reed (Arundo donax L.)



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ITALY

The development of agri‐energy sector in Tuscany depends from the structural characteristic of agriculture

The main data that explain our agriculture are following:

• The main characteristics of farming in Tuscany are small family run farms with a diversified production

(wine, oil and crops).There were 72.600 farms in Tuscany in 2010, however many of these were very

small scale.

• Data from the Union of Commerce indicates that there were 41.000 professional registered farms in the

region. Approximately 40.000 farms have arable crops and 10.000 have cattle, 2.360 have sheep and

1.300 have pigs. While 26.000 farms have grapes and 50.000 have olive trees.

• Two‐thirds of farms in Tuscany have less than 5 hectares while 80% have less than 10 hectares. However,

while 11% of the farms in Tuscany are of 20 hectares or more, they account for 67,8% of the land area.

The typical farm in Tuscany is around 10 hectares in size and produces wine, oil and crops while the

farms in the mountain areas typically have cattle and sheep.

• Approximately 55% of the land area in Tuscany is agricultural land as the landscape in Tuscany is

generally hills and mountains. The forest area is more than 50% of regional surface.

As a result of this territorial analysis, Tuscany Region has not the best conditions to develop energy chains

based on energetic crops:

1. The global surface for crops is not high and there is a relevant fragmentation of crops cultivation.

2. The yield of crops is not high, because most part of arable land is located in hills and mountain area.

3. There is a strength competition food/non food, therefore most part of arable land are involved in food

and/or feed cultivations.

The main crops cultivated in Tuscany during the year 2018 were:

Crops Hectares Production (Ton) Yield (100 K)

Wheat 30.638 1.069,425 34,9

Durum wheat 66.413 2.117,897 31,9

Corn 11.463 953,897 83,2

Barley and oats 37.389 994,500 26,6

Sunflower 15.967 408,234 25,6

Rape 1.297 25,856 19,9

Source: ISTAT

The main part of the effort in the field of agri‐energy are therefore aimed to develop wood energy chains,

using the production waste of forestry. In this case the strategic choice is oriented to create short supply

chains, able to produce energy using local production waste, realizing energy plants of small‐medium scale,

producing thermal energy or both thermal energy and power through co‐generation technologies.



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BULGARIA

Among the targets set by the European Commission for the reduction of harmful emissions in transport and

environment, there is an idea to significantly reduce or eliminate the incentives for biofuels produced from

food or fodder crops. Such change, if adopted, will strongly affect Bulgaria, which is one of Europe’s largest

rapeseed producers – the main raw material for this type of fuel. Bulgaria is also among the countries that

produce biodiesel and bioethanol from similar crops, although data shows that it does not use its full capacity.

If the produced fuels and the rape (in Bulgarian “рапица”) are considered, the value of this market is over

one billion BGN.

Currently, however, legislative proposals are under consideration on a European level, according to which

the production of the so‐called “first generation” biofuels from rape, sunflower, sugar beet, etc., need to be

replaced by biofuels from the so‐called “biofuels from second generation” – the ones that are produced from

agricultural and forest waste and residues such as shrubs, straw, etc. The general idea is to make this change

by 2030, including by removing incentives for first‐generation fuels.

On the other hand, on November 30, 2016, the European Commission (EC) published a new legislative

proposal (RED II) for the period 2021‐2030. The RED II progressively caps the use of food‐based biofuels. The

blending rates for advanced biofuels are stepwise increased between 2020 and 2030, which aims to boost

the market for these non‐food based biofuels. The RED II also includes additional harmonized sustainability

criteria for products from biofuels to biomass. The proposed sustainability requirements are a potential

trade barrier for the import of wood pellets.

It shall also be mentioned that biofuels industry in Bulgaria is still at an early developing stage. This is mainly

related to the size of economy and lower consumption of fossil fuels, as well as with the lack of encouraging

business and economic environment for production and use of biofuels. The fossil fuels market is dominated

by very few companies, which do not have an economic interest in the use of biofuels as no sufficient stimulus

was provided by the legislators.

Despite this, there are already several established and proven biofuel producers. Bio raw material has

become one of the leading ideas of many oil and gas companies. The raw material extraction itself is by

transesterification of vegetable fats, which are a residual product extracted in the form of glycerol.

Increasingly, there is also interest for micro‐bio fuels, or so‐called biofuels based on micro‐organisms. Such

are bacteria, microalgae, cyanobacteria. Their yields are 40 and 300 times higher than conventional eco‐fuels.

Statistics show that 83.675 metric tons of oil equivalent of biodiesel was consumed in 2015 in Bulgaria. The

amount of bioethanol consumed was significantly smaller compared to biodiesel.



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4.2. PRODUCTION OF BIOFUELS

4.2.1. INTRODUCTION

4.2.1.1. The development of biofuels in Europe

Biofuels are liquid or gaseous fuels for transport,

produced from biomass, especially from energy crops,

but also from the biodegradable fraction of waste and

residues from agriculture, forestry and industries

related to those, as well as biodegradable fraction of

industrial and municipal waste.

Since the beginning of the 90s, the European production

of biofuels has experienced a notable increase, which is

based on the regulatory framework, but the situation in

the different countries varies enormously, with some

countries having a greater contribution to the total

production of biofuels European than others.

There are at European level and of the different states

measures to promote the use of biofuels in transport,

although in the opinion of many sectors these are still

insufficient.

Biofuels have environmental advantages of reducing greenhouse gas emissions compared to conventional

fuels and contribute to security of supply and reduction of energy dependence on oil.

The sustainability requirements of the biofuels established in the Renewable Energy Directive have been

modified through the Directive (EU) 2015/1513 of the European Parliament and of the Council, of September

9, 2015, by which the Directive is modified 98/70/EC and Directive 2009/28/EC, on the promotion of the use

of energy from renewable sources. Biofuels used to meet the objectives set in the Directive and those that

benefit from national support systems must comply with sustainability criteria, to avoid the possible negative

impacts. Thus, to be able to compute for the objectives it is required that with these a certain reduction of

emissions of greenhouse gases is achieved, they are not produced from raw materials coming from land of

high value in terms of diversity or land with high carbon reserves.

The European Parliament has limited the production of some biofuels beyond 2030, such as palm oil and

soybean biodiesel.

The share of energy from biofuels produced from cereals and other crops rich in starch, sugars, oilseeds and

crops on agricultural land as main crops mainly for energy purposes will not exceed 7% of final energy

consumption in transport in 2020.



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Some European countries such as Bulgaria, Slovakia, Czech Republic and Poland show great support for crops

for biofuels and call for the use of sources of agricultural and forestry origin of the European Union to meet

the renewable targets in transport marked by the new directive . They also undertake to take the necessary

measures for the use of "higher mixtures of renewables of agricultural origin, such as E10, with a maximum

of bioethanol of ten percent in gasoline". The ministers of agriculture of these countries, in a joint statement

issued by the Council of the EU reaffirm the importance of the use of renewable energy sources of agricultural

and forestry origin of the EU with the aim of improving energy security and environmental, economic and

social sustainability of Europe.

The report "Renewables 2018, global status report" of the "Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st

Century" collects data from the three main fields in which bioenergy acts (electricity, thermal energy and

transport) highlighting that the renewable quota in the transport sector it remains low (3,1%) with more than

90% provided by liquid biofuels.

The disadvantages of biofuels are the costs of production, the large areas of crops needed for their

production from energy crops (with the possible risk is the strengthening of intensive monocultures and the

consequent use of pesticides and herbicides); and the necessary complex transformation that includes some

concrete processes with high carbon dioxide emissions.

The main existing biofuels based on commercial development, mainly used in road transport, are currently

Bioethanol (ethyl alcohol produced from agricultural products or products of vegetable origin, whether used

as such or after chemical modification or transformation), Biodiesel (methyl or ethyl ester produced from

fats of vegetable or animal origin) and Hydrobiodiesel (HVO, Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil), a hydrocarbon

resulting from the treatment of vegetable oils or animal fats with hydrogen, either in units dedicated to it, or

through co‐processing technologies in refineries. In recent years there has also been an important advance

in aviation fuels.

Other biofuels, which are currently not very common in the transport fuels market, will acquire a certain

presence in the coming years, such as biogas (gaseous fuel produced by anaerobic digestion of biomass) or

synthetic biofuels (synthetic hydrocarbons produced from biomass through thermal and catalytic conversion

technologies).

The European Commission has published a study (Research and Innovation perspective of the mid‐ and long‐

term Potential for Advanced Biofuels in Europe) in November 2017, which highlights the high medium and

long‐term potential of the advanced biofuels to implement appropriate Research and Innovation (R+I)

policies in the EU. The study specifically indicates that advanced biofuels could reach 2050 in a sustainable

way around 50% of all EU energy needs and provide 65% of the savings in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions

required in the transport sector. Its development would significantly improve energy security, create more

than 100.000 jobs and allow advanced biofuels a contribution to EU GDP of 1,6%. The study considers that

the contribution of advanced biofuels will be especially important in the sectors of aviation, maritime

navigation and the transport of goods by road, given the few viable alternatives for decarbonisation in these

areas during the period considered.

