Family and Child Public Health - A strength based approach to practice .
Strength and Health
Transcript of Strength and Health
This issue of Strength and Health begins our second
year of on-line operations. The first year was an exciting
one, with lots of positive feedback from readers and plenty
of new contributions to keep each issue informative. My
sincere thanks to those writers who worked so hard in our
inaugural year. A special thanks to Cisco Adler, York's
Director of Marketing, who creates the final product.
Whenever provided the opportunity, I emphasize S&H as a
great source of free, yet solid, information on training. It's
easy to forget that many newcomers to the fitness field do
not have the background or history of training from the
early days. So, with an eye toward sharing some of York's
rich history in “The Iron Game,” we plan to feature in com-
ing issues the wall charts and text from the original York
barbell courses.
Why feature anything from the distant past? Cisco and I
think S&H readers will enjoy checking how far the indus-
try has come since its early days. Exercise equipment
options, exercise techniques, and training philosophies con-
tinually evolve. Yet despite all of these advances, glance
around most weight rooms or flip through popular “muscle
mags” and you’ll discover resistance training is still rife
with misinformation. Sometimes this simply reflects the
need to publish something different; sometimes the truth
just does not get handed down correctly from one source to
another.
Tackling the topic of training misinformation, Matt Brzycki
addresses in this issue what constitutes the so-called HIT
(High Intensity Training) philosophy. Much of what I had
heard of HIT training over the years is reflected in the
myths dispelled in this article. As I told Matt, after elimi-
nating these fallacies it seems most of us perform high-
intensity training, although we may not consider it part of
this particular philosophical movement.
The bottom line remains--there are many ways to train.
Strength and Health will continue to showcase what works
for coaches and athletes and explain why. As we begin our
second year on-line, I hope you agree with our direction.
Harvey Newton,
Editor
Strength and Health Magazine
2Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
Editor’s ColumnWinter/Spring 2002
by Harvey Newton
Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002 3
11 ComplexesThat SimplifyMIKE CLARK
4 Scientific Basis ofStrength TrainingMICHAEL MAC MILLAN, MD
13 Sport SpecificProgramDevelopment IIJohn Garhammer, PhDEric Burkhardt, MS,Eric Labombarda, MS,
18 The WarrenTravis BeltJan Dellinger
33 Florida’s High SchoolWeightlifting ProgramHarvey Newton
36 The Kaleidoscope MindTim Winter, PhD
30 High-Intensity TrainingMatt Brzycki
3 Table ofContents
2 Editor’sColumnHARVEY NEWTON
FeaturesWinter/Spring 2002
Editorial Advisory Board:Mike Clark
Tracy Fober
John Garhammer, PhD
Mike Gattone
Dana Healy
Doug Lentz
Curt Lords
Brian McGuire
Mike Nitka
Kyle Pierce
Editor-in-Chief:
Harvey Newton
Managing Editor:
Cisco Adler
Creative Design:
Cisco Adler
Contributing Photographers:
Cisco Adler
Bruce Klemens
Publisher:
Cisco Adler
Published by:
York Barbell CompanyBox 1707, York, PA 17405www.yorkbarbell.com
24 Research ReviewsEd McNeely
27 Building Towardthe SeasonDoug Lentz
I first used eccentric training tech-
niques as early as 1972 while partici-
pating in competitive powerlifting. In
the ensuing years I began to question
how and why this basic muscular
property actually functions. As with
most areas of research, the more I dis-
covered, the more questions arose.
By 1987, I was a full-time faculty
member at the University of Florida,
with a funded laboratory to study
strength and muscle. The following
sections review the basic principles
that I have learned over the last 15
years. I will, however, sum up the
results of my studies in the following
statement: “The future of strength
training will be the application of the
principles of progressive resistance
exercise to the eccentrically active
muscle.”
Eccentric BasicsFirst, let's clarify some terminology.
Concentric and eccentric (pronounced
“ek-sentrik”) refer to muscular force.
Since concentric refers to the shorten-
ing of a muscle, the term “concentric
muscle contraction” is appropriate.
However, since eccentric muscle
force occurs during lengthening, it
does not make sense to say, “eccentric
muscle contraction.” For this discus-
sion, the terms “eccentric muscle dis-
traction, action, or activation” may be
used. The terms “positive” and “nega-
tive” should always refer to the resist-
ance or external load. Thus an eccen-
tric muscle action is applied against
negative resistance.
A true eccentric muscle distraction
only occurs when the muscle tries to
contract as forcibly as it can, but the
applied load is greater than the mus-
cular force and the muscle is forced to
lengthen. Therefore, the controlled act
of muscle lengthening or simply low-
ering an object voluntarily does not
constitute an eccentric muscular
action. Only when a supramaximal
load (i.e., overload) causes forced
lengthening is eccentric muscular
force generated.
Two Different Muscular ForcesThe evolution of muscle is directly
related to the physical world in which
we live. Muscle function is specifical-
ly adapted to the demands imposed by
gravity and needs required for sur-
vival.
The most obvious function of muscle
occurs when we consciously shorten
muscles to create movements to lift,
carry, push, pull, and manipulate the
environment. These are the concentric
muscle contractions.
There is, however, a less obvious
muscular function that affects us as
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The Scientific Basisof Strength Training (Part II)Eccentrics and the Future of Strength
by Michael Mac Millan, MD
we move upright on the planet; the
storage and release of mechanical
energy through muscular force
absorption. This hidden ability occurs
when a shortened muscle is put under
load and absorbs force while gradual-
ly lengthening. The classic example
of this function is the act of simply
walking. Walking is essentially the
process of falling forward, but then
braking the fall by extending a leg in
front of you. The leg catches the body
and the knee bends, which lengthens
the quadriceps and slows the forward
falling motion. More obvious exam-
ples of muscles being loaded and
absorbing force occur when people
jump and land on their feet or fall and
catch themselves with an outstretched
arm. Although not in the scope of this
discussion, many athletic activities
(perhaps all) such as pitching, sprint-
ing, jumping, and catching require
eccentric muscle activation.
The different muscle functions are
attributable to the basic physical laws
of motion as described by Sir Isaac
Newton. Newton’s “Law of Inertia”
states that an object at rest tends to
stay at rest unless acted upon by an
outside force. This directly applies to
the exertion of muscular force against
a weight at the start of a concentric
muscle contraction. In the barbell
curl, the weight begins at rest with the
fully lengthened biceps muscle ready
to contract. If the muscular force
exceeds the inertia of the barbell,
movement is initiated. Therefore,
concentric contractions are used to
create, maintain, or increase motion in
an object.
The forced muscular lengthening seen
in eccentrically activated muscles,
however, involves an entirely differ-
ent physical law. In Newton’s “Law
of Acceleration,” an object that is
already in motion tends to stay in
motion unless acted upon by an out-
side force. In weight training, objects
that have been raised (by concentric
muscular contractions) are now pulled
back down by the force of gravity.
Only by a muscular force being exert-
ed against the descending weight can
it be prevented from accelerating back
down. Thus a basic, functional differ-
ence between concentric and eccen-
tric muscular actions is that each
interacts with physical objects
through distinctly different laws of
motion.
There are implications of these physi-
cal interactions that also have practi-
cal significance. One implication is
the direction of the applied force in
relation to the direction of the object.
In concentric contractions, the object
(in this case a barbell) moves in the
same direction as the muscular exer-
tion. This in turn has two corollaries
in terms of controlling the maximum
force encountered by the muscle. If
the weight is overpowered by the
muscular force it will simply begin to
move away faster and faster as the
muscular force increases. This pre-
vents dangerously high levels of mus-
cular force from developing. In the
worst case scenario, when muscular
force is applied against an immovable
mass, the force rises to its maximum
level and then goes no higher. In all
these situations, the forces encoun-
tered by the muscle are self-generat-
ed; therefore it is impossible for the
muscle to be injured.
In eccentric muscle action the direc-
tion of the object and the direction of
the force are completely opposite. By
definition, the object’s weight exceeds
the force capacity of the muscle.
Therefore, the maximum force levels
are now determined by the mass and
acceleration of the externally applied
load and not by muscular force.
Determining and controlling the
resistance in eccentrics is extremely
critical in providing a stimulus intense
enough to result in structural growth,
but not above the threshold of tissue
injury.
The other implication of Newton’s
Law is the different relationship
between force and velocity in con-
centrics and eccentrics. When a mus-
cle exerts increasing concentric force
against an object, the velocity of the
object as it moves away from the
force increases as well. However, in
keeping up with the quickly retreating
object, the muscle is unable to main-
tain high force levels. Therefore, the
faster an object is moved by a concen-
tric muscle contraction, the lower the
muscle's force exerted on the object.
Eccentrics have an opposite effect. If
the applied load exceeds the muscle
force by just a small amount, the mus-
cle lengthens slowly. With increased
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weight, the muscle is compelled to
lengthen more rapidly. Also, since the
weight is heavier the muscular force
increases at the same time that the
muscle is lengthening more rapidly.
Therefore, heavier and heavier
weights lead to faster and faster
lengthening velocities, but with
increasing internal muscular tension
as well.
Thus it has been shown how con-
centrics and eccentrics have entirely
different interactions with the physi-
cal world. Concentrics are designed to
initiate and maintain motion in
objects and eccentrics function to
reduce and absorb the energy from
objects in motion.
Concentric and Eccentric MechanismsAs discussed in Part I, in the contract-
ed state the actin and myosin bonds lie
across from each other and form a
strong, intrinsically stable chemical
bond. However, for the muscle fibril
to shorten, three steps must occur to
all of the actin-myosin sites along the
myofibril. The first step is the dissoci-
ation of the existing actin-myosin
bond. Then the myosin molecule must
undergo a change in its shape that
allows it to “lean” more closely to the
next actin molecule in line. This
allows a new actin-myosin linkage to
be made. Shortening then occur as
the myosin molecule changes back to
its original shape and pulls the actin
and myosin molecules into alignment.
Therefore, the process of shortening is
highly complex, energy dependent,
and based on chemical bonds that dis-
sociate easily. In fact, a maximally
contracting muscle can never generate
force levels that can cause damage to
the structural components of the mus-
cle.
Once formed, however, the bond
between actin and myosin is actually
quite stable. This bond does not
require cellular energy to maintain it
and the myosin molecule itself is in a
stable form and not easily deformed.
In fact, the amount of force that is
needed to break these bonds actually
exceeds the strength of the muscle fil-
ament itself. Thus the physical energy
supplied by an outside force applied
to lengthen a muscle often causes
structural deformation during the
process of lengthening.
As a result, molecular systems have
evolved to accommodate the laws of
motion. Muscle force during shorten-
ing is less than force during lengthen-
ing because it is harder to create a new
bond than to break an existing bond.
Limited force production is beneficial
during shortening contractions,
because the body can exert a maximal
effort without a high risk of tissue
damage. However, when exposed to
high externally applied loads the mus-
cles are capable of high force absorp-
tion that can protect the body from
physical trauma. Muscular dampen-
ing of impact force is undoubtedly
critical in preventing injury and slow-
ing osteoarthritic degenerative
processes.
Eccentric Muscular Force andHypertrophyPart I confirmed that muscle tissue
undergoes many physiologic changes
when exposed to chronic, strenuous,
concentric contractile force. However,
the level of force that the muscle can
internally generate is insufficient to
create the changes necessary for mus-
cular growth and hypertrophy.
As we have described, once an actin-
myosin bond is established and acti-
vated, only a strong external force can
break the bond and cause muscular
lengthening. Under maximal stimula-
tion, these bonds can actually exceed
the tensile strength of the muscular
filaments themselves. In this situa-
tion, as the muscle sustains higher and
higher loads eventually the actin
fibers separate from their attachments,
microtears occur sporadically
throughout the muscle and the myofil-
ament framework deforms. These
events are strong physiologic signals
for the process that results in hyper-
trophy.
