EDITION

STRUCTURE &FUNCTION

OF THE BODY

ELSEVIER

KevinT. Patton, PhD Founding Professor of Life Science, Emeritus Faculty

St. Charles Community College Cottleville, Missouri

Professor of Human Anatomy & Physiology Instruction New York Chiropractic College Seneca Falls, New York

G a r y A . T h i b o d e a u , P h D Chancellor Emeritus Professor Emeritus of Biology

University of Wisconsin— River Falls River Falls, Wisconsin

CONTENTS

Introduction to the Body, 2

Scientific Method, 4 Levels of Organization, 4 Anatomical Position, 6 Anatomical Directions, 7

Directional Terms, 7 Anatomical Compass Rosette, 7

Planes of the Body, 8 Body Cavities, 9

Dorsal Cavities, 9 Ventral Cavities, 9

Body Regions, 11 The Balance of Body Functions, 12

Homeostasis, 12 Feedback Control, 14 Negative Feedback, 15 Positive Feedback, 15 Normal Fluctuations, 15

2 Chemistry of Life, 22

Levels of Chemical Organization, 23 Atoms, 23 Elements, Molecules, and Compounds, 24

Chemical Bonding, 24 Ionic Bonds, 25 Covalent Bonds, 25 Hydrogen Bonds, 26

Inorganic Chemistry, 27 Water, 27 Acids, Bases, and Salts, 28

Organic Chemistry, 29 Carbohydrates, 29 Lipids, 30 Proteins, 31 Nucleic Acids, 32

Ceils, 40

Overview of Cells, 41 Size and Shape, 41 Composition, 42

Parts of the Cell, 42 Plasma Membrane, 42 Cytoplasm, 43 Ribosomes, 44

Endoplasmic Reticulum, 44 Golgi Apparatus, 45 Mitochondria, 46 Lysosomes, 46 Centrosome, 46 Cell Extensions, 46 Nucleus, 47

Relationship of Cell Structure and Function, 47 Movement of Substances Through Cell Membranes, 48

Types of Membrane Transport, 48 Passive Transport Processes, 48 Active Transport Processes, 51

Cell Growth and Reproduction, 52 Cell Growth, 52 Cell Reproduction, 56

4 Tissues, 66

Introduction to Tissues, 67 Tissue Types, 67 Matrix, 68

Epithelial Tissue, 69 Introduction to EpithelialTissue, 69 Squamous Epithelium, 69 Cuboidal Epithelium, 70 Simple Columnar Epithelium, 71 Pseudostratified Epithelium, 71 Transitional Epithelium, 72

Connective Tissue, 73 Introduction to Connective Tissue, 73 Fibrous Connective Tissue, 74 Bone, 75 Cartilage, 76 BloodTissue, 76 Hematopoietic Tissue, 76

Muscle Tissue, 77 Introduction to Muscle Tissue, 77 Skeletal Muscle Tissue, 77 Cardiac Muscle Tissue, 77 Smooth MuscleTissue, 78

Nervous Tissue, 78

Ö Organ Systems, 84

Organ Systems, 86 Integumentary System, 86 Skeletal System, 86 Muscular System, 87

XV

XVI CONTENTS

Nervous System, 88 Endocrine System, 88 Cardiovascular System, 89 Lymphatic and Immune Systems, 90 Respiratory System, 90 Digestive System, 91 Urinary System, 92 Reproductive Systems, 92

The Body as a Whole, 95

6 Skin and Membranes, 102

Body Membranes, 103 Classification of Membranes, 103 Epithelial Membranes, 104 Connective Tissue Membranes, 105

The Skin, 106 Structure of the Skin, 106 Hair, Nails, and Skin Receptors, 108 Skin Glands, 110 Functions of the Skin, 110

Skin Cancer, 112 Kaposi Sarcoma, 112 Squamous Cell Carcinoma, 112 Basal Cell Carcinoma, 112 Melanoma, 112