In order to take advantage of all this potential, the implementation of research and innovation policies aimed

at this purpose is key, especially in relation to raw materials and conversion technologies.



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4.2.1.2. Types of biofuels

This is the detailed list of different types of biofuels:

• Bioethanol.‐ ethanol produced from biomass or from the biodegradable fraction of waste, for use as a

biofuel.

• Biodiesel.‐ methyl ester produced from vegetable or animal oil of similar quality to gas oil, for use as a

biofuel.

• Biogas.‐ gaseous fuel produced from biomass and/or from the biodegradable fraction of waste.

• Biomethanol.‐ methanol produced from biomass, for use as a biofuel.

• Biodimethylether.‐ dimethyl ether produced from biomass, for use as a biofuel.

• Bio‐ETBE (ethyl tert‐butyl ether).‐ ETBE produced from bioethanol. The volumetric fraction of bio‐ETBE

that is computed as biofuel is 47%.

• Bio‐MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether).‐ fuel produced from biomethanol. The volumetric fraction of

bio‐MTBE that is computed as biofuel is 36%.

• Synthetic biofuels.‐ synthetic hydrocarbons or their mixtures, produced from biomass.

• Hydrobiodiel.‐ fuel produced by hydrogenation/isomerization of vegetable or animal oil.

• Biokerosene.‐ light fraction from the distillation of biodiesel obtained by transesterification. Use in

mixtures with kerosene up to 20% for use in aviation engines.

• Bio‐hidrógeno.‐ hidrógeno producido a partir de la biomasa y/o a partir de la fracción biodegradable

de los residuos para su uso como biocarburante.

• Pure vegetable oils.‐ oils obtained from oil plants by pressure, extraction or comparable procedures,

raw or refined, but without chemical modification, when their use is compatible with the type of

engine and the corresponding requirements in terms of emissions.

Taking into account the state of maturity of production and use technologies, a categorization has been

established between first and second generation biofuels:

First generation biofuels.

Biodiesel, vegetable oils, bioethanol obtained from cereals and sugars found in other vegetable products,

bio‐ethyl‐tertiary butyl ether (ETBE) and biogas belong to this category. The production and use of these

biofuels are already in an advanced phase of application. The main improvement margins must be sought

in the reduction of production costs, the optimization of the energy balance, the improvement of the

energy yields of the combustion engines and the increase in the percentages of mixing with fossil fuels.



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Second generation biofuels.

Bioethanol produced from cellulosic raw materials, bio‐hydrogen, syngas, bio‐oils, biomethanol,

biobutanol or synthetic diesel obtained through the Fischer‐Tropsh reaction belong to this category. Its

production does not have an industrial scale and is limited to experimental plants. All the second

generation biofuels have in common the fact that they are produced from raw materials with zero or

very low cost: lignocellulosic biomass. Although they are still in the process of improvement, second‐

generation biofuel production technologies are considered very promising because of their potential to

reduce production costs. These costs currently represent a penalty with respect to current fossil sources

and do not allow the production of biofuels to be separated from current economic and fiscal aid

policies. In addition, second generation biofuels allow increasing the range of raw materials since the

use of lignocellulosic and residual material does not compete with the food market.

Third generation biofuels.

Third generation biofuels use production methods similar to those of second generation, but using

bioenergy crops specifically designed or adapted as a raw material (often by means of molecular biology

techniques) to improve the conversion of biomass to biofuel. One example is the development of "low

lignin" trees, which reduce pretreatment costs and improve the production of ethanol, or corn with

integrated cellulose.

Fourth generation biofuels.

Fourth generation biofuels take the third generation one step further. The key is carbon capture and

storage (CAC), both at the level of the raw material and the process technology. The raw material is not

only adapted to improve the process efficiency, but is designed to capture more carbon dioxide, as the

crop grows. Process methods (mainly thermochemical) are also combined with carbon capture and

storage technologies that channel carbon dioxide generated to geological formations (geological

storage, for example, in depleted oil fields) or through mineral storage (in carbonate form). In this way,

it is believed that fourth‐generation biofuels contribute more to reducing GHG (greenhouse gas)

emissions, because they are more neutral or even negative in carbon when compared to biofuels of

other generations. Fourth generation biofuels the concept of "bioenergy with carbon storage”.



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The main biofuels, bioethanol and biodiesel, both can be used as sole fuel or in mixtures with gasoline and

diesel respectively without making any modifications to the engine. The types of fuels that exist based on

these mixtures are the following:

E5: Mixture of 5% bioethanol with 95% normal gasoline. It is the maximum mixture authorized by European regulation to be sold as normal gasoline. It avoids that 8 grams of CO2 are emitted per km traveled (4%) with respect to 95 octane gasoline.

E10: Mixture of 10% bioethanol with 90% normal gasoline. It is the most used in the US because up to this proportion the engines do not require any modification. It allows to improve the octane rating and decrease the lead content. Probably the European regulation will adapt in the future to this scale.

E25: Mix of 25% bioethanol and 75% gasoline. It is used in Brazil.

E85: The mixture of 85% bioethanol and 15% gasoline requires modification in the engines. These are the so‐called “flexifuel” engines that have modified the injection system to operate with different percentages of mixing. A sensor detects what proportion of alcohol and gasoline exists and adjusts the system in real time to optimize performance. It is used in the United States and Brazil and also in some northern European countries, especially in Sweden. Avoid emitting 150‐170 g of CO2 (80%) for each km travelled, compared to 95 gasoline.

E95: 95% ethanol content. It is used in bus fleets from Sweden, Italy, Holland and Spain.

E100: 100% bioethanol for special engines. When the consumer fuels an unlabelled fuel at a gas station, he is actually refuelling 95 with a maximum content of 5% bioethanol, (when gasoline does not exceed a content of 2,7% by mass of oxygen) or 10% of bioethanol (when gasoline has a maximum content of 3,7% by mass of oxygen). In the case of refuelling diesel, it has a maximum biodiesel content of 7%.

Unlabelled fuels can be used in vehicles without modifications, so they are sold in service stations without identifying their content in biofuels and have a maximum content established by the European Directive, Spanish regulations and the corresponding specifications. Above this threshold, it is necessary to indicate the biofuel content of the commercialized fuel.

ETBE: Ethyl tert‐butyl ether (45% ethanol, 55% isobutylenes) is not marketed as a biofuel but as a gasoline additive. It is less volatile and more miscible with gasoline than ethanol itself. It serves, like ethanol, to improve octane and lubrication without adding lead. It is used mixed with gasoline up to 10‐15%.

E‐DIESEL: The bioethanol is mixed with diesel oil using a solvent additive. Improves combustion and reduces emissions. It is marketed in the US and Brazil and will soon appear in Spain and Europe.

B20: Blend of 20% biodiesel and 80% normal diesel. It is the most used. Other proportions also present in the market are B5 and B10.

B100: 100% biodiesel without any mixture with normal diesel. It requires small engine modifications in old cars (replace rubber hoses with plastic ones).



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4.2.2. BIODIESEL PRODUCTION

The vegetable oils used in the production of biodiesel are obtained by conventional procedures from oil

plants that require a preparation consisting of a previous degumming and filtration. The seeds are pressed

mechanically separating the oil, undergoing a previous heating and the action of a solvent, with oil extraction

yields close to 100%. The mass obtained as a residue from the pressing, has a high protein content and is

marketed for animal feed.

The use of vegetable fuels, in diesel engines, is old. The own inventor of the engine Rudolf Diesel used them

in 1900. Nevertheless in the current motors adapted to use diesel oil the unmodified vegetable oils would

cause diverse problems so to avoid them they are transformed chemically by means of a process of

transesterification capable of substantially improving the characteristics as fuel of vegetable oils.

HOW BIODIESEL IS PRODUCED

The manufacture of biodiesel is a simple and well known process from the technical point of view.

It is based on a vegetable oil, which undergoes a process called transesterification, in which "ester" bonds of

the triglycerides are hydrolyzed and new esters are obtained with the fatty acids released in the hydrolysis

and a simple alcohol that is used as a reagent (usually methanol or ethanol). That is, obtaining biodiesel is

based on the reaction with methanol or ethanol of the triglyceride molecules to produce esters. In this way

it is achieved that the large and branched initial molecules, of high viscosity and high proportion of carbon,

are transformed into others of linear chain, small, with lower viscosity and percentage of carbon and physical‐

chemical and energy characteristics similar to gas oil of automotive.