As the muscle filaments stretch and
deform, fine thread-like proteins that
attach to the walls of specialized
repair cells called “satellite cells” sig-
nal that repair proteins are to be man-
ufactured. These cells increase their
protein synthesis rates up to 250 times
the norm.
This increased availability of structur-
al proteins, however, is useless unless
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the newly synthesized filaments can
be incorporated into the existing mus-
cle fiber framework. So, the second
consequence of microtears in the
muscle is that the frayed ends of the
damaged filaments become sites of
attachment for the newly synthesized
muscle protein.
These attachment points grow into
new, branching strands and induce the
formation of new sarcomeres that
improve the force producing capabili-
ties of the muscle.
This process explains why anabolic
steroids by themselves have only a
limited ability to improve strength.
Without the use of heavy resistance
training to create microtears, there
will be no potential attachment sites
for any proteins that are synthesized.
Thus the increased protein synthesis
seen with anabolic steroids is without
value unless heavy resistance training
is performed simultaneously.
It must be emphasized that simple
structural deformation and microtears
occur at low levels of eccentric over-
load. If the weight of the applied
resistance dramatically increases, it
can reach the point that macrodamage
or structural injury occurs. This fact
becomes crucial in choosing the level
of negative resistance for eccentric
muscle training. The resistance quan-
tity should be carefully controlled so
that it is sufficient to forcibly lengthen
the muscle, but not of such a magni-
tude that actual muscle injury occurs.
The Amount of Resistance forEccentric Muscular TrainingTo safely train muscles eccentrically,
three criteria are absolutely necessary.
First, the resistance must be quantifi-
able so the exact amount of the
applied load is known. Second, there
should be no fluctuations (the applied
load must remain at a consistent
amount). Third, the negative resist-
ance should be incrementally
adjustable, so resistance can be accu-
rately increased during training.
When choosing a resistance to begin
effective eccentric muscular training,
the muscular force must maximally
oppose the resistance. Logically, the
safest (i.e., lowest) resistance level
that will still result in forced lengthen-
ing is the maximum voluntary con-
traction (MVC) of the involved mus-
cle. By definition the muscle is struc-
turally capable of resisting this
amount of applied load, yet it is still
sufficient to cause muscular deforma-
tion. As the muscle adapts to the
heavy resistance, safe, incremental
increases can be made to bring about
more and more adaptive responses.
Once the level of resistance is estab-
lished, the nature of the resistance
must also be taken into account. It is
very dangerous if the load is applied
erratically. This can cause peak forces
that can exceed a threshold for injury
and cause “macrodamage” or muscle
tearing. You not only must control the
amount of resistance and the rate of
load application, but also guard
against unexpected variations in resis-
tive force caused by friction, impact,
and stored elastic energy.
Another critical factor to consider
when exposing a muscle to supramax-
imal loading is that the internal force
generated by the muscle changes as
the length of the muscle changes.
Practically, this means that as the load
is applied along the length of the mus-
cle, it encounters different levels of
resistive force. How the various types
of external resistance respond to these
changing levels of force is important.
The first class of external resistance
includes sources in which the applied
force has elastic properties. Examples
of resistance of this type include
pneumatic pressure, electromagnetic
force, and materials with spring qual-
ities. It is characteristic of these
forces to deform or compress when
encountering an opposing force. The
elastic force actually accumulates or
stores this energy, then releases it,
occasionally suddenly, when the
stored energy exceeds the applied
force. This can be very detrimental
when applied against an eccentrically
lengthening muscle. A sudden release
of stored elastic energy could in fact
lead to unintended muscular macro-
damage. In addition, the application
of elastic force is difficult to quantify.
Pneumatic pressure, spring tension,
and electromagnetic field strength are
measured in units that do not reflect
the actual applied force they create,
i.e., pounds per square inch, watts,
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etc. Elastic resistance forms do not
allow the resistance to be increased in
controllable increments as muscular
adaptation progresses.
Another class of externally applied
resistance is referred to as isokinetic.
In isokinetic devices, a motorized or
hydraulic movement arm powers
against the muscle group to be
trained. The speed of the movement
arm is kept at a pre-selected set rate.
However, the force exerted by the
device is completely unresponsive to
the resistance created by the lengthen-
ing muscle. The internal muscle force
rises higher and higher until the mus-
cle is forced to lengthen. Therefore
every stroke of the movement arm is
equivalent to a maximal eccentric
force and thus the risk of tissue injury
is high.
The final types of resistance are based
on inertial weight. One form of iner-
tial resistance specifically advocated
as a form of eccentric exercise is
termed “plyometric.” Plyometric
exercise utilizes the acquired momen-
tum of an object as stored energy,
which is then dissipated by an eccen-
trically lengthening muscle. An exam-
ple of a plyometric exercise is a stand-
ing athlete catching a dropped, heavy
medicine ball in his waiting hands.
The caught ball has its acceleration
suddenly dampened by creating a
sharp spike of force in the involved
biceps muscle. The muscle lengthens
and the ball slows and stops. As a
rational means of applying gradual
incremental loads for safe, effective
resistance, plyometric exercise is use-
less. In practicality, the applied force
of a dropped ball (or jumping body) is
completely unknown and only mar-
ginally reproducible. Obviously
incremental increases are impossible.
Basic free weight and weight stack
resistances are the dominant types of
resistance used for eccentric training
today. They utilize the property of
inertia as it applies to Newton’s “Law
of Acceleration.” In this application,
the object in motion is a descending
weight and the outside force acting on
it is the eccentrically active muscle.
When a muscle exerts force against a
descending weight there are two vari-
ables that can be manipulated to pre-
serve safety and increase effective-
ness.
The safety of inertial resistance is pro-
vided by the property of mass deceler-
ation. In other resistance systems such
as elastic or isokinetic devices, when
increasing internal muscular force is
countered by yet further applied load,
even higher eccentric muscular ten-
sion must develop. In other words, the
resistance is unresponsive to the mus-
cular force.
However, with an appropriately
selected inertial weight, the force
capacity in the muscle (force changes
with length) does not result in higher
muscle force because the speed of the
descending weight slows down. One
key element of safety for inertial
resistance, as used in eccentric muscle
distraction, is that if the muscular
force rises, the resistance simply
slows down and does not continue to
lengthen the muscle at higher and
higher forces. Thus this responsive-
ness of inertial resistance vastly
increases its safety.
Once you have identified a resistance
type that creates force that stimulates
muscle growth without risking signif-
icant injury, how do you control the
force to keep in step with the increas-
ing strength capabilities of the mus-
cle? It is very difficult to practically
use resistance systems that base
increases on relative values. Some
systems use a percentage of the posi-
tive resistance or on a maximal effort.
Eccentrics do not have a fixed ratio
compared to other measures and uti-
lizing these percentages is fraught
with potential error. The major effec-
tiveness of inertial resistance lies in
the ability to simply add more weight
as the force producing capacity of the
muscle increases. This allows rational
decisions based on the actual proper-
ties of the eccentric phase itself.
Thus it appears that basic inertial
resistance provided by free weights
and weight stacks has the ideal prop-
erties to eccentrically load and train
muscle. By varying the speed of
descent, muscle damage is prevented.
By incrementally increasing weight
over time, it effectively stimulates
muscle hypertrophy.
Theoretical Steps for EccentricallyEnhanced Strength TrainingThe stated goal of this article was to
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apply the principles of progressive
resistance exercise to not only the
concentric phase, but also to the
eccentric phase of the training repeti-
tion. The determination of the ideal
resistance for each phase of the repe-
tition is based on the one repetition
maximum (1RM) for the lifting
motion involved. Since the primary
goal of strength training is to achieve
maximum muscular force output
through physiologic and structural
adaptation, high resistance levels are
desirable. Therefore, a typical starting
weight for the concentric phase would
be 80% of 1RM for a target repetition
range of approximately six.
In the eccentric phase, the chosen
resistance should be heavy enough to
forcibly lengthen the trained muscles,
so it must be greater than the 1RM.
However, the chosen weight should
not be so great as to risk structural
harm to the muscle. For this reason
the initial starting negative resistance
should be equal to the 1RM (100% 1
RM). The arbitrary value of 100%
RM is considered the optimum
amount for safety and efficacy.
For example, consider a lifter whose
maximum bench press (1RM) is
300lbs. If this individual wishes to
commence training with an enhanced
eccentric program, he would use
240lbs as his concentric resistance
while performing the eccentric stroke
with 300lbs.
Successful completion of a target set
of 6 reps necessarily means the lifter
raised 240lbs all 6 times. Successful
completion of the eccentric strokes
requires that each time the bar is low-
ered with 300lbs, the lifter resists the
descent over a time of not less than 3
seconds.
Once a successful set is completed,
the lifter makes decisions about
increasing the weight. Since we have
clearly shown that eccentric mechan-
ics are different from concentric, the
choices of weight increase should also
be independent. The lifter can choose
to raise the concentric weight, the
eccentric, or both for his/her next
training session. The principles of
progressive resistance exercise can
and should be applied to both the lift-
ing and lowering phases of the repeti-
tion cycle.
The Effects of Eccentric Training onConcentric StrengthThis is probably the most frequently
asked question concerning eccentric
training. Past research was flawed by
the use of inadequate or even danger-
ous resistance systems. However,
when inertial resistance with eccentric
progressive resistance exercise train-
ing programs are studied, the effects
are unequivocal.
I served as the principal investigator
for the first study that examined pro-
gressive resistance eccentric exercise
of the quadriceps in 20 subjects. After
16 weeks the strength gains (meas-
ured isometrically) were 22% higher
in the eccentrically trained group.
Another study performed in the
Department of Athletic Training at the
University of Florida examined the
hamstring muscles. This muscle
group functions eccentrically. The
results were even more startling, with
a 33% increase over the group trained
with standard methods.
We also carried out a short study
involving highly trained athletes. We
were able to demonstrate a 5%
increase in bench press strength after
only six weeks of enhanced eccentric
training (the equivalent of increasing
from a 300 lb maximum to a 315 lb
maximum in an accomplished lifter).
In 2001, the University of Northern
Arizona compared the effects of
eccentric training to standard weight
training techniques on the perform-
ance of vertical leap. Again the eccen-
trically trained group outperformed
the standard training group, this time
by 8%.
From both a theoretical and scientific
standpoint, the targeted training of the
eccentric phase of the repetition cycle
with progressive eccentric resistance
predictably results in superior
strength gains over any existing
method.
Present Availability of EccentricallyEnhanced Resistance SystemsThe “trick” of transitioning from a
light concentric resistance to a heavier
eccentric resistance during a repeti-
tion has been very difficult to accom-
plish. Non-inertial systems utilizing
9Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
counter-electromotive force and
pneumatic pressure have been in the
market for over 10 years, but lack the
proper requirements for safe, effective
exercise.
Presently the most common tech-
niques involving eccentric training
utilize spotters and generally result in
“negative only” exercise where assis-
tants raise a heavy weight and the
lifter lowers it slowly. One piece of
equipment allows a single repetition
to be performed. Weight hooks are
placed on the ends of a bar set up for
bench press. The lifter lowers the bar
and hook combination until the hooks
hit the floor and disconnect. The
lighter bar is then raised back up con-
centrically.
Two systems have been developed,
but are not available on a retail basis.
Both satisfy all requirements for iner-
tial resistance in which separate levels
of resistance can be chosen for the
positive phase and the negative phase.
One uses pneumatic actuators to
attach and detach weights that are
added to increase resistance during
eccentric lowering. This device was
developed in Sweden and is called
“Agaton.”
Another device uses a counterbalance
to offset the weight of a heavy bar. At
the top of the repetition cycle the
counter-balance is disengaged and the
lifter feels the full weight of the bar-
bell. The lifter lowers the bar to the
bottom position where the counter-
balance is re-loaded onto the lifting
cable, thus making the bar lighter so
that it can be raised concentrically.