Burns, 113 Estimating Body Surface Area, 114 Classification of Burns, 114

/ Skeletal System, 122

Functions of the Skeletal System, 123 Support, 123 Protection, 124 Movement, 124 Storage, 124 Hematopoiesis, 124

Gross Structure of Bones, 124 BoneTypes, 124 Structure of Long Bones, 124 Structure of Flat Bones, 125

Microscopic Structure of Bones, 125 Bone Tissue Structure, 125 Cartilage Tissue Structure, 125

Bone Development, 127 Making and Remodeling Bone, 127 Endochondral Ossification, 127 Intramembranous Ossification, 127

Axial Skeleton, 128 Skull, 129 Hyoid Bone, 131

Vertebral Column (Spine), 133 Thorax, 135

Appendicular Skeleton, 136 Upper Extremity, 136 Lower Extremity, 138

Skeletal Variations, 141 Male and Female Skeletal Differences, 141 Age Differences, 142 Environmental Factors, 142

Joints, 143 Articulation of Bones, 143 Kinds of Joints, 143

8 Muscular System, 154

Muscle Tissue, 156 Skeletal Muscle, 156 Cardiac Muscle, 156 Smooth Muscle, 156

Structure of Skeletal Muscle, 156 Muscle Organs, 156 Muscle Fibers, 157

Functions of Skeletal Muscle, 159 Movement, 159 Posture, 160 Heat Production, 160 Fatigue, 160

Role of Other Body Systems in Movement, 161 Motor Unit, 161 Muscle Stimulus, 161 Types of Skeletal Muscle Contraction, 161

Twitch andTetanic Contractions, 161 Isotonic Contraction, 162 Isometric Contraction, 162

Effects of Exercise on Skeletal Muscle, 163 Movements Produced by Skeletal Muscle

Contractions, 164 Angular Movements, 164 Circular Movements, 164 Special Movements, 165

Skeletal Muscle Groups, 167 Muscles of the Head and Neck, 169 MusclesThat Move the Upper Extremities, Muscles of theTrunk, 169 Muscles That Move the Lower Extremities,

169

169

Nervous System, 178

Organization of the Nervous System, 179 Cells of the Nervous System, 180

Neurons, 180 Glia, 181

Nerves and Tracts, 182

CONTENTS XVÜ

Nerve Signals, 182 Reflex Ares, 182 Nerve Impulses, 184 The Synapse, 185

Central Nervous System, 188 Brain, 188 Spinal Cord, 193 Coverings and Fluid Spaces, 194

Peripheral Nervous System, 197 Cranial Nerves, 197 Spinal Nerves, 197

Autonomie Nervous System, 199 Functional Anatomy, 200 Autonomie Conduction Paths, 200 Sympathetic Division, 201 Parasympathetic Division, 201 Autonomic Neurotransmitters, 202 Autonomic Nervous System as a Whole, 202

10 Senses, 212

Classification of Senses, 213 General Senses, 214 Special Senses, 214 Sensory ReceptorTypes, 214

Sensory Pathways, 215 General Senses, 215

Distribution of General Sense Receptors, 215 Modes of Sensation, 215

Special Senses, 216 Vision, 216 Hearing and Equilibrium, 222 Taste, 226 Smell, 227

Integration of Senses, 227

Endocrine System, 236

Endocrine Glands, 237 Mechanisms of Hormone Action, 238

Nonsteroid Hormones, 238 Steroid Hormones, 239

Regulation of Hormone Secretion, 239 Negative Feedback, 239 Positive Feedback, 241 Levels of Regulation, 241

Prostaglandins, 241 Pituitary Gland, 242

Structure of the Pituitary Gland, 242 Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormones, 243 Posterior Pituitary Gland Hormones, 244

Hypothalamus, 245

Thyroid Gland, 245 Thyroid Hormone, 246 Calcitonin, 247

Parathyroid Glands, 247 Adrenal Glands, 247

Adrenal Cortex, 248 Adrenal Medulla, 249

Pancreatic Islets, 250 Female Sex Glands, 252 Male Sex Glands, 253 Thymus, 253 Placenta, 253 Pineal Gland, 253 Endocrine FunctionsThroughout the Body, 253