The process is carried out at a moderate temperature (around 60ºC) in the presence of a catalyst (usually

soda or potash) and as a by‐product glycerol is obtained, which has many applications in the agricultural,

industrial, medicine, Cosmetics and nutrition.

The transesterification reaction is a relatively simple chemical process, but for the production of quality

biodiesel the process variables must be optimized, such as excess methanol, catalyst catalysis, catalyst

deactivation, agitation, temperature and, in general, , all the variables of the process.

catalyst

Oil Alcohol Biodiesel Glycerin (by‐product)



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The production of biodiesel from vegetable oils is a technology capable of taking advantage of various raw

materials, which has reached commercial levels in many countries in Europe, Asia and the United States since

its inception in small producer cooperatives in the late 1980s.

The costs of industrial transformation of vegetable oils into biodiesel are highly dependent on the capacity

of the transformation plant. For a plant of 500.000 Tm/year, the total costs (including extraction, refining and

esterification) would be around 140,6 €/tonne of biodiesel.

Since for each litre of biodiesel produced, a litre of vegetable oil is necessary, if there is no subsidy, the current

cost of the raw material makes the process unviable from an economic point of view, if it is done with the

oils traditionally obtained by the agricultural sector. For the development of this activity in a massive way,

using the great productive possibilities of the agricultural sector it is necessary to look for new crops or

varieties, capable of providing cheaper oils. Furthermore, this price could be reduced if the income obtained

from the sale of by‐products such as glycerin was charged to operating costs.

From 1.000 kg of oil, 156 kg of methanol and 9,2 kg of potash can be obtained 965 kg of biodiesel and 178 kg

of glycerin (unrefined) with a recovery of 23 kg of methanol.

One of the issues that makes the incorporation of biodiesel interesting to the energy matrix is the possibility

of the reactivation of the economy as a result of the increase in the area destined to oil crops and the

generation of direct and indirect employment. Biodiesel could represent the increase in the production of oil

crops, through the gradual substitution of the import of diesel for biodiesel. It is also possible to highlight the

possibility of developing marginal agricultural areas, put back into operation abandoned oil plants, silos with

idle capacity and the commercial adoption of alternative oil‐crops. This would result in the opportunity to

also have by‐products with commercial value: glycerine and flours as a basis for animal feed.

Due to the fact that esters of the oils have physical and chemical characteristics similar to those of gas oils,

they can be mixed in different proportions with conventional diesel and used in diesel vehicles without the

need for major modifications to the engines.



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4.2.3. PRODUCTION OF BIOETHANOL AND ITS DERIVATIVES

The production of bioethanol is made from juices of agricultural products rich in sugars (stem of sugar cane

or sweet sorghum, beet root or sugar molasses for example) or from products containing starch or inulin

(grains of cereals, potato tubers or roots of endive for example), which must be previously hydrolyzed to

obtain glucose and/or fructose that will be part of the sugary must. A third possibility is to use lignocellulosic

biomass from which, by hydrolysis of the cellulose, fermentable glucose can be obtained but this case is less

developed although it is very interesting because of the abundance and low price of the lignocellulosic

biomass.

HOW BIOETHANOL IS PRODUCED

Bioethanol is obtained by fermenting sugary media until reaching an alcoholic strength, after fermentation,

around 10% ‐15%, concentrating by distillation to obtain the so‐called "hydrated alcohol" (4‐5% water) or

arrive up to absolute alcohol (minimum 99,8% wealth) after a specific process of dehydration. This last quality

is necessary if you want to use alcohol in mixtures with gasoline in conventional vehicles.

The production process is as follows:

• Just the sugary must is obtained, the yeasts, in the absence of oxygen, transform the glucose into

ethanol. For each 100 g of glucose, 51,1 g of ethanol and 48,9 g of CO2 are obtained.

• As a consequence of this process, a "wine" with a variable ethanol concentration (from 10 to 15%) is

obtained. In this wine there are, in addition to water and ethanol, numerous organic compounds and

the remains of the cells of the yeasts that, once reached the limit of their tolerance to ethanol, die.

• Ethanol separation is usually carried out by a distillation process comprising two phases. In the first, by

dragging with water vapour, hydrated ethanol is obtained with 4‐5% of water. The second phase consists

of removing the water from the ethanol, which is achieved by an intermediate solvent (usually benzene),

which separates the ethanol from the water. Then said solvent is recovered, leaving the dehydrated

ethanol (with a purity of more than 99,8% by volume).

Ethanol can be used as the only fuel, making modifications to the engines, or in mixtures with gasoline from

10% to much higher mixtures such as the E‐85. The E‐85 is a fuel that contains up to 85% ethanol and only

15% gasoline, which can be used in vehicles called FFV (Flexible Fuel Vehicle). The FFV are designed to be

able to use gasoline and mixtures in any percentage up to a maximum of 85% ethanol. These vehicles are

equipped with a fuel sensor that detects the ethanol/gasoline ratio and adapts the injection and ignition

systems to the characteristics of the mixture. These vehicles are available in the market in some countries

such as the United States, Brazil or Sweden.

In some countries it is preferred to use mixtures of ethanol with gasoline after transforming ethanol into

ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE). The ETBE is the main product of the reaction involving one molecule of

ethanol and one of isobutene, which is equivalent to using one ton of isobutene and 0,8 Tm of ethanol to

obtain 1,8 Tm of ETBE. ETBE is an alternative to MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether), which is obtained from

petroleum and is used as an improver of gasoline. ETBE has an octane number and a calorific value slightly

higher than MTBE, and its manufacturing yield, from isobutene, is also higher.



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The ETBE can be produced in the same facilities where MTBE is now obtained and in the EU countries it is

accepted the incorporation of the ETBE as a gasoline improver up to a percentage of 10% without having to

be made special marking, being its Employment fully accepted by car manufacturers.

Taking into account that, to produce a litre of alcohol, approximately 3 kg of cereal or 10 kg of beet root are

needed, and that the value that rainfed cereals are expected to have at the guarantee price in the near future

(approx. € 12/kg) or that of type C beet (at the average price of € 0,02/kg), the price of the raw material to

produce one litre of ethanol from cereals or beet would be € 0,36 or € 0,20, respectively. The impact of the

cost of the ethanol production process on the final price of this product depends a lot on the size of the

distillery.

For a distillery that produces 40 million litres per year, the variable costs could be set at € 0,102/l and those

derived from the depreciation of the installation at around € 0,045/l.

The production of ethanol from C‐type beet seems to be viable from the economic point of view, but the

problem is the lack of security over the amount that would be produced annually of this type of beet.

Given the large margin remaining for the production of ethanol, the price of C beet could increase to about

€ 0,03/kg, which could increase farmers' interest in growing beets outside the quota authorized for sugar

production. On the other hand, beet crops for the production of ethanol could use some of the varieties of

high sugar production that are not marketed because they have a poor performance in crystallized sugar, but

that could be a good raw material for the production of ethanol.

64% Isobutene + 36% Methanol ‐> MTBE

55% Isobutene + 45% Ethanol ‐> ETBE



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4.2.4. BIOFUELS AND REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS (GHG)

The use of biofuels instead of fossil fuel means a reduction in the entire life cycle of greenhouse gas

emissions. The reduction obtained depends on each production process and can be calculated using the

methodology established in Directive 28/2009 on Renewable Energy, and using harmonized calculation tools.

The European bioethanol employers' association reports on the latest data confirming that in 2016, 70% of

average savings in GHG emissions were exceeded due to the use of bioethanol (produced with European raw

materials) compared to fossil fuels. Regardless of the actual values that can be calculated for each case,

Directive 28/2009 recognizes levels of reduction of greenhouse gas emissions applicable generically to a

series of common biofuel production processes.

(*) Excluding animal oil produced by animal by‐products classified as Category 3 material in accordance with Regulation (EC) nº

1774/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 3 October 2002, by which the sanitary norms applicable to animal

by‐products not destined for human consumption are established.

Typical values (1) and default values (2) for biofuels produced without net carbon emissions due to changes in land use.