Again, once the bar reaches the top
position the counter-balance is again
detached and further repetitions can
be performed. This system was devel-
oped at the University of Florida and
is called “Negator.”
The Future of Strength TrainingSoon there will be available systems
to allow athletes to perform eccentri-
cally enhanced exercise in virtually
every strength-training environment:
free weights, selectorized equipment,
leverage machines.
With the advent of routinely heavy
eccentric exercise, athletes will
become bigger, faster, more powerful,
and less susceptible to injury. Muscles
with enhanced eccentric capabilities
will impact track and field, football,
basketball, and all sports in which
speed and/or power is required.
From a rehabilitation standpoint,
enhanced eccentrics will reduce re-
injury rates in the low back, calves,
adductors, quadriceps, and especially
the hamstrings. The widespread use of
eccentric training will be the most sig-
nificant fundamental improvement in
weight training since the invention of
the plate loaded barbell.
Michael Mac Millian is presently in private prac-
tice at the Jewett Orthopaedic Clinic (Orlando,
FL). He is the author of 8 published articles on
applied muscle physiology and served as an
associate professor of orthopaedic surgery at
the University of Florida, 1987-98. Mac Millian
was the captain of the North Carolina State
University powerlifting team, 1971-73.
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For some years, the use of exercise
complexes has been popular with
strength and conditioning coaches. An
exercise “complex” is a combination
of several exercises done without rest.
This requires one of two techniques:
1) move successively through the first
rep of each exercise in the complex,
then directly to the second rep, or 2)
perform all the repetitions of the first
exercise, then move to the second lift.
A complex may consist of a group of
lifts that resemble one another in
terms of muscle/joint action or a
series of lifts that simply use a like
resistance.
The use of complex training pays
great dividends down the road, plus
they may just make your training a lot
simpler. A complex usually consists of
3-6 exercises; each performed 3-6
reps. If that sounds like a lot of work,
that’s the idea. Perform a series of
related exercises one after another to
achieve a fast training effect for con-
ditioning or general strength prepara-
tion you will build onto later.
Aggie Complex Training A good example of a complex that we
use is the squat complex. This com-
plex builds a base for future training,
develops general fitness, and helps
teach correct technique for many
leg/hip movements. On this complex,
I use 5 different exercises with 6 reps
each. I utilize several variations of the
squat complex, but the following is a
good starting point.
• Step -up 6 reps each leg
• Lunge 6 reps each leg
• Squat/push press 6 reps
• Squat 6 reps
• Squat jump 6 reps (body
weight only)
As you can imagine, performing a
total of 42 continuous reps in these
dynamic movements produces a
sharp, fast training response.
Generally, I have our athletes do from
2-4 sets of a complex, with adequate
recovery between bouts. Here is an
example of another, more challeng-
ing, variation of a lower body com-
plex.
• Step Ups 6 reps each leg
• Split Squats 6 reps each leg
• Side to Side Squats 6 reps each leg
11Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
Mike Clark, Texas A&M University
ComplexesThat Simplify
• Overhead Squats 6 reps
• Front Squats 6 reps
When to Use Complex TrainingComplexes are very useful at the
beginning of a new training year or
anytime you need a general training
effect. Because of the volume of work
performed, complexes have a great
conditioning effect, as well as a gen-
eral strength and muscle-building
effect. Don't repeat a complex during
any 1-week period of training, but you
could use 2 or 3 different kinds of
complexes within the week. For
example, use a snatch complex on
Monday, a shoulder complex on
Wednesday, and a squat complex on
Friday.
Combining complexes with your reg-
ular training program gives a quick
training adaptation ("shock") that
might be just what you needed to
make further progress. Complex train-
ing is also useful when time con-
straints restrict the amount of time
available for resistance training.
An important concern is the selection
of a proper resistance. Experiment a
bit with variations in exercise order
and resistances used. You don't want
your first exercise to be too easy or
your last one too heavy. Remember
the cumulative effect of fatigue when
utilizing complex training.
Use Your ImaginationThere are many different kinds of
complexes, so try different combina-
tions and exercise in order to meet
your specific needs. I use many exer-
cises to create a large variety of dif-
ferent kinds of complexes. You can
even combine complexes if you like.
Here are some more examples of dif-
ferent complexes we use successfully
at Texas A&M.
DB Shoulder Complex
• Lateral raise 6 reps
• Front raise 6 reps
• Bent-over lateral raise 6 reps
• Upright row 6 reps
• Curl and press 6 reps
DB or BB Snatch Complex
• High hang power snatch 6 reps
• Upright row 6 reps
• Bent-over row 6 reps
• Front squats 6 reps
• Low hang snatch 6 reps
Combo Snatch and Clean Complex
• Stiff-leg muscle clean 6 reps
• Hang close-grip snatch 6 reps
• Upright row catch 6 reps
• Front squat 6 reps
• Low hang snatch 6 reps
Snatch 3x3x3
• Hang snatch 3 reps
• Press behind neck 3 reps
• Overhead squat 3 reps
As you can see, the possibilities are
endless, so the only limitation is your
imagination. I even have a chest com-
plex for our players to use once in a
while. Remember, not all complexes
have to have 5 exercises and they do
not have to use 6 reps per exercise.
Remember, if you want to reach high
goals you must build a large base first.
Complexes are a very good way to
build such a base.
Good luck and train hard!
Mike Clark is the president of the Collegiate
Strength & Conditioning Coaches' association
(CSCCa). He is certified as a master strength
and conditioning coach and has coached at
Texas A&M for the past 12 years.
12Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
In Part 1 (Fall '01 S&H) we dis-
cussed some basic concepts related
to the development of biomechani-
cally specific sport training pro-
grams. This second installment cov-
ers the important consideration of
how muscles obtain energy via
metabolic processes needed for
sport training and competition.
Together, the principles of biome-
chanical and metabolic specificity
can be used to construct high quali-
ty training programs for improved
sport performance.
Energy for muscular activity can be
supplied from three metabolic path-
ways. The first is the ATP-CP ener-
gy system, also called the high ener-
gy phosphate or immediate energy
source system (see the Applications
section below for more details). This
system provides a lot of energy
quickly, but is also depleted rapidly.
It is most important for very high
power physical activity, such as
sprinting, jumping, lifting heavy
weights, and throwing. For maximal
and near maximal physical exertions
that last up to 30 seconds, this sys-
tem provides most of the needed
energy.
The second system is the lactic acid
(LA) system, also called fast glycol-
ysis or anaerobic glycolysis. It pro-
vides a moderate amount of energy
per unit of time (moderate power
output) and provides most of the
energy needed for strenuous physi-
cal exertions lasting 2-3 minutes,
such as an 800m run or a round in
boxing. The undesirable waste prod-
ucts produced when the LA system
is active must be removed or all
metabolic processes within muscle
are disrupted. This involves the third
energy system which, unlike the
first two, requires oxygen and is
called the aerobic system.
13Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
by John Garhammer, PhDEric Burkhardt, MSEric Labombarda, MS
Sport Specific ProgramDevelopment (Part II)
The aerobic system provides energy
for many hours of continuous muscu-
lar activity. However, the rate of ener-
gy production is much lower than the
previous two “anaerobic” (meaning
no oxygen) energy systems.
Interval training is a method of select-
ing the duration and intensity of active
exercise periods and the rest intervals
between them such that the desired
energy system is stressed and devel-
oped.
Aerobic Conditioning
Unfortunately, many coaches think of
conditioning their athletes only in
terms of the oxidative energy system
using aerobic exercise. Most of this
problem can be directly traced to the
popularity of aerobic exercise as used
in fitness training.
The aerobic exercise craze grew large-
ly from the work of Cooper1
in the
1960s. It has become the major com-
ponent of the fitness industry via aer-
obic dance classes and videos, and a
large variety of aerobic exercise
equipment, such as stationary bicy-
cles, treadmills, steppers, and rowing
machines. The mainstay of aerobic fit-
ness enthusiasts remains jogging and
distance running, as is evident from
the multitudes that enter organized
runs from 5km to marathons.
Exercise physiology and related text-
books, whether dating back more than
20 years2
or published recently3, con-
tain scientific estimates indicating the
primary metabolic sources of energy
for a large variety of sport and recre-
ational activities. A quick look at this
information clearly shows that the
vast majority of college and profes-
sional sports are predominantly anaer-
obic. For example, Mathews and Fox2
estimate that football is 90% anaero-
bic, basketball 85%, baseball 80%,
volleyball 90%, and tennis 70%. The
qualitative rankings published by the
NSCA3support the same conclusion.
For these and similar sports, develop-
ment of the high energy phosphate
and lactic acid energy systems should
be emphasized through sport-specific
conditioning, such as interval training,
rather than the aerobic energy system
using continuous activities, such as
low intensity, long duration running or
cycling.
Not only is aerobic training non-spe-
cific to most sports metabolically, it is
non-specific biomechanically. Take
running as an example activity. The
range of motion at the hip and knee
joints during jogging and slow dis-
tance running is limited - about 35
degrees at the hip and 52 degrees at
the knee. During sprint running,
which is a key to success in most
sports, the range of motion at these
joints is much larger, about 60 degrees
at the hip and 80 degrees at the knee.
In additional to this consideration,
which is directly related to the range
of lengthening and shortening of
involved muscles and possible differ-
ences in which muscles are utilized,
another neural control factor must be
considered.
The type of motor units recruited by
the nervous system during training
has a major influence on neuromuscu-
lar control, muscle coordination, and
performance during sport competi-
tion. Fast, short duration activities
during exercise specifically train the
neuromuscular system and fast twitch
muscle tissue for the demands of com-
petition. Slower, long duration activi-
ties emphasize use and development
of slow twitch muscle tissue, and non-
specific neural control patterns.
Running longer total distances can
also be detrimental to lower extremity
joints, especially for heavier athletes,
and for taller athletes due to leverage
considerations.
When using a stationary bicycle for
aerobic conditioning, not only are the
joint ranges of motion and temporal
patterns at the hip and knee different
compared to both slow and fast run-
ning speeds, but this exercise is non-
weight bearing. Body weight is sup-
ported largely by the seat, which may
be desirable in certain rehabilitation
situations, but not in sport-specific
conditioning. For example, how many
sports do not involve balance and sup-
port of body weight during fast move-
ments?
Finally, it should be mentioned that
short duration, high intensity bouts of
exercise produce a hormonal environ-
ment that is conducive to building
muscular strength and power. Aerobic
training does not produce this desir-
able hormonal response4.
14Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
Aerobic metabolism is needed for
recovery from anaerobic exercise, but
it is best to develop and enhance this
through the on - off activity sequence
found in most sports, when muscle and
blood lactate levels are high and must
be reduced. This is where interval
training techniques are most valuable.
The “Applications” section below pro-
vides some examples.
Most of the above information has
been well known for decades. So, why
today, at the dawn of the new millenni-
um, do so many coaches of highly
anaerobic sports insist on including
large amounts of continuous activity,
aerobic exercise in their athletes’ train-
ing programs?
There are several possibilities:
1. Weight control - coaches of female
athletes in particular see aerobic exer-
cise (coupled with diet restriction) as
the most productive method to have
their athletes lose or maintain body
weight. In reality, for comparable
workout sessions based on oxygen
consumption rates, lower intensity,
continuous aerobic exercise has a
lower total metabolic cost (exercise
and recovery) than higher intensity
anaerobic weight training5.
2. Aerobic training is part of a fitness
craze that has continued for decades. It
is an activity familiar to most of the
general population, including coaches.
It is easy to conduct and supervise aer-
obic workouts for both small and large
numbers of athletes. Higher intensity,
anaerobic interval training is not as
familiar to many coaches and can take
longer to plan and conduct, especially
for large numbers of athletes.
3. Many coaches insist on having their
team condition with methods they
themselves used years before.
Although there may be no scientific
justification for these methods, tradi-
tion rules. This is particularly difficult
to change when a coach's past experi-
ences include winning championships.