Other Endocrine Tissues, 253 Hormone Actions in Every Organ, 253

I Z Blood, 262

Blood Composition, 264 Blood Tissue, 264 Blood Plasma, 264 Formed Elements, 265 Hematopoiesis, 265

Red Blood Cells, 266 RBC Structure and Function, 266 RBC Count, 266 Hemoglobin, 267 Anemia, 267 Blood Types, 269

White Blood Cells, 271 Introduction to White Blood Cells, 271 WBC Count, 272 WBCTypes, 272 WBC Disorders, 273

Platelets and Blood Clotting, 273 Platelets, 273 Blood Clotting, 273 Abnormal Blood Clots, 273

I vJ Cardiovascular System, 282

Heart, 284 Location, Size, and Position, 284 Functional Anatomy, 285 Heart Sounds, 286 Blood FlowThrough the Heart, 286 Blood Supply to the Heart Muscle, 287 Cardiac Cycle, 290 Electrical Activity of the Heart, 290 Cardiac Output, 292

XVÜi CONTENTS

Blood Vessels, 294 Types, 294 Structure, 294 Functions, 296

Routes of Circulation, 299 Systemic and Pulmonary Routes of Circulation, 299 Hepatic Portal Circulation, 300 Fetal Circulation, 301

Hemodynamics, 302 Defining Blood Pressure, 302 Factors That Influence Blood Pressure, 303 Fluctuations in Arterial Blood Pressure, 304 Central Venous Blood Pressure, 306

Pulse, 306

14 Lymphatic System and Immunity, 316

Lymphatic System, 318 Organization of the Lymphatic System, 318 Lymph, 319 Lymphatic Vessels, 319 Lymph Nodes, 320 Thymus, 321 Tonsils, 322 Spleen, 322

Immune System, 322 Function of the Immune System, 322 Nonspecific Immunity, 322 Specific Immunity, 324

Immune System Molecules, 325 Cytokines, 325 Antibodies, 326 Complement Proteins, 327

Immune System Cells, 327 Phagocytes, 328 Lymphocytes, 329

15 Respiratory System, 340

Structural Plan, 342 Overview, 342 Respiratory Tract, 343 Respiratory Mucosa, 343

Upper Respiratory Tract, 344 Nose, 344 Pharynx, 344 Larynx, 345

Lower Respiratory Tract, 346 Trachea, 346 Bronchial Tree, 348 Alveoli, 349 Lungs, 349

Respiration, 351 Pulmonary Ventilation, 352

Mechanics of Breathing, 352 Pulmonary Volumes, 353 Regulation of Ventilation, 354 Breathing Patterns, 356

Gas Exchange and Transport, 356 Pulmonary Gas Exchange, 356 Systemic Gas Exchange, 357 BloodTransportation of Gases, 357

16 Digestive System, 366

Overview of Digestion, 368 Wall of the Digestive Tract, 369 Mouth, 370

Structure of Oral Cavity, 370 Teeth, 371 Salivary Glands, 372

Pharynx, 373 Structure, 373 Function, 373

Esophagus, 374 Stomach, 375

Structure, 375 Function, 375

Small Intestine, 376 Structure, 376 Function, 377

Liver and Gallbladder, 379 Structure, 379 Function, 379

Pancreas, 380 Large Intestine, 380

Structure, 380 Function, 381

Appendix, 382 Peritoneum, 383

Location, 383 Extensions, 383

Digestion, 383 Overview of Digestion, 383 Enzymes and Chemical Digestion, 383 Carbohydrate Digestion, 384 Protein Digestion, 384 Fat Digestion, 385 End Products of Digestion, 385