Biofuel production process Reduction of GHG emissions (1)

Reduction of GHG emissións (2)

Sugar beet ethanol 61% 52%

Wheat ethanol (process fuel not specified) 32% 16%

Wheat ethanol (lignite as process fuel in cogeneration facilities) 32% 16%

Wheat ethanol (natural gas as process fuel in conventional boiler) 45% 34%

Wheat ethanol (natural gas as a process fuel in cogeneration plants) 53% 47%

Wheat ethanol (straw as a process fuel in cogeneration facilities) 69% 69%

Corn ethanol, community production (natural gas as process fuel in cogeneration facilities)

56% 49%

Ethanol from sugarcane 71% 71%

Part of ethyl‐tert‐butyl ether from renewable sources (ETBE) Same as ethanol

production Same as ethanol

production

Part of tert‐amyl ethyl ether from renewable sources (TAEE) Same as ethanol

production Same as ethanol

production

Rapeseed biodiesel 45% 38%

Sunflower biodiesel 58% 51%

Soybean biodiesel 40% 31%

Biodiesel from palm oil (process not specified) 36% 19%

Biodiesel from palm oil (process with capture of methane in the mill) 62% 56%

Biodiesel from used oils of vegetable or animal origin (*) 88% 83%

Rapeseed vegetable oil treated with hydrogen 51% 47%

Sunflower vegetable oil treated with hydrogen 65% 62%

Palm oil treated with hydrogen (process not specified) 40% 26%

Vegetable palm oil treated with hydrogen (process with capture of methane in the mill)

68% 65%

Pure vegetable oil of rapeseed 58% 57%

Biogas produced from urban organic waste as compressed natural gas 80% 73%

Biogas produced from wet manure as compressed natural gas 84% 81%

Biogas produced from dry manure as compressed natural gas 86% 82%



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Typical values (1) and default values (2) estimated for future biofuels that were not or were only in negligible quantities on the market in January 2008, produced without net carbon emissions due to changes in land use.

Biofuel production process Reduction of GHG emissions (1)

Reduction of GHG emissions (2)

Ethanol from wheat straw 87% 85%

Ethanol from wood waste 80% 74%

Ethanol from cultivated wood 76% 70%

Fischer‐Tropsch diesel from wood waste 95% 95%

Fischer‐Tropsch diesel from cultivated wood 93% 93%

Dimethyl ether of wood waste (DME) 95% 95%

DME of cultivated wood 92% 92%

Methanol from wood waste 94% 94%

Methanol from cultivated wood a 91% 91%

Part of methyl‐tert‐butyl ether from renewable sources (MTBE) Same as methanol production

Same as methanol production

(1) The typical value is the estimation of the reduction of representative GHG emissions in a particular

process of biofuel production. This value can be used by Member States when calculating the net reduction

of GHG emissions resulting from the use of biofuels that should be included in the EC report on progress in

the use of energy from renewable sources.

(2) The default value is derived from a typical value by applying predetermined factors in order to set

conservative thresholds compared to normal production processes. It is the one that the economic operators,

in the circumstances specified in the Directive 28/2009, can use instead of a real value.

Source: https://www.idae.es/tecnologias/energias‐renovables/uso‐termico/biocarburantes

THEORETICAL CONTENTSBibliographical references & sources 107


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Part I. THEORETICAL CONTENTS

Bibliographical references & sources

THEORETICAL CONTENTSBibliographical references & sources 108


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Agencia extremeña de la energía. “Cultivos energéticos en Extremadura”

Madrimasd (2004) Biocarburantes líquidos: biodiésel y bioetanol.

Antonio Valero, Fernando Sebastián, Javier Royo y Jesús Pascual‐ Grupo de Investigación de Biomasa de CIRCE. “Cultivos energéticos”.

Ana Luísa Diogo Ferreira. Coimbra, July, 2015). “Energy crops: Biomass production and Bioenergy”.

Ana Luís de Matos Marques. Technical University of Lisbon (2015) “Energy Use of Biomass in Portugal Tratolixo study case”.

Departamento de Agricultura y Alimentación‐ Centro de transferencia agroalimentaria‐ Gobierno de Aragón (2007).”Informaciones Técnicas: El cultivo del girasol”

IDAE (2007) “Biomasa: Cultivos energéticos”.

Encrop (2009) Energy from field energy crops – a handbook for energy producers.

ECAS (2007) Cultivos energéticos en el espacio atlántico.

IICA (2007) Biocombustibles.

Mª José Núñez García y Pablo García Triñanes (Dpto de Ingeniería Química, ETSE, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. “BIOCOMBUSTIBLES: Bioetanol y Biodiesel”

https://www.idae.es/tecnologias/energias‐renovables/uso‐termico/biocarburantes

https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta‐political/files/fourth‐report‐state‐of‐energy‐union‐april2019_en_0.pdf

https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/renewable‐energy/biomass

www.euforgen.org/publications.html

https://www.agroptima.com/es/blog/siembra‐de‐la‐colza/#

http://www.empresaagraria.com/seis‐consejos‐basicos‐llevar‐adelante‐cultivo‐colza/Autor: Servicio Agronómico de Pioneer

http://biofuelpark.com/ethanol‐crops/

www.idae.es

www.bioplat.org

www.biogas3.eu

www.energias‐renovables.com

www.ec.europa.eu

www.economiacircular.org

www.sostenibilidad.com

OTROS ENLACES

www.ipcc.ch www.aebiom.org

www.ieabioenergy.com/ www.globalbioenergy.org

www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/ www.rhc‐platform.org

www.bp.com/centres/energy/world_stat_rev/oil/reserves.asp www.eubia.org

www.bioenergyinternational.org www.worldbioenergy.org

www.avebiom.org www.eurobserv‐er.org

PRACTICAL RESOURCES FOR TEACHERSANNEXES 109


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Part II. PRACTICAL RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS

ANNEXES 1, 2 y 3

PRACTICAL RESOURCES FOR TEACHERSANNEXES 110


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STRUCTURED TRAINING COURSE “ON RURAL BIOENERGY”




ANNEX 1 PRACTICAL EXAMPLES FOR CASE STUDIES



PRACTICAL RESOURCES FOR TEACHERSANNEX 1. PRACTICAL EXAMPLES 111


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1. Biogas plant Nová Ves nad Žitavou, Slovakia

2. Biogas plant Humenné (Agrokomplex s.r.o.), Slovakia

3. 2 MW Biogas combined heat and power plant, Bulgaria

4. 1 MW biogas combined heat and power plant, Bulgaria

5. 15 MW biomass plant from Miajadas (Cáceres) Spain

6. 30 MW biomass plant, Sangüesa, (Navarra) Spain

7. 16 MW biomass plant Briviesca, (Burgos) Spain

8. BIOENERGISA ‐ A Pedagogical Field of plants for Energy Crops (Lisbon) Portugal

9. DISTRICT HEATING (Soria) Spain

10. DISTRICT HEATING (Valladolid) Spain

11. A small scale short supply chain producing heating energy, (Tuscany), Italy

12. A wood chip boiler to heat 160 apartments, in Cutigliano (Abetone) Italy



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The biogas plant is built according to the BIOTEC, s.r.o. technology. Biogas is produced by wet

fermentation from organic matter produced by agricultural production. The biogas produced is then

combusted in a cogeneration unit to produce electric and thermal energy.

Basic characteristics

Putting into operation: 2013.

Cogeneration unit: BHKW JMS 416.

The electrical output of the BHKW JMS 416: 999 kW.

Heat output: 900 kW.

Gas tank volume: 3000 m3.

Input material: silage maize (15.000 Tm/year) and

beet cuts + biodegradable waste (5.000 Tm/year).

Total input biomass: 20.000 Tm/year.

In the biogas plant, anaerobic digestion occurs through the conversion of biomass (maize silage, beet cuts)

without air access, by means of methanogenic bacteria in fermentation tanks to produce biogas and

fermentation remains (digestate), which is pumped into an open end storage, where it is exported after

the statutory storage period on farmland, where it is used as a valuable organic fertilizer. Output from the

cogeneration unit is electricity supplied to the public grid, and heat, part of which is used to heat the

fermentation tanks, and the remainding serves as a heat source for central heating.

❶ Biogas plant Nová Ves nad Žitavou, Slovakia



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Technical parameters of the cogeneration unit

Number of engines: 1

Manufacturer / Type: GE JENBACHER, JMS 416 GS

Design: Four‐stroke biogas

Number of cylinders: 20

Engine speed: 1.500 min‐1

Fuel: Biogas

Performance P (total): 1.899 kW

Type: synchronous

Frequency: 50 Hz

Power P (electric): max. 999 kW at 1.500 x min‐1

Capacity of the BHKW JMS 416 cogeneration unit

Consumption of input materials

Quantity Tm/year Quantity Tm/year

Maize silage 15.000 Digestate 10.000

Beet cuts + biodegradable waste 5.000

TOTAL 20.000 TOTAL 10.000

i.e. 54,80 Tm/day i.e. 27,40 Tm/day

Benefits

Production of energy for own consumption and supply to the public electricity grid.

Heat production for central heating.

Use of the digestate as fertilizer.

Avoiding of gas leakage, mainly from stored organic fertilizers.

CO2 neutral energy production.

Avoiding natural methane leakage (greenhouse gas) and nitrogenous substances.

Disposal and recovery of problematic organic waste.

Use of local resources.

Recovery of waste.