It must be remembered that some
teams win despite less than optimal
conditioning due the genetic quality of
athletes on the team and the organiza-
tional and technique skills of the coach.
However, also remember that optimal
conditioning provides each athlete the
best opportunity to reach his or her true
athletic potential, which translates into
the team having the best chance for
success.
4. Some coaches use aerobic training,
such as jogging, as a major component
of their personal exercise program. It is
easy to “kill two birds with one stone”
by taking their team members with
them for a run. Unfortunately, in most
cases like this the team’s sport is
almost entirely anaerobic.
APPLICATIONS
In order to better understand the meta-
bolic demands of popular collegiate
sports, the authors collected work-rest
interval data for men’s and women’s
Division One volleyball and basketball
competitions. These data correspond
well with those previously reported
(2,3), and are presented in Table 1 (see
next page).
Conditioning for Volleyball
The work-rest interval data for volley-
ball clearly indicate that the predomi-
nant source of energy for muscular
work is supplied by the immediate, or
ATP-CP energy system. It should also
be noted that the intensity of muscular
effort during the work intervals ranges
from low to maximal. For example,
immediately after a serve, defensive
players must wait and read the offense
as they pass and set. During these
moments, the defensive players are
working at a relatively low intensity.
However, once the offense sets the ball
and “attacks,” the intensity level of the
defense increases dramatically. For
example, the middle blockers must
perform a maximum vertical jump,
while back row players may have to
“explode” laterally over a short dis-
tance to dig the ball.
Conditioning for volleyball should
focus on developing these metabolic
pathways. The immediate energy sys-
tem involves 3 chemical reactions:
Intense exercise bouts of a few seconds
in duration and up to 30 seconds stress
the above metabolic pathways. One of
the adaptations to this type of exercise
is an increase in muscle tissue concen-
trations of the 3 enzymes – myosin
ATPase, creatine kinase, and myoki-
nase – that catalyze these reactions.
15Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
According to Table 1, the average
work interval in volleyball is less than
10 seconds but it can last up to 30 sec-
onds. Choosing the proper rest inter-
val length is equally important. Rest
interval length should consider the
half-life for recovery of the immedi-
ate energy system metabolites, which
is about 20 seconds. For example,
after a maximal 10-second exercise
bout, it will take about 20 seconds to
recover 50% of the immediate energy
source. In 40 seconds 75% will have
been recovered, and in 60 seconds
about 87.5% of the immediate energy
source will be replenished. If the next
exercise bout begins before adequate
replenishment takes place, only a sub-
maximal effort is possible, since the
involved muscles must derive some
energy from other sources with lower
power production potential (i.e., fast
glycolysis).
Practical ApplicationWhen the competitive season ends, it
may be wise for the volleyball athlete
to take a few weeks of active rest.
When the off-season conditioning
program commences, conditioning
drills can be more general in nature.
This might include running sprints
ranging from 50-150m with work-rest
ratios in the 1:5 to 1:10 range. For
example, an initial off-season sprint-
conditioning workout for volleyball
might start with 2 sets of 5 reps at 150
meters. Assuming the work intervals
take about 18 seconds, the rest inter-
vals between reps may need to be as
long as 180 seconds, but probably not
shorter than 90 seconds. As the ath-
lete adapts to the program, rest inter-
vals can be reduced until a work-rest
ratio closer to 1:3 (i.e., ~ 50-second
rest intervals for 150 meter sprints) is
achieved. As the program progresses,
a greater percentage of the total con-
ditioning volume shifts toward shorter
sprint distances so that work times
and power outputs become closer to
those needed for volleyball.
Rest periods between intervals (reps)
should be inactive to allow the most
rapid recovery of the ATP-CP energy
sources. Aerobic mechanisms are
important for recovery, which
explains the heavy breathing after an
intense bout of anaerobic exercise.
Any light activity that occurs during
the rest intervals will “compete” with
aerobic replenishment of immediate
16Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
Table 1
energy sources, thus interfering with
the recovery process forcing a reduc-
tion in quality of the next work inter-
val.
Some volleyball coaches may ignore
this concept with poorly designed
practice drills that involve repetitive,
high intensity volleyball skills with
low intensity movement planned
between reps. These drills are set up
so that continuous movement is pro-
longed for several minutes. This is
done with the intention of eliciting a
conditioning effect. Unfortunately,
these coaches do not realize that the
conditioning effect they are producing
is not specific to volleyball.
A well-designed volleyball condition-
ing program should consider not only
the work-rest time intervals, but spe-
cific movement patterns as well.
Volleyball is a sport characterized by
very high power outputs and move-
ment speeds. Jumping and quick
defensive movements require explo-
sive actions of the ankle, knee, and
hip. Hitting, blocking, and pushing
one’s body up off the floor after div-
ing for a loose ball require upper body
strength and power. In addition, these
movements cannot be made effective-
ly unless torso musculature contracts
forcefully to stabilize the spine.
As the season approaches, coaches
can begin to replace the sprint work-
outs described above with condition-
ing drills that incorporate more vol-
leyball-specific movements.
Consider the following list of exercis-
es that relate closely to the movement
demands of volleyball:
Plyometrics: 1) Single legged hops up stairs. 2)
Double legged hops over barriers. 3) Lateral
hops over a barrier. 4) Multi-directional hops.
Jumps: 1) Maximum vertical jumps. 2) Block
jumps.
Lifts: 1) Heavy squats (i.e., 3 reps at 80%1RM).
2) Push press/jerk (note: mechanically similar
to blocking). 3) Power clean or snatch. 4)
Jumping back squat at 30%1RM (note: this load
allows high power outputs).
Agility: 1) Side shuffling. 2) Multi-directional
movements in a specified pattern.
Upper Body: 1) Clapping push-ups. 2) Squat
thrusts, or Burpees.
From this list, the coach could choose
a series of 2 to 4 exercises that the ath-
lete performs in rapid succession.
Repetition number for each exercise
should be chosen so that if a maxi-
mum effort is made on each rep, the
total time to complete the complex is
consistent with the work interval data
from Table 1.
In these workouts (Table 2), the ath-
lete performs the exercises listed for
the number of reps indicated. The
completion of 5 double legged hops, 3
squat thrusts, and 3 side shuffles is
equal to one rep and should be done as
fast as possible (i.e., 20 seconds). A
complete (no activity) 60-second rest
should be taken between reps in order
to maximize ATP-CP recovery. The
number of reps per set can range from
5 to 10 with a complete 3- to 5-minute
recovery period between sets. Two to
4 sets are performed per workout.
It is important that the athlete com-
plete each rep with a high quality of
effort. Many athletes may not be
motivated to do this and it may be dif-
ficult for the strength and condition-
17Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
Example of a conditioning workout for a libero:
Example of a conditioning workout for a middle blocker:
Table 2. Sample volleyball workouts
ing coach to detect whether the athlete
is making a maximal effort. A simple
way to ensure work effort quality is to
conduct the conditioning workouts as
relay races. The work-rest ratio will
always be one less than the number of
athletes participating in each group, or
“team.” For example, if a work-rest
ratio of 1:3 is desired, 4 athletes will
be needed per “team” to compete
against one another during the relay.
A team of 12 athletes could be divid-
ed into 3 teams with 4 athletes each.
Since it takes about the same amount
of time for each athlete to perform a
rep, an approximate 1:3 work-rest
ratio can be achieved.
Conditioning for BasketballThe work-rest interval data from
Table 1 for basketball suggest that the
primary energy sources are also
anaerobic. Work times for basketball,
however, are much longer than vol-
leyball, indicating heavy reliance on
the lactic acid system. Some condi-
tioning training, however, should tar-
get the immediate energy system,
using work-rest times similar to those
described for volleyball above.
In addition, a large portion of the con-
ditioning volume should be devoted
to the development of the anaerobic
(fast) glycolysis system (lactic acid).
Glucose from blood, or glycogen
stored in muscle can be broken down
anaerobically into lactic acid to pro-
vide energy. The rate of energy pro-
duction that can be provided via fast
glycolysis is high, but not as high as
the ATP-CP system. The advantage
this system has over the ATP-CP sys-
tem is that its total energy supply is
larger, capable of supporting relative-
ly high intensity work for up to about
3 minutes. As phosphate supplies in
muscle diminish after 20–30 seconds
of maximal exercise, the body begins
to rely heavily on fast glycolysis in
order to sustain the highest possible
power output.
Fast glycolysis, however, has its prob-
lems. When fast glycolysis supplies
energy at its maximum rate, large
quantities of lactic acid are produced.
Ultimately, heavy usage of the fast
glycolysis energy system results in
lactic acid levels that force a reduction
in exercise intensity, since high levels
of lactic acid eventually interfere with
the muscle’s contractile machinery. At
this point, the only way to continue
exercising is to reduce the intensity to
a level that can be sustained aerobi-
cally. The maximal rate of energy that
can be produced aerobically only
allows power outputs of about
20–30% of the anaerobic maximum.
Clearly, this is well below what is
required for quality performance in
most sports.
A conditioning program designed to
increase the rate and quantity of ener-
gy supplied via fast glycolysis must
obviously stress the body to make the
appropriate adaptations. This is not a
difficult thing to do when the physiol-
ogy of the fast glycolysis is under-
stood. It is known that fast glycolysis
becomes the dominant energy source
as ATP-CP energy supplies are deplet-
ed after about 30 seconds of maximal
effort, and dominates for 2-3 minutes.
Use this knowledge to develop the
time frames for the work intervals.
Rest interval decisions must consider
the time needed for the body to recov-
er to a level that permits the perform-
ance of another high intensity work
bout that taxes the fast glycolysis sys-
tem.
Recommended work-rest ratios typi-
cally range from 1:2 to 1:5, depending
on the conditioning level of the ath-
lete. Rest intervals should now
include light exercise since lactate can
be metabolized aerobically by the
lightly exercising muscles, and also
by the heart. Active recovery results
in faster lactate removal and permits a
higher quality of work during the
ensuing work interval.
The primary conditioning exercise
mode for basketball is running, both
straight and with quick directional
changes. Thus, the vast array of
equipment available for endurance
and cardiovascular fitness training is
not adequate for specific basketball
conditioning. Treadmills have limita-
tions due to the high agility compo-
nent required in basketball. Straight-
line running must be heavily compli-
mented with movements that dupli-
cate the demands of the sport.
Basketball requires many rapid
changes in direction, acceleration, and
deceleration. With a basic under-
standing of the sport and a creative
imagination, an almost limitless com-
bination of conditioning drills can be
developed – all of which, can be done
more effectively without expensive
equipment.
18Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
Football and TennisInformation comparable to that pre-
sented in Table 1 above has been pub-
lished for professional football6. It
shows average work intervals of
about 5 seconds and average rest
intervals of about 30 seconds. Clearly
football is an ATP-CP energy system-
dependent sport, with aerobic metabo-
lism needed only for recovery.
Published reports analyzing tennis
support similar conclusions7.
ConclusionAs pointed out earlier, many coaches
mistakenly prescribe traditional long-
duration, steady state aerobic exercise
for basketball, football, and other
anaerobic sport athletes. Some believe
that an “aerobic base” must be devel-
oped in order to maximize endurance
and recovery between high intensity
interval bouts. However, coaches
need to understand that there is never
a situation when any single energy
system provides 100% of the energy
for exercise.
Sprints lasting 1.5 to 3 minutes do
require a significant portion of energy
to be supplied aerobically. Although
not maximally taxed, the aerobic sys-
tem is being trained, and in a way that
is specific to a sport where short-dura-
tion high intensity intervals are most
commonly performed. In addition,
high-intensity interval training
involves the aerobic system for recov-
ery during the rest periods between
work intervals. The argument can be
made then, that the aerobic system is
being stressed in a way that is very
specific to the sport. Coaches who
feel they are missing out on an impor-
tant fitness component by not includ-
ing aerobic conditioning with their
athletes may rest easier knowing that
little or no relationship exists between
aerobic capacity and anaerobic per-
formance or recovery parameters4.