Absorption, 385 Mechanisms of Absorption, 385 Surface Area and Absorption, 386

CONTENTS xix

17 Nutrition and Metabolism, 394

Metabolic Function of the Liver, 396 Macronutrients, 397

Dietary Sources of Nutrients, 397 Carbohydrate Metabolism, 397 Fat Metabolism, 399 Protein Metabolism, 400

Micronutrients, 400 Vitamins, 400 Minerals, 401

Regulating Food Intake, 401 Metabolic Rates, 401 Body Temperature, 403

18 Urinary System, 408

Kidneys, 410 Location of the Kidneys, 410 Gross Structure of the Kidney, 410 Microscopic Structure, 411 Overview of Kidney Function, 413

Formation of Urine, 415 Filtration, 415 Reabsorption, 415 Secretion, 417 Summary of Urine Formation, 417

Control of Urine Volume, 418 Antidiuretic Hormone, 418 Aldosterone, 418 Atrial Natriuretic Hormone, 418 Abnormalities of Urine Volume, 418

Elimination of Urine, 419 Ureters, 419 Urinary Bladder, 420 Urethra, 420 Micturition, 421

Urinalysis, 423

1 9 Fluid and Electrolyte Balance, 428

Body Fluid Volumes, 430 Body Fluid Compartments, 431

Extracellular Fluid, 431 Intracellular Fluid, 431

MechanismsThat Maintain Fluid Balance, 432 Overview of Fluid Balance, 432 Regulation of Fluid Output, 432 Regulation of Fluid Intake, 433 Exchange of Fluids by Blood, 434

Fluid Imbalances, 434 Dehydration, 434 Overhydration, 434

Importance of Electrolytes in Body Fluids, 435 Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes, 435 Ions, 435 Electrolyte Functions, 435

Electrolyte Imbalances, 437 Homeostasis of Electrolytes, 437 Sodium Imbalance, 437 Potassium Imbalance, 437 Calcium Imbalance, 438

20 Acid-Base Balance, 444

pH of Body Fluids, 445 Using the pH Scale, 445 The pH Unit, 446

MechanismsThat Control pH of Body Fluids, 447 Overview of pH Control Mechanisms, 447 Integration of pH Control, 447 Buffers, 447 Respiratory Mechanism of pH Control, 449 Urinary Mechanism of pH Control, 450

pH Imbalances, 450 Acidosis and Alkalosis, 450 Metabolic and Respiratory Disturbances, 451 Compensation for pH Imbalances, 451

2 -1 I Reproductive Systems, 458

Sexual Reproduction, 459 Producing Offspring, 459 Male and Female Systems, 460

Male Reproductive System, 460 Structural Plan, 460 Testes, 460 Reproductive Ducts, 464 Accessory Glands, 465 External Genitals, 466

Female Reproductive System, 466 Structural Plan, 466 Ovaries, 467 Reproductive Ducts, 468 Accessory Glands, 471 External Genitals, 472 Menstrual Cycle, 473

Summary of the Reproductive Systems, 475

XX CONTENTS

A.A. Growth, Development, and Aging,

Prenatal Period, 486 Fertilization to Implantation, 486 Amniotic Cavity and Placenta, 487 Periods of Development, 488 Formation of the Primary Germ Layers, 489 Histogenesis and Organogenesis, 489 Birth Defects, 490

Birth, 491 Parturition, 491 Stages of Labor, 491

Postnatal Period, 493 Growth, Development, and Aging, 493 Infancy, 495 Childhood, 495 Adolescence, 496 Adulthood, 496 Older Adulthood, 496

Effects of Aging, 496 Integumentary System (Skin), 497 Skeletal System, 497 Central Nervous System, 497

Special Senses, 497 Cardiovascular System, 497 Respiratory System, 498 Urinary System, 498

Appendixes, 504

A Body Mass Index, 504 B Common Medical Abbreviations, Prefixes,

and Suffixes, 505 C Chapter Test Answers, 507

Glossary, G-1

Illustration/Photo Credits, C-1

Index, 1-1