Power output: electric 999 kW

Power output: thermal 900 kW

Gas tank volume 3.000 m3

Generator GE JENBACHER, JMS 416 GS

Operating voltage 400V +/‐ 10%

Nominal frequency 50Hz +/‐ 2%

Type of voltage AC/DC (TN‐C‐S)

Thermal efficiency 43%

Loss: up to 20%

Annual operating time 8.030 hours



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Agrokomplex s.r.o. was founded on July 28, 2003.

Main activities of the farm:

• Pig breeding.

• Bovine fattening.

• Livestock farming – milk production.

• Growing of agricultural crops.

• Production of compound feeds.

The biogás plant for the use of renewable energy sources was built inside the farm complex.

Biogas is produced by wet fermentation from organic

matter produced by agricultural production of the

farm. The resulting biogas is subsequently burnt in a

cogeneration unit for the purpose of producing

electrical and thermal energy. The by‐product of the

biogas plant is an organic fertilizer‐ digestate. The

fertilizer is used within the farm. Heat, which is not

consumed in its own biogas process, is further used

for heating of fermenters and the main operating

building.

Start of construction October 2011

Start of operation March 2012

End of service min. 2027

❷ Biogas plant Humenné, Agrokomplex, s.r.o, Slovakia



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The operation of the biogas plant is fully automatic. The operator must perform only substrate

loading (approx. 0,5 hour per day) and carry out inspections and maintenance of the equipment

(approx. 0,5 hour per day). Operational security assumes the use of only 1 worker.

In normal operation, the biogas plant is completely independent of external heat and power

supplies.

In the future, it is planned to utilise the produced heat for central heating of some buildings in the

agricultural area.

Biogas is produced by fermenting input substrates

(renewable sources) in reactors:

in the main prismatic ‐ 2x

in a turbofermenter

The utilization volume of one fermenter is 2.500 m³.



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Performance parameters Annual energy parameters

Actual electric power 999 kW Total usable energy production 20.199.869 kWh

Thermal output 587 kW Electricity production 8.382.946 kWh

Electrical efficiency 41,5% Heat power generation 4.928.768 kWh

Thermal efficiency 24,4% Own electricity consumption 287.963 kWh

Losses 34,1% Production of efective heat 3.677.453 kWh

Annual operating time 8.395 h

Own heat consumption for fermentation

1.251.315 kWh

Heat losses 6.888.155 kWh

Summary

One of the most modern biogas stations.

The fermenters, machine room as well as control rooms are in one unit.

2 x 2.500 m3 fermenters.

1 cogeneration unit = 24 MW/24 hrs.

Daily feeding of fermenters, an average consumption of 34 tonnes of silage and 20 m3 of manure per

1 cogeneration.

High quality sawing has achieved the high quality of silage, thus less amounts of silage are needed.

The output material‐ digestate‐ serves as a good fertilizer; it is planned to be further processed into

solid fuel in the form of granules for sale.

The biogas plant, in addition to

electricity production, also produces

heat for central heating of its own

premises (grain drying, granulation).

Biogas station is very quiet with

minimal smell (office block is only a

few meters from the biogas station).



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Biogás combined heat and power plant which generates slightly over 2.000 kW of electrical power and

almost 2,300 kW of thermal power. The total energy efficiency of the system is 89,3%, the sum total of

41,9% electrical efficiency and 47,4% thermal efficiency.

The thermal energy is delivered in the form of hot water, which is then used in the biogas production

process, for the sanitation of the animal wastes before they enter the anaerobic digestor, and also for hot

water and space heating of the nearby buildings. The electricity is used on site, and the excess quantity is

sold to the grid.

Cogeneration plants are capable of reaching total energy efficiency of up to 96%, but the higher

percentage must not be a goal by itself. In this case the engineering design with a total efficiency of 89,3%

reflects the optimal technical and economic balance between the energy needs of the consumer, the

available raw materials, and the energy prices.

The raw materials in this biogas plant are the following agri‐food wastes: pig manure, slaughterhouse

wastes, blood, sugar beet by‐products, and corn silage. The animal origin wastes are thermally treated

before they are loaded in the anaerobic digestion system in order to destroy possible pathogens.

The chemical composition of the biogas obtained from these raw materials and proportions consists of

around 55% CH4 content, slightly less than 45% CO2 content and small quantities of other compounds

such as H2S.

Technical and performance parameters

Electrical power 2.000 kW

Thermal power 2.300 kW

HRT (Hydraulic Retention Time) 50 days

Operating hours per year around 8.000 h

Produced electric energy more than 16.000.000 kWh/year

Self‐consumption percentage 8‐10 %

Power output Thermal generator

Electrical efficiency 41,9%

Thermal efficiency 47,4%

The approximate quantities of the raw materials are:

Pig manure: more than 100.000 Tm/year

Slaughterhouse waste: more than 700 Tm/year

Blood: more than 200 Tm/year

Sugar beet by‐products: more than 20.000 Tm/year

Corn silage: more than 30.000 Tm/year

❸ Planta biogás 2 MW combinada de calor y electricidad, Bulgaria



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A biogas cogeneration plant generating more than 1.000 kW of electrical power, and more than 1.100 kW

of thermal power. The total energy efficiency is 90,7%, the sum total of 39,4% electric efficiency and 51,3%

thermal efficiency, reflecting the optimal technical and economic balance of the project.

The raw materials for the production of biogas are agri‐food wastes mainly of animal origin: manure from

pigs, cattle and chicken, milk whey and slaughterhouse waste, and olive oil waste.

The chemical composition of the biogas produced from the particular quantities and proportions is around

60% CH4 (higher than in Case Study 1), slightly less than 40% CO2 and small quantities of other gasses such

as H2S.

Technical and performance parameters

Electrical power 1.000 kW

Thermal power 1.100 kW

HRT (Hydraulic Retention Time) 38 days

Operating hours per year around 8.000 h

Produced electric energy around 8.000.000 kWh/year

Self‐consumption percentage 8‐10 %

Power output Thermal generator

Electrical efficiency 39,4%

Thermal efficiency 51,3%

The approximate annual quantities of the raw materials are:

Pig manure: more than 40.000 Tm/year

Poultry litter: more than 10.000 Tm/year

Cattle liquid manure: around 2.000 Tm/year

Milk whey: more than 9.000 Tm/year

Slaughterhouse waste: more than 5.000 Tm/year

Olive oil waste: around 3.000 Tm/year

❹ 1 MW biogás combined heat and power plant, Bulgaria



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15 MW plant capable of operating with different types of biomass. It was the first in Europe prepared to

use two types of raw material (herbaceous and woody), which allows to diversify the fuel supply. It was

developed as an R & D project in collaboration with companies and technology centers in Spain, Finland

and Denmark, with the support of the VII Framework Program of support for EU research.

https://www.acciona‐energia.com/es/areas‐de‐actividad/otras‐

tecnologias/biomasa/instalaciones‐destacadas/planta‐de‐biomasa‐de‐miajadas/

Pant located in Navarra and operational since 2002. The biomass plant was a pioneer in southern Europe

and, since its launch in 2002, has constituted an international benchmark on the possibilities of using

biomass for biomass generation of electricity.


tecnologias/biomasa/instalaciones‐destacadas/planta‐de‐biomasa‐de‐sangueesa/

General information Main aspects

Situation: Miajadas. Cáceres. Spain.

First European plant that operates with herbaceous (corn) and ligneous biomass (pruning and forest remains).

Average annual production of 128 GWh, equivalent to the demand of 40.000 households.

Power: 15 MW. 110.000 tons of biomass consumed per year.

Technology: Thermal generation from herbaceous and woody biomass.

123.000 tons of CO2 per year avoided.

Start‐up: 2010. Creation of added value in rural areas.

Logistic system that ensures the supply of raw material.

Property: ACCIONA Energy. Monitoring, control and management of waste and emissions.


Situation: Sangüesa, Navarra. Spain. Average annual production of 200 GWh, equivalent to the demand of some 60.000 households.

Coverage of 5% of the electricity demand in Navarra.

Power: 30,2 MW. 160.000 tons of cereal straw consumed per year.

Technology: Thermal generation from cereal straw.

192.000 tons of CO2 per year avoided .

Creation of added value in rural areas.

First biomass plant installed by ACCIONA.

Start‐up: 2002. Pioneer in southern Europe when it was launched.

Property: ACCIONA Energy. Satisfactory performance after more than 10 years of entry into service.

❺ 15 MW biomass plant from Miajadas, (Cáceres) Spain

❻ 30 MW biomass plant from Sangüesa, (Navarra) Spain



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Plant able to meet the electricity demand of 40.000 homes. ACCIONA Energy connected the Biomass Plant

of Briviesca (Burgos) to the network in September 2010. This was the start of an installation that

symbolized the introduction of new energy technologies of organic origin in the eminently agricultural

environment of Castilla y León.


tecnologias/biomasa/instalaciones‐destacadas/planta‐de‐biomasa‐de‐briviesca/


Situation: Briviesca, Burgos. Spain. Implantation of pioneer innovative technology in the territory.