Coaches should also be aware of the
negative impact that aerobic training
can have on anaerobic performance,
such as decreased power output, due
to oxidative related adaptations in fast
muscle tissue.
REFERENCES1. Cooper, K. The New Aerobics, Bantam, New
York, 1970.
2. Mathews, D.K. and E.L. Fox. The
Physiological Basis of Physical Education and
Athletics. W.B. Saunders Company, 1976, page
242.
3. Essentials of Strength Training and
Conditioning (T.R. Baechle & R.W. Earle, edi-
tors). Human Kinetics, 2000 (2nd edition), page
142.
4. Hoffman, J.R., Epstein, S,. Einbinder, M., and
Weinstein, Y. The Influence of Aerobic Capacity
on Anaerobic Performance and Recovery
Indices in Basketball Players. Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research, 13(4), pp.
407 – 411, 1999.
5. Burleson, M.A., et al. Effect of weight train-
ing exercise and treadmill exercise on post-
exercise oxygen consumption. Medicine &
Science in Sports & Exercise, 30(4), pp. 518-
522, 1998.
6. Plisk, S. Tactical Metabolic Training: Part 1.
Strength and Conditioning, 19(2), pp. 44-53,
April 1997. (see Figure 4)
7. Christmass, M.A., et al. A metabolic charac-
terization of singles tennis. Journal of Sports
Science 11:543, 1993.
19Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
Continuing the virtual tour of the York
Barbell Museum’s exhibits and arti-
facts we launched in the last Strength
and Health, let’s turn our attention to
the Warren Lincoln Travis one-of-a-
kind championship belt. Nearly 100
years ago, this belt recognized Travis
as the “World’s Strongest Man.”
The Belt's OriginIn 1906, Richard Fox, owner of the
popular sporting newspaper, The
Police Gazette, was sure a head-to-
head lifting “shoot-out” between
fabled French-Canadian powerhouse
Louis Cyr and the renowned muscular
strength idol of the Ziegfeld Follies,
Eugen (correct original spelling)
Sandow, was a match-maker’s dream.
In an attempt to further facilitate this
clash between the two biggest names
of the strongman genre in that day,
Fox prepared a diamond-studded,
gold and silver “championship belt,”
which would officially recognize the
victor as the “strongest man in the
world.”
In truth, this belt was befitting of such
a prestigious title, as its rumored
worth just after the turn of the 20th
Century was $2,500, a sizable piece
of change nearly 100 years ago.
Historian Dave Willoughby reported
this figure as well (The Super
Athletes, p. 81), so this appraisal
seems valid.
Try as he might, though, Fox could
not induce Sandow to accept the chal-
lenge. In all fairness, Sandow was
several body weight classes lighter
than Cyr. Plus, a loss is a loss in the
eye of the public, so it's hard to pic-
ture Sandow recognizing any reason
to participate.
Travis Steps UpEnter Warren Lincoln Travis. By the
fall of 1906, Fox’s promotional
aplomb prompted him to approach
Travis about accepting this lavish belt
and defending it against all worthy
comers for a period of 10 years. In an
article in the August 1937 Strength &
Health, Travis listed two simple con-
ditions Fox placed on its acceptance:
1) Each man (Travis and challenger)
had the right to choose five or six lifts
apiece, and
2) The belt had to be defended any-
where in the world designated by the
challenger, with the understanding a
side bet or gate percentage could be
arranged.
Of course, Travis took Fox up on his
offer and did defend the belt for 10
years, after which it became his per-
sonal property.
20Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
by Jan Dellinger, York Barbell Company
The Warren Travis Belt
Readers probably wonder why Fox
tapped Travis after the Cyr versus
Sandow match-up failed to material-
ize? It’s not as though Travis was a
total unknown in 1906, not by a long
shot. At 20 years of age in 1896,
Travis (real name Roland Morgan)
was lucky enough to receive personal
training instruction from Professor
Louis Attila. The invaluable nature of
his teaching can be summed up by
noting that the list of professional
strongmen who benefited from
Attila’s marvelous guidance reads like
a "Who’s Who" from the Golden Age
of Strongmanism.
Plus, Travis had already put in his
apprenticeship, giving exhibitions in
gyms and training halls of New York
City and Long Island under the
moniker, “The Brooklyn Strongboy.”
Long before 1906, he had graduated
to working first-line theaters and ven-
ues, as well as earning distinction via
other avenues. For example, Fox
became an admirer of Travis’ in 1903
when the latter won a prominent har-
ness and back lift championships. In
fact, Fox was so impressed with
Travis’ prowess on this occasion that
he presented him with a diamond
medal.
No doubt the final cementing bond
between Fox and Travis was a shared
admiration for the exploits of Louis
Cyr. Noted writers like Siegmund
Klein and Earle Liederman contend
that Travis definitely patterned him-
self after the Canadian behemoth.
Travis Charts a New CourseWhen one realizes that Warren
Lincoln Travis was still giving spo-
radic exhibitions upon his death at age
65 (in 1941), it seems hard to believe
he was able to overcome the challenge
of rising young strength stars and
retain the championship belt Fox
bestowed on him 35 years before.
Suffice it to say that when the belt
became his personal property, the
conditions under which challenges
would be accepted changed radically.
For example, disputants to his World's
Strongest Man title belt had to put up
$10,000 (that is not a misprint) for the
right to meet him in a contest.
However, Travis would put up the
same sum. Apparently Travis had his
fair share of eccentricities. He rou-
tinely carried $10,000 in large bills in
his watch pocket in anticipation of an
immediate challenge. In the October
1956 issue of S&H, longtime New
York City gym owner Sig Klein main-
tained that when Travis visited his
gym, which he did with regularity, he
always had the $10 grand on his per-
son.
The other prime stipulation laid down
by Travis was that the winner of such
challenges would be determined on
the basis of total gross weight lifted in
all tests combined. Bearing in mind
that he was most adept at ultra-heavy
tonnage lifts like the back lift, hand
and thigh lift, hip lift, deadlift, and
other movements involving “big num-
bers,” this tilted the playing field
decidedly in his favor.
The dollar requirement specifically
prohibited strongmen new to this
country from bothering Travis.
Moreover, the second requirement
had the net effect of freezing out the
terrific barbell/dumbbell lifters.
Strongmen Ruled SupremeThis issue of money is not lost on vis-
itors to our museum who often inquire
about the earning power of these top
drawer strongmen in the early part of
the 20th century. As a long-running
attraction/matinee idol of the Ziegfeld
Follies, it’s hard to envision anyone
surpassing Sandow’s reported $1,500-
$2,000 weekly.
On the other hand, the honors for
greatest single weekly take would
seemingly go to Siegmund Breitbart.
Historian David Webster reported in
his book, Sons of Samson, that during
Christmas week of 1923, Breitbart
performed before more than 85,000
spectators and earned $7,000.
Even in the 21st century, this is an
eye-popping remuneration for a
week’s work to most. Bear in mind,
though, Breitbart did not command
this sum every week. Still, those stel-
lar drawing cards that played the
higher profile venues with more fre-
quency clearly did well.
The fact that Travis walked around
with $10,000 on his person (and let’s
not forget the jeweled medal and belt
from Fox), suggests that he did not
suffer in the pay scale derby either.
Still, during his long run as a Coney
21Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
Island performer Travis generally
earned his fortune one nickel at a
time. In fact, this was the individual
price of admission to the Coney
Island Circus Sideshow (which
included Travis) pre-World War I,
according to Earle Liederman in the
June 1963 S&H.
However, after WW I things perked
up for Travis as Sig Klein reported
(October 1956 S&H) that in 1924 the
going rate to see Travis was up to 25
cents a head.
Please realize Travis averaged nearly
20 shows daily and showed up for
work nearly every day of the week.
Upon considering the style of act he
did, combined with how often he per-
formed his act, Travis should have
received the diamond belt just for sur-
viving this grind for so many decades!
Travis, Always the ShowmanDue to his flamboyant and eccentric
personality, there are a couple of
unique mysteries concerning Travis
that could be explored. One that begs
to be addressed is the odyssey his
beloved belt traveled before residing
in the York museum.
Upon his death in 1941, he left a
rather odd will, especially regarding
the belt, which amounted to a chal-
lenge to future strongmen he envi-
sioned vying for it. A partial quote of
the passage pertaining to the belt’s
disposition (as it appeared in the
August 7, 1941 New York Times) out-
lines the following wishes: “I direct
that a certain diamond-jeweled gold
and silver belt presented to me…be
offered in open competition and be
awarded to the man who at least will
have equaled the record made by the
testor herein by performing the fol-
lowing ten feats:” Travis laid out what
he felt were his 10 best lifts and stip-
ulated that they were to be done with-
in 30 minutes.
1) Within 30 seconds, clean and press a 100-
pound barbell 10 times while seated;
2) bring a pair of 90lb dumbbells along the sides
of the body to the shoulders and slowly press
them overhead;
3) teeth lift 350lbs from the floor (hands held
behind the back);
4) single finger lift with 350lbs from floor eight
times in five seconds;
5) a single finger lift from the floor with 560lbs
once;
6) two-hand grip lift, straddling the weight, from
floor, 700lbs, 20 times in 10 seconds;
7) a single hand and thigh lift from the floor with
1600lbs;
8) back lift 3660lbs once;
9) a single harness lift with 3580lbs; and
10) back lift 2000lbs 250 repetitions in seven
minutes.
Obviously, Travis slanted the criteria
toward a clone of himself—a
strength-endurance oriented specialist
who was adept at shallow range reps
with “tonnage-style” lifts. Hence, the
rep versus time requirement of certain
feats, as well as the overall time limit.
No TakersWhile the gauntlet had seemingly
been thrown down, assuming Travis
was genuinely looking for a succes-
sor, I find no evidence that suggests
anyone took on the challenge. Why?
The Golden Age of Strongmanism
had largely passed, and along with it
the practice of the hip, harness, and
hand-and-thigh lifts. Olympic-style
weightlifting and bodybuilding were
gaining popularity among the bur-
geoning generation of the 1940s. And
let’s not forget that threatening nation-
al distraction known as World War II,
which prompted so many lasting
changes within our culture.
Over the ensuing 20 years after
Travis’ death, the “trail” of his belt
faded into oblivion. That was, until
the April 1961 issue of S&H (page
26), which carries a photo and the
caption that it was on display in the
York Barbell Museum.
Who possessed the Travis belt
between 1941 and 1961? To date, no
amount of detective work has pro-
duced a definitive answer. However,
the “Iron Grapevine” section of the
February 1962 S&H offers a strong
clue. Mentioned therein is the dona-
tion of a fluted, thick-handled dumb-
bell to our museum by one-time New
York City gym owner/Iron Game per-
sonality Harry Shafran. Also men-
tioned is the extensive collection of
strongman paraphernalia and memo-
rabilia in Shafran’s possession, much
of it once the personal property of
Warren Lincoln Travis.
22Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
Again, no irrefutable proof, but
nonetheless a plausible explanation as
to how our museum may have come
by the awesomely gigantic Travis
dumbbell spotlighted in our last edi-
tion, as well as his glitzy champi-
onship belt.
In closing, the various attributions
included were done for more than
mere journalistic sourcing. As readers
probably surmised, Travis was a gen-
uine “character” in just about every
sense of the word. Hence, the articles
authored by Sig Klein and Earle
Liederman, in particular, in which
they relate various interactions with
Travis down through the years are not
only entertaining, but give more
insight as to how quirky Travis really
was.
Jan Dellinger has been Associate Editor for
Strength and Health and Muscular
Development during his 25 years at York
Barbell. He has published in Hard Training,
Hardgainer, and Varsity, along with serving as a
contributor for Maximize Your Training by Matt
Brzycki.
23Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
In recent years a debate has raged
about whether one set to failure is as
effective as a multiple set training
routine. Proponents of either system
are quick to site studies that favor
their arguments and harshly criticize
studies they disagree with. A recent
study examined the effects of one set
of 6-9 reps to failure compared to
three sets of 6-9 reps to failure. In this
study, 27 female subjects with at least
six months of regular strength training
experience were split into three
groups: a single set group (SS), a mul-
tiple set group (MS), and a control
group (C). All subjects underwent
two-1RM test sessions prior to the
six-week training program and a
posttest three days after the program.
They were tested on bilateral leg
extension and seated chest press.
Training was done twice a week for
six weeks. The subjects performed a
whole body workout consisting of leg
extensions, leg curls, abdominal
crunches, seated chest press, and lat
pulldowns. The rest interval between
sets for the MS group was two min-
utes. When a subject was capable of
doing nine or more repetitions of an
exercise, the weight was increased
2.5-5kg for the next workout.
Leg extension strength increased sig-
nificantly for both the MS and SS
groups (15% and 6%, respectively).
Seated chest press was significantly
increased for the MS group only
(10%). The percentage strength
improvement for both the leg exten-
sion and seated chest press were sig-
nificantly greater for the MS group
than the SS group.
This study clearly supports the idea
that multiple sets are better for
strength improvement than a single
set to failure. The reasons for this are
unclear. The authors of the study sug-
gest that fatigue induced by multiple
set training may be part of the training
stimulus.
Another possible explanation for the
improvement in strength with multi-
ple sets is improved neuromuscular
performance. Even though the sub-
jects all had some experience with
strength training and had presumably
gone through the steepest part of the
skill learning curve with these exer-
cises, skill improvement cannot be
ruled out. Even top-level athletes con-
tinue to refine and improve their skill
after years of training. Since there was
no measure of coordination or motor
24Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
Research Reviews
by Ed McNeely
unit recruitment patterns in this study,
we can’t be sure of the role learning
played in the strength improvement.
Schlumberg, A., Stec, J., and Schmidtbleicher,
D. (2001). Single- vs. Multiple-set Strength
Training in Women. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research. 15(3): 284-289.
The stimulus that causes muscles to
increase size or strength as a result of
resistance training is still unclear.
Various metabolic mechanisms have
been suggested as well as muscle
fiber splitting and satellite cell activa-
tion. One popular theory holds that
exercise induced muscle damage
stimulates growth as muscles repair.
Twenty-six healthy, active young
adults (19 male, 7 female) participat-
ed in a study to determine if a single
bout of eccentric training that elicited
muscle damage would have any effect
on the adaptation to subsequent train-
ing.
The subjects trained elbow flexors
three times per week using 4 sets of
10 reps at 75% of their 1RM. Each
arm was trained independently. Prior
to training the subjects underwent
1RM testing on each arm as well as
isometric MVC testing at five joint
angles. One arm for each subject was
randomly chosen to undergo a single
bout of maximal eccentric work. The
eccentric session consisted of one
maximal eccentric repetition every 10
seconds for 10 minutes, making a
total of 60 maximal eccentric contrac-
tions.
Two days following the eccentric
training session there was a 14.9%
decrease in strength in the eccentric
trained arm. This is common of mus-
cles that have undergone severe mus-
cle damage following exercise.
Following the nine-week training pro-
gram both the control arm (C) and the
eccentric arm (E) increased 1RM
strength by 41.6% and 42.4% respec-
tively. Isometric strength was
increased by 16.6% for the C arm and
18.4% for the E arm. While there was
no difference in the post-treatment
strength testing between the arms, the
C arm showed a significantly greater
improvement in strength during the
first 5 weeks of the program.
The results of this study show that a
single bout of eccentric training does
not improve the effectiveness of sub-
sequent mixed concentric-eccentric
training. What is interesting to note is
that the eccentric trained arm had
slower strength increases for the first
five weeks, but had to have greater
strength increases in the last four
weeks for the two arms to have equal
strength increases. It would be inter-
esting to see if the eccentric arm
would have continued to increase
faster in a longer study.
The results of this study do have some
implications for athletic performance.
Since there was a slower increase in
strength in the eccentric arm for five
weeks following the eccentric session,
it may be advisable for athletes to
avoid this type of training in their
final preparation for competition.
Folland, J., Chong, J., Copeman, E., and Jones,
D. (2001). Acute muscle damage as a stimulus
for training-induced gains in strength. Medicine
& Science in Sport & Exercise. 33(7): 1200-
1205.
Participation in high-level competi-
tive sport can be very rewarding, but
it also has it drawbacks. Almost every
sport has the potential to put the com-
petitors health at risk, either through
direct competition or because of the
nature of the training program. While
most of us are aware of the acute
injuries and accidents that happen in
sport, there has been very little
research that looks at the long term
health risks associated with competi-
tive sport. A recent epidemiological
study from Finland compared mortal-
ity rates of elite powerlifters to a
group of controls. The 62 male sub-
jects were powerlifters were who had
placed first through fifth in the
Finnish championships between 1977
and 1982. All subjects were in the
82.5-125kg weight categories. They
were all born between 1931 and 1958;
their average age during their compet-
itive career was 35.1 years and aver-
age weight was 107.4kg. A control
group was randomly chosen from the
Finnish Finrisk survey of 1982. The
subjects were all male aged 25-64
years. Death certificates were
obtained from the cause of death files
at Statistics Finland.
During the 12-year period of follow-
up, 12.9% of the powerlifters died
compared to only 3.1% of the con-
trols. While the powerlifters experi-
enced a mortality rate 4.6 times that of
25Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
the controls, there was no difference
in the proportion of heart disease or
cancer deaths between the two
groups. There was a higher rate of sui-
cide amongst the powerlifters.
The purpose of this study was not to
determine the reason for the higher
mortality rate among powerlifters, but
the authors speculate that it may be
due to steroid use. While steroid use
can contribute to heart and liver dis-
ease, more work needs to be done to
see if there is a relationship between
early mortality and steroid use. Since
the athletes in this study were from
the heavier weight categories, we can-
not rule out the effects of body mass
and diet on mortality. The average
weight 107.4kg is probably much
higher than the average weight of the
controls. While there are adaptations
to the heart as a result of strength
training, they are often not propor-
tional to the increases in body mass.
More work needs to be done to assess
the long-term health risks of compet-
ing in strength and power sports.
Parssinen, M., Kujala, U., Vartiainen, E., Sarna,
S., and Seppala, T. (2000). Increased prema-
ture mortality of competitive powerlifters sus-
pected to have used anabolic agents.
International Journal of Sports Medicine. 21:
225-227.
Holding a master's degree in science, Ed
McNeely has been a strength and physiology
consultant to 17 Canadian national and profes-
sional sports teams. He has presented interna-
tionally on athlete development and condition-
ing. He is the owner of Sports Performance
Institute, a company specializing in athlete
development and coaches' education.
26Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
Chambersburg, (PA) is a mostly rural
town of about 25,000, located in south
central Pennsylvania about 15 miles
from the Maryland border. The
Chambersburg Area Senior High
School is an AAAA school, about the
10th largest in the state.
The school has a rich heritage of soft-
ball and baseball success over the
years, with a repetitive record of plac-
ing players on full-ride D1 college
scholarships. Over the past several
years, boy's basketball success has
taken off and become a state power.
One of the key ingredients in the suc-
cess of these sport teams has been
their utilization of a conditioning pro-
gram offered locally at Results Fitness
Center.
Plans to offer similar services for the
high school's football team have met
with mixed results, but we see signs
of progress. Suffice it to say the
school's weight room is not exactly
state-of-the-art and is in need of
expansion and upgrades. And the
school has such a plan on the drawing
boards. But, in the meantime, what
can be done to help the kids get into
their best possible condition prior to
the season's kick-off?
Results PhilosophyAs Strength and Health readers
learned in the Winter and Spring 2001
issues, we base our sports condition-
ing programs almost exclusively on
multiple-joint, explosive movements
that mimic the joint and muscle action
that occurs on the field.
• We believe very strongly in squat-
ting for additional lower body
strength and power. These squats are
performed deep, but always in proper
form. This depends on the athlete's
ability to get into the correct position,
which our staff closely supervises.
• We do not use pulling straps for any
exercise. Most athletes need to
improve their gripping strength and
this is an easy way to accomplish this
goal.
• Players are exposed to the learning
sequence for clean, snatch, jerk, and
push press.
• Athletes do a number of combina-
tion lifts, all with relatively low repe-
titions and a medium load.
• We emphasize excellent technique
and a slow progression; the emphasis
is NOT on lifting heavy weights. Due
to the level of fitness brought to the
weight room in pre-season, we've
found there is no reason to rush
toward heavy weights.
The Football ProgramAs always, many of the football play-
ers are multi-sport athletes. This can
27Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
Building Towardthe Season
by Doug Lentz
make an entire yearly plan of peri-
odized strength training and condi-
tioning nearly impossible, but we
seek to accommodate the needs of
each season's sports. We use a basic
model of periodization, with initial
emphasis on technique (T), hyper-
trophy (H), strength (S), Anaerobic
Conditioning (AC), Power (P),
Speed and Agility (S&A).
One unique part of our football
training program is the use of an
unannounced "surprise day" work-
out, normally Wednesdays. We alter
the fixed workout program and
throw in activities or challenges that
benefit the athletes not only physi-
cally, but also psychologically. We
find a good deal of enthusiasm from
players, coaches, and staff when
these unpredictable workouts occur.
Similarly, during the other days'
workouts (normally Mondays and
Fridays) we vary many of the exer-
cises. Core movements (squat,
curls, etc.) may remain the same,
but some assistance movements
may change. This variety not only
breaks up the monotony associated
with regular training (a problem
sometimes with teenagers), but it
allows us to train or retain skills
needed for exercises that will come
in another cycle.
In an ideal world, not dealing with a
multi-sport athlete, our periodized
approach to football training looks
like this:
28Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
Preparation Phase (T, H, 5 wks)Day 1 Reps SetsDB Jumps 6 3Squats 12-10 3Bench press 12-10 3SLDL 12-10 3Bent-over row 12-10 3Back ext 12-10 3Abs 25 3Curls 12-10 3DB triceps ext 12-10 3Hip rolls 10-15 2Sidelying bends 10-15 2
Day 2 (unannounced)
Day 3DB Jumps 6 3Front squat 12-10 3Incline press 12-10 3DB step-ups 12-10 3DB press 12-10 3Lat pull-down 12-10 3Abs 25 3DB curl 12-10 3DB triceps ext 12-10 3
Phase I-A (H, 5 wks)Day 1 Reps SetsHang cleans 5-4 3Squat 10-8 3Bench press 10-8 3SLDL 10-8 3Bent-over row 10-8 3Back extension 10-8 3Blasters 20-30 2Curls 10-8 4Triceps ext 10-8 4Partner sidebends 10-15 2Neck 10 2
Day 2 (unannounced)
Day 3Hang Snatch 5-4 3Overhead Squat 10 2Squat 6-3 3Bench press 6-3 3Press 6-3 3Wide-grip pull-ups max 3Glute/Ham Raise 8-12 3Blasters 20-30 2Weighted dips 6-8 3Curls 6-3 3Neck 8-6 2
Phase I-B (S, 3 wks)Day 1Hang Clean 3 3Jerk 5 3Squat 8-6 3Bench press 8-6 3SLDL 8-6 3Bent-over row 8-6 3Back extension 8-6 3Curls 8-6 3Triceps ext 8-6 3Neck 8 2Blasters 30-35 2
Day 2 ("surprise")
Day 3Hang Snatch 3 3Overhead squat 8 2Squat 3-2 3Bench press 3-2 3SLDL 6-4 4Incline bench 6 3Bent over row 6 3Chin-ups 6 3Curls 6 3Neck 6 2High Chair 8 3Blasters 30-35 2
Phase II (A/C,P, 7-8 wks)Day 1Overhead squat 5 2Hang clean 5-2 3Squat 6-2 3Bench press 6-3 3SLDL 8-3 3Lat pull-down 10-6 3Trunk twist w/wgt 10-8 3DB triceps ext 10-6 3Curls 10-6 3Neck 8-6 2Weighted sit-ups 15-10 3
Day 2PlyometricsAgilities/Reaction"Fun" resistance exercises
Day 3Hang Snatch 5 3Front squat 5 3Incline bench 8-4 3SLDL 10-6 3Weighted chin-ups max 3Trunk twist w/wgt 10-8 3DB press 8-4 3Back extensions 8-6 3Curls 10 3DB triceps ext 10 3Neck 12-8 2Hanging leg raise 8-12 3Abs 40-50 2
Pre-Season TrainingResults offers Phase III training
(Speed & Agility/Power) during the
summer months. This 10-week pre-
season training consists largely of cir-
cuit training, in which we use combi-
nation lifts, explosive lifts, medicine
ball drills, plyometric training, and
some general resistance training exer-
cises.