Average annual production of 128 GWh, equivalent to the demand of 40.000 households.

Power: 16 MW. 102.000 tons of cereal straw consumed per year.

Technology: Thermal generation from herbaceous biomass.

123.000 tons of CO2 per year avoided.

Creation of added value in rural areas.

Logistic system that ensures the supply of raw material.

Start‐up: 2010. Monitoring, control and management of waste and emissions.

Property: ACCIONA Energy (85%) and EREN – Energy Agency of Castilla y León (15%).

Creation of about 100 stable direct and indirect jobs.

❼ 16 MW biomass plant from Briviesca, (Burgos) Spain



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ISA was one of the pioneers in Portugal in the study

of the use of biomass for energy purposes, having

today experience and research results in this area

and related areas, as well as infrastructures that

allowed it to install a field of demonstration of

energy plants.

BIOENERGISA is a field of dissemination and

pedagogical experience on plants that can be

cultivated and transformed to produce energy or

biofuels. This pedagogical field is aimed at students,

teachers, agricultural and forestry entrepreneurs

and the general public.

Bioenergisa presents a collection of annual and

perennial bioenergy plants divided into four major

groups (for each of the groups the different

conversion processes and characteristics of the potential final products are mentioned):

1. Rapidly growing forests: in this field particular attention is given to fast‐growing forest species (eg. eucalyptus, poplar, willow, elm, alder and paulownia), installed in very tight compasses where biomass accumulated over time and its surf.

2. High yield herbaceous plants: high productivity herbaceous species in aerial biomass that can be used as solid fuels such as Miscanthus, sp., elephantgrass (Pennisetum purpureum), red canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) y caña (Arundo donax).

3. Oil‐bearing plants: oil‐producing species that can be used as raw material for oil extraction and biodiesel production, such as castor, rape, sunflower, thistle, jatropha and soy.

4. Sugar producing plants: plants producing carbohydrates: carbohydrate or inulin accumulating species that can be used as feedstock for the production of bioethanol such as sugar beet, sorghum, tupinamo (Helianthus tuberosus, L.), sugar cane and winter cereals.

This project also has the collaboration of some external entities, such as the Polytechnic University of

Madrid, the Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research and the Forestry Association of Galicia.

http://www.isa.ulisboa.pt/proj/enerwood/bioenergisa

❽ BIOENERGISA. A pedagogical field of plants for energy crops, (Lisbon) Portugal

For appointment of visits, please contact:Jorge Gominho. Higher Institute of Agronomy (ISA). Center for Forest Studies. Department of Forest Engineering. LISBON‐ Portugal. Email: [email protected] Phone. +351 21 365 33 78 / Fax: +351 21 365 31 95



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This district heating facilitates the service of heating and domestic hot water in the city of Soria, saving

the emission of 7.850 tons of CO2 per year by eliminating the emissions of community gas and oil boilers

from the neighbours attached to the network.

The plant (about 800 m2) houses a room with two biomass boilers with their corresponding cyclones and

filters, 6.000 thermal kilowatts each one, 3,8 meters in diameter and 6 meters high. It also includes

accumulators, inertial tanks, collectors, pumps and other installations to provide strictly thermal energy

for heating and hot water. The building is completed with a chip deposit that nourishes the boiler room.

An underground pre‐insulated pipe that transports water at 90ºC runs through the city. The latest addition

to the thermal power plant is the 5.000 m3 inertia tank, which, together with a double pumping system,

manages to bring heat to all points on the network.

The biomass district heating of Soria, promoted by the local company Rebi, began operating in January

2015 in the north and centre of the capital. In the second half of 2018, communities in the southern zone

also began to receive heat from the biomass thermal power plant. The Network continues in constant

evolution. The works of the third phase are beginning to proceed with the channeling and connection of

new neighbourhoods.

http://calorsostenible.es/soria.php

Global data

Start‐up: 2015.

Investment of the project: 5 million euros.

Heat power: 12 MW.

Heating and hot water supply to a total of 8.000 homes and 16.000 people.

Total length of the network: 30 km of double pipe.

❾ District heating, (Soria) Spain



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The distribution network of Heating and Hot Water has its origin in the Thermal Plant that the companies

Rebi‐Cofely built in the University Campus Miguel Delibes in Valladolid. From the central installation parts

a main conduit that is divided into branches under the streets to reach each of the buildings susceptible

to adhesion.

This thermal biomass plant provides heating and hot water service through biomass to 24 buildings of the

University of Valladolid (UVA), 3 buildings owned by the City of Valladolid and 4 belonging to Junta de

Castilla y León.

Thermal energy flows through the pipes in the form of hot water at a temperature of 90ºC, reaches the

boiler rooms of the 31 buildings and, through a small device called an exchanger that is placed in the room,

the water is incorporated into the own circuits. In this way, the central gas or diesel boiler is off but

functional. At that time, the change from a fossil fuel to a renewable one, biomass, with the same

generation of heat as the current service. Parallel to the outgoing pipeline, the return pipe passes, which

returns with cold water to the thermal power plant, both fully insulated to minimize heat loss in the 11,30

km of network. It includes a system to detect leaks and breakdowns. Last generation, the entire circuit is

monitored and connected to the remote management system.

The total expected consumption of the whole network is 22.069.734 kWh per year. The total expected

consumption of wood chips for the District Heating as a whole is 7.886 tons per year, of which UVA will

consume 6.140 tons per year (77,87%), the municipality of Valladolid 183.74 tons per year (2,33%) and the

Board, 1.561.43 tons per year (19,80%).

Current approximate CO2 emissions to the atmosphere reach 6.800 Tm CO2/year, of which UVA emits

5.446 Tm CO2/year, the city hall 170 Tm CO2/year, and the Junta de Castilla y León 1.195 Tm CO2/year;

the total avoided to the atmosphere is 6.800 Tm CO2/year, since the cycle of emissions of the biomass is

neutral.

http://calorsostenible.es/uva.php

❿ District heating, (Valladolid) Spain



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The Società Cooperativa Agricola Eco‐Energie, located in in the south of Tuscany, Italy, was established

in order to protect the forestry landscape; to develop an activity in the field of the green economy; and

to create new employment opportunities for the local population. The mission of the cooperative is to

increase the cultivation of forestry, in an innovative way. The innovative topic of this cooperation

experience is the production of local certified fuel from wood and the management of the whole supply

chain, selling energy to the final consumers and, thereby, creating add value from wood and involving the

local population in the maintenance of the landscape.

The main threat to mountainous areas and forestry land is the relatively low commodity prices offered

for lumber / timber on global markets in comparison to the costs of planting, maintaining and logging. In

order to combat this challenge, ECOENERGIE have engaged, thanks to the cooperation, in the:

Production and sale of traditional wood products including firewood and wooden poles.

Engagement in public procurement activities, especially in land maintenance (civil engineering works, green management, cleaning of river banks).

Management of heating plants. The cooperative manages a heating network and provides energy to a village and it has the capacity to heat a volume of 40.000 cubic meters.

The cooperative is also involved as a partner in a number of projects funded through the Rural

Development Programme within the Tuscany Region.

The quality of Wood chips

The wood biofuels production of ECOENERGIE is submitted to the certification procedure for high quality products. In further table we shows you the analytic report of main parameters, done from the lab of University of Padua, and the label of certification.

Risultati delle analisi prodotte dal Laboratorio Analisi Biocombustibili – Università di Padova.

CLASSIFICAZIONE Classi Valori Unità

Classe dimensionale (P) (Dimensional class) P31,5 – –

Contenuto idrico del campione tal quale (M) (water content) M25 23,2 % tal quale

Massa volumica sterica del campione tal quale (BD) (volumetric mass) BD200 245,0 kg/m3 stero

Contenuto in ceneri sul secco (A) (ashes content, % on dry) A1,0 0,83 % sul secco

Potere calorifico superiore sul secco (pcs0) (higher calorific power) – 19,83 MJ/kg

Potere calorifico inferiore stimato tal quale(pcim) (lower calorific power) – 13,65 MJ/kg

A small scale short supply chain producing heating energy, (Tuscany) Italy

11



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An example of heating network realized by ecoenergie

This plant is an example of short supply

chain, using wood of local forestry farms and

producing heating energy for local public

structures.

The cooperative ECOENERGIE manage the

whole chain from the wood chips production

until the setting up, management and

maintenance of heating plant and network.


Situation: Largo Champcevinel, Rassina ‐ Comune di Castel Focognano. Arezzo. Tuscany – Italy.

Average consumption of Wood chips: 160 Tm/year.

Heating network: 125 linears meters.

Type of plant: Heating network using Wood chips. Number of real estates using heating: 4.