Throughout the year our football
players also engage in goal-oriented
flexibility training and general condi-
tioning/speed development drills not
accomplished in the weight room
activities listed above. We manipulate
the volume and intensity of these
efforts throughout the year, seeking a
peak in performance just prior to the
kick-off of the football season.
One Remaining HurdleThe concept of a structured, in-season
conditioning program for football has
not yet been fully embraced and
accepted, so this remains a goal for
the future. However, if we can keep
players focused on the priorities tar-
geted throughout the rest of the year,
we end up with a stronger, faster,
more powerful and agile player resist-
ant to injury during the season.
Successful programs are not built
overnight. We have a ways to go, but
we ARE making progress. Stay tuned
for updates.
Doug Lentz is a USAW Senior Coach and cer-
tified strength and conditioning specialist who
serves as the director of athlete programs at
Results Fitness for Summit Health,
Chambersburg, PA. He is a local, regional, and
national speaker/writer on the subject of
improved athletic performance. His sports
background includes boxing, cycling, triathlon,
and weightlifting.
29Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
High-Intensity Training, or simply
HIT, is an approach to strength train-
ing used for decades by competitive
athletes in virtually every sport and
activity at the scholastic, collegiate,
and professional levels. Despite its
popularity, the principles behind HIT
are often misunderstood by many in
the strength and fitness community.
This article is an attempt to clarify
HIT concepts and eliminate the confu-
sion.
History 101After more than 22 years of tinkering
and countless prototypes, Arthur
Jones finally introduced and sold his
first Nautilus™ resistance training
machine in 1970. At roughly the same
time, he also suggested guidelines for
strength training that were quite dif-
ferent from traditional thinking.
Included in this information was the
notion that strength training should be
intense by design and brief by neces-
sity. For instance, Jones recommend-
ed doing “the minimum amount of
exercise that imposes the maximum
amount of growth stimulation” with
the goal of reaching “momentary
exhaustion” or “muscular failure”
within a prescribed number of repeti-
tions. Initially, he specified that no
more than 3 sets of each exercise
should be done. Jones also advocated
various repetition schemes including
as few as 6 and as many as 20, along
with a reverse pyramid of 3 sets con-
sisting of 10, 8, and 6 repetitions.
The term “High-Intensity Training”
appears as early as 1973 in an article
written by Jones. It’s also mentioned
in a 1975 article and several 1977
books authored by Ellington Darden,
PhD, a Nautilus™ employee. (The
acronym “HIT” became fashionable
in 1988 with the publication of the
HIT Newsletter.) The writings of
Darden showcased Nautilus™
machines and recommended one set
of 8–12 repetitions.
Because of the inextricable link
between this set/rep guideline and
Nautilus™, HIT has been character-
ized for more than a quarter of a cen-
tury as “one set of 8-12 reps on a
Nautilus™ machine.” Besides being a
gross oversimplification of HIT, this
statement promotes 3 main miscon-
ceptions concerning sets, repetitions,
and equipment.
SetsFact: HIT doesn’t always involve one
set of an exercise.It’s necessary to
understand that science has been
unable to determine exactly how
many sets of each exercise are neces-
sary for individuals to achieve opti-
mal increases in muscular size and
strength. But the overwhelming
majority of scientific evidence clearly
points to the fact that single-set train-
ing is at least as effective as multiple-
set training. An exhaustive literature
review in 1998 performed by Drs.
Ralph Carpinelli and Bob Otto of
Adelphi University and later reviews
by Carpinelli examined all studies
that compared different numbers of
sets (dating back to 1956).
Collectively, their research found five
30Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
by Matt Brzycki
High-Intensity Training:The Facts
studies that showed multiple-set train-
ing was superior to single-set training
and 56 that did not.
Many versions of HIT do indeed
involve one set of each exercise, but
there are some multiple-set applica-
tions (although the sets are generally
of much lower volume than that used
in traditional programs). For example,
Ken Mannie, Strength and
Conditioning Coach at Michigan
State University and a proponent of
HIT for nearly 25 years, prescribes a
myriad of protocols for his athletes.
Some routines call for 2, 3, and even
4 sets of the same exercise.
Sometimes the sets are performed in
succession, as in most traditional mul-
tiple-set protocols. At other times they
are segmented into push/pull, pre-
exhaust, or post-exhaust schemes.
According to Mannie, the number of
sets performed for each exercise is
determined by several factors includ-
ing the available equipment, the
emphasis of the workout (body seg-
ment or the particular lifts) or simply
as a matter of personal preference.
“For competitive lifters,” he adds,
“the fact that the congruent neuro-
muscular pathways must be fashioned
for skill encoding makes multiple-sets
a polestar variable.”
Rather than dwell on the number of
sets his athletes perform for each
exercise, Mannie focuses on the total
number of sets performed in a work-
out. In total-body workouts, MSU
athletes target their major muscles
with 15-18 sets per workout in the off-
season and 10-15 during the in-sea-
son. So, even though the number of
sets per exercise may vary from 1 to
4, the aggregate number of sets per
workout remains the same. Also,
Mannie pays close attention to bal-
ancing the workouts with adequate
stimulation in a variety of movement
planes for all of the anterior, posterior,
medial, and lateral compartments.
RepetitionsFact: HIT doesn’t always use 8-12
repetitions per set. Chip Harrison,
Strength and Conditioning Coach at
Penn State University and another
long-time advocate of HIT, frequently
manipulates the repetition schemes of
his athletes. Harrison notes, “It’s com-
mon for our athletes to use varied
loading schemes or repetition goals
throughout the course of a season or
over time in order to produce the
desired training response. While we
may invest a good bit of time using a
repetition range of 8-12, it’s just as
likely that our repetition goal will be
4-6 or 15-20.”
And consider Kim Wood, Strength
and Conditioning Coach of the
Cincinnati Bengals for more than 26
years. The dean of the NFL strength
and conditioning coaches, Wood has
been a proponent of HIT since the
early 1970s. He keeps it basic, a target
of 20 reps for the lower body, 10 for
the upper torso.
EquipmentFact: HIT doesn’t always incorporate
Nautilus™ machines(or any brand of
machine, for that matter). In order to
increase muscular size and strength, a
muscle must be loaded with some
form of resistance. The source of that
resistance really doesn’t matter. Mike
Bradley, the Assistant Strength and
Conditioning Coach at Stanford
University and yet another long-time
supporter of HIT, says, “The main
factors that determine gains in size
and strength are an athlete’s genetics
and level of effort, not the type of
equipment that is used.”
The truth is that HIT employs a wide
variety of equipment modalities to
load muscles including barbells,
dumbbells, machines (selectorized
and plate-loaded), stretch cords, sand-
bags, other human beings, and even
the lifter’s body weight (such as dur-
ing dips and chins). With this in mind,
Harrison recommends “a diverse and
varied selection of exercises and
choices of modality.”
Remember, all equipment choices
have advantages and disadvantages.
Machines can vary resistance accord-
ing to muscular needs, but they are
expensive and usually require a sepa-
rate machine for a separate function.
Free weights are inexpensive and
offer plenty of variety. As Bradley
points out, “Many different exercises
can be performed with free weights,
but how does one perform a leg curl
with a barbell or a neck exercise with
a dumbbell? This question may not be
31Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
important if you are a competitive
weightlifter but it is important if you
are an athlete who competes on the
field.”
So it’s best to stay open-minded when
choosing equipment. As Ken Mannie
advises, “Don’t handcuff yourself to a
set ideology or antiquated preju-
dices.”
What HIT IsSo what is HIT? Since it was first
popularized more than three decades
ago, there have been endless interpre-
tations, variations, and applications of
HIT. The fact of the matter is that
many strength and fitness profession-
als incorporate their own personal
twists and perspectives.
Nevertheless, most versions of HIT
do have several common denomina-
tors. As the name implies, HIT is
characterized by intense, aggressive
efforts. Each exercise is typically per-
formed to the point of muscular
fatigue or “failure.” A minimal num-
ber of sets are usually performed,
often only one set of each exercise,
but sometimes several sets.
Another characteristic of HIT is the
emphasis on progressive overload.
Whenever possible, an attempt is
made to increase either the repetitions
performed or the resistance used from
one workout to the next. HIT doesn’t
include fast-speed movements or
exercises. All repetitions are done
with a controlled speed of movement
so that momentum doesn’t play a sig-
nificant role in raising the resistance.
Finally, HIT is usually fast-paced,
involving a minimal amount of recov-
ery time between exercises.
HIT can be effective for anyone,
regardless of lifting experience or
aspiration, as long as it encourages
progressive overload and allows suffi-
cient recovery. The past three decades
have provided literally thousands of
examples of individuals, male and
female, from untrained beginners to
highly trained athletes, as empirical
evidence that HIT is extremely effica-
cious.
In summation, Chip Harrison states,
“HIT is an approach to programming
rather than an unalterable adherence
to some preconceived notion of exer-
cise volume, set, and rep schemes or
choice of training modality.”
Matt Brzycki has written more than 200 articles
on strength and fitness that have appeared in
more than 36 different publications. He is also
the author of several books, including A
Practical Approach to Strength Training, and the
editor of Maximize Your Training, a 455-page
book that features chapters written by more
than 30 strength and fitness professionals.
32Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
In 1953, with an eye toward creating a
new athletic opportunity in Florida
high schools, visionary Felton Luck
began the Florida High School
Weightlifting Championships. The
event, sanctioned by the Florida AAU
(then the governing body for the sport
in the US) consisted of the press, the
snatch, and the clean and jerk.
Such competitive opportunities for
youngsters were soon matched in
many other states around the country,
eventually leading to the creation of a
national championship title for
teenagers, not just high school stu-
dents. By the early 1960s local AAU
districts were encouraged to convert
high school meets to teenage events.
Not willing to simply let the original
meet disappear, the organizers of the
Florida High School Championships
initiated a major change. In 1964 the
snatch lift was eliminated and
replaced by the bench press. With this
hybrid mix of lifts from both
weightlifting and powerlifting, this
event no longer fell under the aus-
pices of AAU Weightlifting.
An invitational high school meet was
held in 1969 to showcase the new for-
mat. By 1975, the Florida High
School Activities Association official-
ly sanctioned this program and regis-
tered competitors from 14 schools at
the inaugural state championship
event. Soon, reflecting the interna-
tional weightlifting decision to elimi-
nate the press from competition in
1973, the FHSAA program was
trimmed to the bench press and clean
and jerk contest that remains today.
Florida High School Lifting TodayThe Florida high school sport of
weightlifting runs from January to
May, with weekly competitions at the
dual, tri-, district, regional, and state
levels. Of the more than 500 high
schools in the state, nearly 200 take
part in the sport. About 65% of these
participating schools register at least
one competitor in the state event. The
Florida State High School
Weightlifting Championships have
grown to nearly 700 competitors (in
2001 the Class A championships had
331 lifters, the 2A division saw 356
lifters).