Generator: Boiler with a power of 540 kW and a maximum yield of 90,6%.

Type and volumes of real estates:

The main characteristics of the plant:

• Nursery 1.845 m3. • Primary school 1.650 m3. • Secundary school 4.600 m3. • Municipal gym 8.125 m3.

• boiler with automatic power supply, through a cochlea.

• combustion chamber with mobile grill.

• lambda probe controlling air regulation.

• automatic extraction of ashes.

• heat meters calculating the production of heating energy.

Total volume: 16.220 m3.

Carbon oxide emission saved: 87 Tm/year.

Fossil fuels saved (petrol equivalent Ton): 41,17 tep/year.



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The Boscolungo condominium is located along the SS 12 of Abetone and Brennero (Abetone ‐ PT),

Municipality of Cutigliano Abetone. It is a complex built in the seventies and consists of 5 buildings, each

of them is 5 storey building. With a garage in the basement. Altogether there are 160 apartments each

with an area of 50 m2 approx (total area 8.000 m2). The estimated volume to be heated amounts to 23.000

m3, to which is added the access ramp of the garage.

It is a tourist/residential complex that is not continuously inhabited, but has peaks of presences that are concentrated in two periods of the year: the first during the winter ski season (December ‐ March) and

the second during the period summer (June‐September).

Especially in the first period the demand for heat for heating and domestic hot water is very high. The

condominium falls in climate zone F with 4.130 degrees‐day (no limitation for heating systems. By virtue

of the high thermal requirements, it was decided to replace the old diesel plant with a wood – chip boiler.

Innovative technology across the whole chain

The required fuel characteristics comply with the A2 and B1 quality classes of the ISO 17225‐4 standard.

The wood chip storage was built in reinforced concrete and was entirely buried in the garden in front of the thermal plant. It has been designed to be easily accessible by means of transport and has a wide

opening that allows it to be filled adequately in its central part. The means of transport access the depot

from a secondary and secluded roadway with respect to the entrance of the condominium and with a

quick maneuver reverse the approximately 30 cubic meters of wood chips contained in their box.

A wood chip boiler to heat 160 apartments in Cutigliano, (Abetone) Italy

12



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The 6‐meter diameter leaf spring extraction system channels the wood chips into the transport auger, which is connected to the loading auger by means of an intermediate safety cockpit, carries the wood chips and introduces it into the hearth.

The useful volume of the storage silo is 100 cubic meters and guarantees an operating autonomy of 90 MWh thermal equal to about 15 days.

Thermal accumulations for a total of 15.000 liters.

The plant was built by Etruria Energie srl of Arezzo who incurred all the expenses by signing a "Basic Energy

Service" contract approved by the Assembly and signed by the condominium administration.

The supply of the chips was carried out directly by Etruria Energie in collaboration with local wood companies. The design was carried out by the Erre Energie srl company of Tavarnelle in Val di Pesa (FI).

A wood chip boiler was chosen for the construction of the new plant

with three smoke passes with a combustion chamber, in refractory

cement, with an underfed grid and a mobile post‐combustion grid for

the evacuation of the ashes:

Rated power 900 kW (M 45%).

Operating temperature 110 °C allowed.

Max T ° delivery allowed 95 °C.

Return T ° 65 °C.

Maximum working pressure 6 bar.

Water capacity 2.355 l.

A Meister electrostatic filter, mod. 16.2R250‐240, was installed to remove dust in the combustion fumes.

Gas volume to be treated at 4.600 Bm3/Ha 200 °C

Max T ° working 220 °C.

Dust content before the filter <150 mg/Nm3

Oxygen <13%

Dust content after filter <15 mg/Nm3

Max ash carbon content 10%

Ash bin 240 l



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Certified emission values (O2 reference value at 13%):

Primary particulate 15 mg/Nm3

Carbon monoxide (CO) 280 mg/Nm3

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) 400 mg/Nm3

Economic parameters

A look at the economic aspects. The installation of the wood chip boiler has allowed access to the

incentives provided by the Thermal Account 2.0, with these economic results:

Cost of the plant: 420.000 euros.

Amount of financing on the thermal account: 218.700 euros (43.740 €/year).

Average annual diesel consumption: 140.000 l.

Energy demand (2015‐2016 thermal season data): 908 MWh.

Annual production of CO2 from diesel oil (thermal season 2015‐2016): 240 Tm/year.

Cost for heating and domestic hot water from diesel fuel (2016): 143 €/MWh IVA included.

Annual consumption of wood chips (M30), replacement of diesel: 267 Tm/year.

The replacement of diesel fuel with wood chips will allow a reduction in the emission of CO2 into the air

for a quantity, net of the gray energy used for moving and transporting the material, estimated at 5%

equal to about 228w,00 Tm/year.

From the "Basic Energy Service" contract signed between the company Etruria Energie srl and the

Administration of the condominium Boscolungo the sale price was set at €114,70/MWh (VAT incl.) against €143/MWh (VAT incl.) of the amount referred to diesel for an expected savings is around 26.000 €/year.



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ANNEX 2 EXAMPLES FOR THE USE OF PROJECT BASED

LEARNING METHOD



PRACTICAL RESOURCES FOR TEACHERSANNEX 2. EXEMPLES FOR THE USE OF PROJECT BASED LEARNING METHOD 130


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The examples presented outline and describe in a general way an existing need and a final product or result

to be developed; but several options could also be offered for the students to choose or even a participatory

process could be carried out for the choice or determination of the topic by the students themselves on the

subject.

It is interesting as a way of introducing the work project to rely on some news or actual report appeared in

the media, as current as possible related to the need or problem that the project tries to solve so that the

objectives and activities to be developed are the most Realistic and motivating for everyone.

As for the stages of development of the project and work methodology to be applied, it is described in a

general way through the enumeration of the different tasks to be carried out. We do not go into detail some

elements that structure the projects that must be developed by the teachers and by the students themselves,

adapting the project to their own environment and work reality. We refer among others to:

Work schedule or calendar.

Action guidelines or special suggestions that can guide the work.

Resources and material and technical resources.

Human resources.

Finally, some suggestions are given on how the groups can be structured and on possible evaluation

techniques, such as simple suggestions in order to facilitate the practical application of the proposed

examples, but which can also be adapted to their own situation and learning environment.

Below we propose several examples of possible PBL projects carried out following the premise of choosing

a situation or problem that currently exists to which students will be given a solution by inquiring and

developing a final product, focused on techniques of production and exploitation of the different existing

biomass or bioenergy resources, we include below several examples of possible projects for the application

of the Project‐Based Learning methodology:

PBL EXAMPLE 1: “INFORMATION ON THE POSSIBILITIES OF USE OF ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE

WASTE AS BIOENERGY”

PBL EXAMPLE 2: “LOCATION OF BIOMASS, BIOGAS AND BIOFUELS PLANTS IN YOUR REGION”

PBL EXAMPLE 3: “MODELS OF BIOGAS PLANTS”



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PBL EXAMPLE 1:

“INFORMATION ON THE POSSIBILITIES OF USE OF ANIMAL AND

VEGETABLE WASTE AS BIOENERGY”

❶ Guide on useful waste as bioenergy MOTIVATION, INDUCEMENT AND FINAL PRODUCT Which challenge, question or problem will moves us to act and learn? Which final product will be created?

Develop an informative guide on the different residues and agrifood by‐products existing in a certain geographical area (a region or a region) that may have an advantage as bioenergy and its possible uses.

Detected need: There is a great lack of knowledge about the use of biomass or bioenergy from waste in rural areas.

TASKS

Which tasks will be performed to achieve the final product?

1. Make an inventory of agricultural, livestock, forestry, food industry activities that exist in the established area.

2. Make an inventory of the different organic waste associated to those activities that due to their characteristics could potentially have this use as energy sources.

3. Investigate the real possibilities of being used for energy production in existing plants in the same region, or by installing small plants in the agri‐food farms themselves.

4. Investigate and describe the treatment or storage necessary at source for those uses. 5. Investigate the main environmental advantages and disadvantages of the energy use of this

waste and make a brief report to include in the guide. 6. Design a model of informative sheet for each type of waste. 7. Collect photographs and images to illustrate the publication. 8. Develop the contents of the informative guide and design it.

DISSEMINATION

How can we make our project known inside and outside our educational centre?

Each group will present their project once it is finished to the classmates and teachers involved in the PBL. The guide can be made known to farmers, trade unions and other related organizations, even they could be invited to the exhibition or presentation of the guide in the educational centre.



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❷ Competences and Currciculum COMPETENCES Which competences does the project promote?

Know the different types of waste of biological origin of agricultural, forestry and food activities as well as associated energy uses.

Understand the importance of proper management of waste derived from each of the activities in rural areas for its use as bioenergy.

Understand the importance of using Bioenergy as a new opportunity for sustainable economic development in rural areas and a source of renewable energy that respects the environment more than conventional sources.

Transversal or basic competences: ‐ Ability to learn to learn. ‐ Ability to investigate, relate, explore and compare. ‐ Capacity for initiative, leadership and entrepreneurial spirit. ‐ Motivation for quality and effort. ‐ Capacity for processing and management of information. ‐ Ability to solve problems and conflicts. ‐ Skill for cooperation and teamwork. ‐ Ability for interpersonal relationships. ‐ Capacity for analysis and synthesis. ‐ Critical reasoning ability. ‐ Ability to manage information through ICT. ‐ Linguistic and creative competences.

ASSESMENT

INITIAL EVALUATION to detect previous knowledge.

RUBRIC OF EVALUATION of each one of the tasks that compose the project so that it serves them of guide and stimulus in the development of the project. In them you can see the different degrees of performance of each task or competence.

OBSERVATION OF THE TEACHER.

❸ Resources and organization RESOURCES

Which people must be involved in the project?

Which material resources are required in the project? Any special facility?

Which CIT tools or services are required for the project?

GROUPING

How will you organize the students? How will you organize the space? We propose dividing the classroom into groups of approximately 5 students. Each participant of the group will develop a different role (coordinator, spokesperson, critic, editor, designer). Each group can develop an independent guide or can distribute the research work and the sections of the guide between the different groups by themes or sub‐areas within the established geographical area, so that each group does a different job and finally all the groups must coordinate themselves for the development of a single guide.



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PBL EXAMPLE 2:

“LOCATION OF BIOMASS, BIOGAS AND BIOFUELS IN YOUR REGION”

❶ Mapping out bioenergy plantsMOTIVATION, INDUCEMENT AND FINAL PRODUCT Which challenge, question or problem will moves us to act and learn? Which final product will be created?

Prepare a list with the biomass, biogas and biofuel production and use facilities in a geographical area

to be determined by the teacher and / or the students (a region or even the entire country) and a map with the location of the different plants.

Detected need:

There is a need of knowing bioenergy production centres exist in rural areas (biomass, biogas, biofuels producers in a region or country).

TASK What do you have to do to get to the final product?

1. Investigate and inventory bioenergy facilities of different types existing in the established area.

2. Design a model sheet with the interesting data to collect from each installation.

3. Develop a map in which the different plants are located with a legend code to indicate each type.

4. Draw conclusions about the distribution of plants and the possibilities that different areas can open to farmers, ranchers, foresters and rural areas in general.

DISSEMINATION

How can we make our Project known inside and outside our educational centre?

Each group will present their project once completed to the classmates and professors involved in the PBL. The inventory can be made known to organizations related to the sector, they could even be invited to the exhibition or presentation of the guide in the educational centre.



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❷ Competences and Currciculum COMPETENCES Which competences does the project promote?

Understand the importance of using Bioenergy as a new opportunity for sustainable economic development in rural areas.

Know the different types of production and energy use facilities (biomass, biogas and biofuels) that may be interesting for the agri‐food sector.

Transversal or basic competences: ‐ Ability to investigate, relate, explore and compare. ‐ Capacity for initiative, leadership and entrepreneurship. ‐ Motivation for quality and effort. ‐ Linguistic and creative competence. ‐ Ability to learn to learn. ‐ Ability to process and manage information. ‐ Ability to solve problems and conflicts. ‐ Skills for cooperation and teamwork. ‐ Capacity for analysis and synthesis. ‐ Critical reasoning ability. ‐ Ability to manage information through new technologies. ‐ Ability for interpersonal relationships.

ASSESMENT EVALUATION SHEET of each of the tasks that make up the project to serve as a guide and

encouragement in the development of the project. In them you can see the different degrees of performance of each task or competition.

LEARNING DIARY carried out by students.


❸ Resources and organization RESOURCES Which people must be involved in the project?



GROUPING How will you organize the students? How will you organize the space?

We propose to divide the classroom into groups of approximately 5 students. Each component of the group will develop a different role (coordinator, spokesperson, critic, designer). Each group can develop an independent inventory and finally compare the results of the different groups. Research and development work can also be distributed among the different groups by types of facilities or by sub‐areas within the established geographical area, so that each group performs a different job and finally all the groups must be coordinated for the preparation of the inventory and the map final.



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PBL EXAMPLE 3:

“MODELS OF BIOGAS PLANTS”

❶ Knowing biogas plants MOTIVATION, INDUCEMENT AND FINAL PRODUCT

Which challenge, question or problem will moves us to act and learn? Which final product will be created?

Design and develop small scale models of biogas installations with their different components

after first knowing the facilities through visits.

Detected need:

To a better knowing of the installations it is very interesting to visit them and try to build them by themselves in order to remember the different parts.

TASKS

What do you have to do to get to the final product?

1. Conduct visits to learn about some biogas production and exploitation facilities of different farms and dimensions.

2. In groups make a general project determining the use, characteristics, dimensions and the type of installation to be designed.

3. Make a sketch or drawing of the different parts of the plant.

4. Choose and prepare the materials with which to reproduce the installation on a small scale.

5. Make the model of the installation.

6. Conduct a joint exhibition with the different models developed by groups.

7. Conclusions.

DISSEMINATION

How can we make our Project known inside and outside our educational centre?

Each group will explain the model developed to the rest of the classmates and teachers (involved in the project or other classrooms and levels of the center) during the session (s) of visits to the joint exhibition of models of biogas installations.



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❷ Competences and Currciculum

COMPETENCES

Which competences does the project promote?

Understand the origin and formation of biogas from different organic waste from various agricultural, livestock or agri‐food industry activities.

Understand in a basic way the processes for the production of biogas.

Know the main parts that make up the production and energy use facilities of small and medium‐scale biogas interesting in rural farms in the agri‐food sector.

Transversal or basic competences: ‐ Ability to investigate, relate, explore and compare. ‐ Capacity for initiative, leadership and entrepreneurship. ‐ Motivation for quality and effort. ‐ Linguistic and creative competence. ‐ Ability to learn to learn. ‐ Ability to process and manage information. ‐ Ability to solve problems and conflicts. ‐ Skills for cooperation and teamwork. ‐ Capacity for analysis and synthesis. ‐ Critical reasoning ability. ‐ Ability to manage information through new technologies. ‐ Ability for interpersonal relationships.

ASSESMENT

EVALUATION SHEET of each of the tasks that make up the project to serve as a guide and encouragement in the development of the project. In them you can see the different degrees of performance of each task or competition.


❸ Resources and organization RESOURCES

Which people must be involved in the project?



GROUPING

How will you organize the students? How will you organize the space?

We propose to divide the classroom into groups of between 3 and 5 students. All groups work with the same approach choosing themselves the type of installation to reproduce, organizing themselves the distribution of tasks and responsibilities within each group.

PRACTICAL RESOURCES FOR TEACHERSANNEX 3. FOR FURTHER LEARNING 137


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ANNEX 3 FOR FURTHER LEARNING





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Global initiatives and organizations

Global Bioenergy partnership (GBEP), a world forum to develop effective policy frameworks to promote sustainable biomass and bioenergy development. www.globalbioenergy.org

Intergovernmental panel on Climate change https://www.ipcc.ch/

International Energy Agency https://www.iea.org/

IEA Bioenergy (to achieve a substantial bioenergy contribution to future global energy demands).

www.ieabioenergy.com/

The Global Methane Initiative (GMI)

https://www.globalmethane.org/

World Biogas Association (WBA)

https://www.worldbiogasassociation.org

Bioenergy Europe

https://bioenergyeurope.org/

Renewable Heating and Cooling

http://www.rhc‐platform.org/

EUBIA, the European Biomass Industry Association

http://www.eubia.org/

World Bioenergy Association

https://worldbioenergy.org/

Eurobserver. The state of renewable energies in Europe

https://www.eurobserv‐er.org/online‐database/

Spanish Biomass Association

http://www.avebiom.org/en/

Institute for energy diversification and saving (Spain)

https://www.idae.es/

Gas for Climate. Examples for how biogas is used around the world ‐ from the web

1. World Economic Forum video on Pakistan’s public transport using fuel from dung

https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/biogas‐guzzlers‐karachis‐public‐buses‐to‐run‐on‐cow‐poo/

2. Denmark – injecting biomethane in the gas grid

https://bioenergyinternational.com/biogas/denmark‐make‐100‐green‐transition‐gas‐grid‐2035



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RURAL BIOENERGY: Training Plan on Bioenergy for the agri‐food sector

PROJECT 2017‐1‐ES01‐KA202‐038057

STRUCTURED TRAINING COURSE “ON RURAL …...RURAL BIOENERGY PROJECT Training Plan on Bioenergy for...

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