The growth of the sport has not been
without its problems. Simply con-
ducting 1-day meet for more than 300
lifters is a huge challenge. Multiple
platforms must be used to handle this
33Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
by Harvey Newton
Florida’s High SchoolWeightlifting Program
number of competitors. This presents
a series of logistical challenges,
including adequate judging and staff,
sufficient platforms and equipment,
and difficulties highlighting the truly
outstanding performances that take
place.
According to Denarvise Thornton,
Associate Director of Athletics for
FHSAA, "We need to develop a qual-
ifying system for the state meet that
will allow us to properly showcase the
event. Weightlifting is our only sport
without a qualifying procedure."
Mr. Thornton has other goals for the
sport, as well. "We'd like to feature the
state meet on television, as we do with
other sports. But the number of com-
petitors, at this stage, is prohibitive.
Part of our plan is to elevate
weightlifting's status among students,
coaches, faculty, and administration.
While weightlifting is a great and nec-
essary adjunct to improved perform-
ance in all sports, the sport of
weightlifting is a truly exciting stand-
alone sport. I want more people to
realize this."
A Gold Mine for Hot ProspectsIn 1987, USA Weightlifting recog-
nized the potential talent available in
Florida. Through a grant from the US
Olympic Foundation, a pilot program
modeled after the successful
Australian Schoolboy Clean and Jerk
Championships was conducted. By
enticing Florida high schools with
equipment rewards, the program drew
more than 2,300 competitors the first
year.
Top lifters and coaches were brought
to the Olympic Training Center in
Colorado Springs for a training camp.
USA Weightlifting "prospected" for
talented athletes and coaches who
could become future stars. The pro-
gram paid off handsomely. From the
initial crop of young lifters, Tim
McRae, Jeff Macy, and Brian Jacob
soon represented the USA at interna-
tional competitions, including the
Olympic Games. Several Florida
high school coaches also became reg-
ulars at national level meets around
the country, including Richard
Graham, Bob Smithers, and the late
Bill McDaniel.
Despite several efforts at expansion,
the USAW Clean & Jerk program fell
by the wayside. Florida still fields
contenders at national level
weightlifting competitions, but many
more "nuggets" remain undiscovered.
The Spruce Creek LegacySpruce Creek High School, located in
Port Orange, has long been the king-
pin of Florida high school weightlift-
ing. Although other Volusia County
high schools (DeLand, Seabreeze,
Mainland,) have produced strong state
and national lifters, Spruce Creek
remains the dynasty in the Sunshine
State.
The program began in 1975 under the
guidance of Coach Dave Ramey, now
retired. One of Ramey's former
lifters, 1984 State Champion Lane
Lowery, was groomed for the eventu-
al head coach position, which he
assumed in 1996.
This school's weightlifting program is
nothing short of phenomenal, with
470 students involved this season.
This includes nearly 150 student-ath-
letes competing for a spot on the jun-
ior varsity or varsity teams. Many
other students work out under the
supervision of Coach Lowery and his
staff primarily for improved sports
performance. Yet another group of
youngsters simply train to improve
their appearance. "All the boys want
to get bigger and stronger," says
Lowery. "The girls not on a varsity
sport team work out mostly for
improved appearance."
The Spruce Creek weight room is a
no-frills weightlifting training hall.
Ten dedicated lifting sites are conve-
niently located for the coaches' close
scrutiny. Borrowing from a popular
trend often seen overseas, there are no
actual platforms. Lifter and barbell
are conveniently located on a solid
runway/rubberized "non-platform"
area. Well-used power racks are
located at the rear of each workout
area.
Just Another Day in the Weight RoomLowery and his staff are always on the
lookout for talent. All students learn
the competitive lifts, in addition to
whatever personal training goals they
may have. "Obviously, most lifters
are interested in improving their
bench press," observed Lowery. "But,
we keep the workouts fairly simple
and focused. I have one mission--I
want each student to enjoy the
weightlifting experience and leave the
program a better individual." No one
could ask for more.
34Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
Each year 35-50 students letter in
weightlifting. An intense level of
competition exists, with inter-squad
meets (many times with other
schools) weekly at both the varsity
and JV levels. The overall top two
lifters in each weight category get to
represent the school on their official
team. This high level of inter-squad
competition keeps the starting roster
very fluid.
The first cycle of the team's in-season
workout reflects a huge volume of
work, with the following general out-
line:“A” Team Monday/Friday Sets RepsBench press 4 5Incline press 4 5Jerks (medium intensity) 4 5Rack press 3 3Close grip bench press 4 5Dips 4 8Triceps press 4 8Triceps pushdowns 4 8
Tuesday/ThursdayClean 5 5Squats or front squats 8 8-2Hang power clean 4 5Hang shrug 4 5Deadlift 4 5High pull/clean 4 5Back extension 3 15Plyometrics 9 3-5
WednesdayJerk (heavy) 4 5Incline 4 5Jerk (hold split) 3 3Push press 4 5Overhead supports 3 3Press behind neck 4 8DB press 4 8
A Wave of the Future?Some other states have ventured into
weightlifting, yet none command the
attention gained by Florida. And with
the recent popularity of women's par-
ticipation in the sport, the future
seems even brighter. Again,
Denarvise Thornton, "Member
schools currently have invitational
competitions for girls. The coaches
are working through the FHSAA poli-
cies for 'recognizing' a sport, which
could lead to the addition of a girls'
weightlifting program on the girls'
athletic calendar."
While the quantity of the state's pro-
gram is outstanding, the actual quality
issue is of concern. In recent years, far
too many (roughly 35%) competitors
have either produced sub-qualifying
performances or bombed at the State
meet. "Through the efforts of FHSAA
and Spruce Creek High School, we've
created a videotape that will help
inform coaches and judges of the finer
points of weightlifting," says
Thornton. It appears that far too many
teams do not take a systematic and
proven approach to competition.
Many lifters do not properly warm up
and their technical and tactical skills
lack refinement. Further education of
coaches and athletes on the sport's
finer points will go a long way toward
improving performance.
Unfortunately, most student-athletes
turn their back on the sport of
weightlifting upon graduation.
Without an outlet at the collegiate
level and little, if any, awareness
weightlifting programs nationwide,
most lifters move onto other activi-
ties. This talent pool has not drawn a
great deal of attention from USA
Weightlifting. With little, if any, expo-
sure to the snatch, the athletes are at a
bit of a disadvantage as far as USAW
programs. And although many colle-
giate strength coaches would prefer
that young college-bound players
have experience in both explosive
lifts, the bench press remains "king"
in Florida high school lifting.
There's a lot of Sunshine State talent
being overlooked by all concerned.
This program in many other countries
would serve as a feeder system lead-
ing to international competition.
Although piecing together this puzzle
remains a challenge, at least a very
large number of youngsters are
exposed to a rewarding sport. Perhaps
the future holds promise for all
involved.
35Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
What runs through the mind as we
prepare to workout or compete may
reflect thought processes similar to
the view through a kaleidoscope. The
images can be viewed in different
ways. How often have you heard an
athlete state, "I should have slept
more last night, I'm too tired to lift
today." Perhaps you have heard one of
your athletes at a critical point say, "If
I don't make this lift, I am a failure
and might as well quit."
Understanding how we feel about
ourselves, improving self-esteem, and
projecting a more positive self-image
can enhance athletic excellence.
Although we know preparation is the
key to excellence, some athletes
rationalize by saying, "I really haven't
missed many days of training, I
should be OK for the competition." In
reality, the athlete missed peak train-
ing periods. What do all these state-
ments reflect?
D. Burns, in the "”Feeling Good”
handbook (1989) identified some
common negative thoughts, entitled
cognitive distortions, we send our-
selves and that are seen in the sport
milieu as well. Burns' "top 10" distor-
tions are:
1) All-or-Nothing ThinkingThe individual sees things on a
dichotomy or as black vs. white. A
common view is, "I am either per-
fect" or "I am a failure."
2) Over-GeneralizingThis individual takes a particularly
negative event (missed lift) and
applies it broadly. "I didn't place in
this meet, perhaps I should quit."
3) Mental Filter This is manifested by the cognizant of
only specific detail. For example,
even though the coach has stated a
number of positive reinforcers, the
person dwells on the one or two nega-
tives.
4) Discounting the PositiveAfter a major accomplishment the
athlete reduces the value with a state-
ment such as, "I was just lucky today."
5) Jumping to ConclusionsThis "mind reader" predicts what will
occur negatively before it happens.
When the coach calls out, "Joe, get
over here," Joe immediately assumes
he will be yelled at.
6) Magnifying or MinimizingThe athlete may overemphasize the
significance of an event. Conversely,
they may reduce the importance of an
occurrence, such as the above-men-
tioned individual who missed some
key training days.
7) Emotional ReasoningEmotions are important, but they can
also lie to you. Remember taking a
test, sure you had aced it, but you got
the results back and were astounded
by the negative results? Or you
believed you did poorly on the test,
yet performed well, and then looked
overhead to give thanks?
36Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002
TheKaleidoscope
Mindby Tim Winter, PhD
8) "Should on" ThemselfRemember the old saying, “If Should-
Of, Would-Of, and Could-Of lived
next door to each other, nothing
would get done.”
9) Labeling Yourself by FailureWhat is a loser or a jerk anyway?
10) Personalization and Blame The individual takes too much
responsibility for misfortunes or
attributes shortcomings to others.
Any of these sound familiar?
Toward a More Positive ImageWhat can be done to clear up these
twisted, fragmented, reflective mental
images? One of the most positive
steps is to literally increase aware-
ness. When you are upset about an
event, write it down and attempt to
record the automatic thoughts. By
recording these images you may be
surprised how hard we are on our-
selves. Play Sherlock Holmes--look at
the real evidence. So you made a mis-
take--are you truly a loser? What
things did you do well? Delimit the
specific vs. overgeneralizing.
Probably one of the most profound
approaches you may take is to talk to
yourself encouragingly as you would
a good friend or someone important.
We usually treat others nicer than we
talk to ourselves. How do you know
you can't do something until you try?
Test and challenge your negative
thinking. Learn to think in shades of
gray. Some days we have great work-
outs and sometimes poor, but where
are the other days?
Mentally, just like physically, we can-
not give 100% every day. Realize and
accept that this is OK. Rate your daily
performances and feelings on a con-
tinuum, rather than in a dichotomy.
We all have unique features that make
us individuals. In athletics and human
performance we sometimes need to be
reminded of this universal truth and
realize failure occurs to all. Who else
has bombed in a competition or
missed a critical lift? Look among the
crowd!
Changing the nomenclature on the
surface may appear cosmetic, but
actually can mean a very different
thing. I often ask my students, “What
is a ‘loser’?” A loser can be defined
operationally in many ways. What
about the individual who 'should' on
him- or herself? "Shoulding" on one-
self reflects that alter ego or "supervi-
sor's" voice in the back of the mind, as
if dealing with a coach, teacher, or
parent's expectation. The point is you
choose to do something, not them.
Like the Nike slogan, “Just do it.”
Last, we need to consider motivation.
Realize you are not going to make
everyone happy and that is OK. When
your coach recommends a new
approach or strategy, ask yourself,
“What do I gain by not trying?” vs.
giving it a shot.
We spend a lot of time planning those
daily workouts, attempting to peak at
major competitions. We devote time
and energy to closely monitoring
major competitors. Recognition of
irrational thoughts may be the com-
petitor you most closely need to
address. Kaleidoscopes are fun to
glance through, but we cannot steadi-
ly function with that type of image. A
mental plan to address cognitive dis-
tortions may stabilize the image seen
and sent by our athletes.
Dr. Tim Winter is the Director of the Sport
Science Institute in Shreveport, LA, where he
also serves as the Chair of the Department of
Kinesiology and Health Science at LSU-S.
Winter serves as the sports psychologist for the
USA Weightlifting Development Center located
at the University.
37Strength and Health is a registered trademark of York Barbell Company and can be found at www.yorkbarbell.com - Winter/Spring 2002