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States and Empires in Mesoamerica and North America
• Societies had limited or no contact with Africa, Asia, Europe– Brief presence of Scandinavians in
Newfoundland, Canada– Some Asian contact with Australia
• Mesoamerica in period of war and conquest, 8th century AD
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Major Pre-Columbian CivilizationsMajor Pre-Columbian Civilizations
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The Toltecs• Regional states in central Mexican valley
– Religious and cultural influence of collapsed Teotihuacan– Intense warfare
• Toltecs migrate from north-west Mexico, settle at Tula (near modern Mexico city)– High point of civilization: 950-1150 AD– Urban population of 60,000, another 60,000 in surrounding
area– Subjugation of surrounding peoples
• Civilization destroyed by internal strife, nomadic incursions 1175 AD
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The Mexica• One of several groups of migrants, mid
13th c. AD
• Tradition of kidnapping women, seizing cultivated lands
• Settled c. 1375 ADin Tenochtitlan (later becomes Mexico City)
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Tenochtitlan: The “Venice” Tenochtitlan: The “Venice” of the Americasof the Americas
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• Dredged soil from lake bottom to create fertile plots of land– Chinampas, up
to 7 crops per year
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ChinampasChinampas
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The Aztec Empire
• Mexica develop tributary empire by 15th century
• Itzcóatl (1428-1440), Motecuzouma I (Montezuma, 1440-1469)
• Joined with Texcoco and Tlacopan to create Aztec Empire
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The Toltec and Aztec Empires, 950-1520 AD
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Mexica Society
• Hierarchical social structure
• High stature for soldiers– Mainly drawn from aristocratic class– Land grants, food privileges– Sumptuary privileges, personal adornment
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Mexica Women
• Patriarchal structure
• Emphasis on child-bearing– Especially future soldiers– Mothers of warriors especially lauded
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Priests
• Masters of complex agricultural/ritual calendars
• Ritual functions
• Read omens, advised rulers
• Occasionally became rulers as well
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Cultivators and Slaves
• Communal groups: calpulli– Originally kin-based– Management of communal lands– Work obligation on aristocratic lands
• Slave class– Debtors– Children sold into slavery
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Mexica Religion
• Influenced by indigenous traditions from the Olmec period
• Ritual ball game
• Solar calendar (365 days) and ritual calendar (260 days)– Not as elaborate as Maya calendar
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Mexica Gods
• Tezcatlipoca (“smoking mirror”)– Powerful god of life and death– Patron god of warriors
• Quetzalcóatl– Arts, crafts, agriculture
• Huitzilopochtli– 14th century popularity, patron of Mexica– Emphasis on blood sacrifices
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Tezcatlipoca
Turquoise mask representing the god Tezcatlipoca, from the
British Museum.
Tezcatlipoca as depicted in the Codex Borgia.
Modern depiction of Tezacatlipoca.
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Quetzalcoatl
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Ritual Bloodletting
• More emphasis on human sacrifice than predecessor cultures
• Sacrificial victims had tips of fingers torn off before death, ritual wounds– Victims: Mexica criminals, captured enemy
soldiers
• Personal rituals: piercing of penis, earlobes
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Aztec Human Sacrifice
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Aztecs Sacrifice Neighboring Aztecs Sacrifice Neighboring Tribes to the Sun GodTribes to the Sun God
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Huitzilopochtli
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Peoples and Societies of the North
• Pueblo and Navajo Societies– American southwest– Maize farming 80% of diet– By 700 AD, construction of permanent stone or adobe
dwellings, 125 sites discovered
• Iroquois Peoples– Settled communities in woodlands east of Mississippi
• Mound-building peoples– Ceremonial platforms, homes, burial grounds– Cahokia large mound near east St. Louis, 900-1250 AD
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Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site, Illinois
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Trade
• No written documents survive regarding northern cultures
• Archaeological evidence indicates widespread trade
• River routes exploited
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States and Empires in South America
• No writing before arrival of Spaniards, 16th century AD– Unlike Mesoamerican cultures, writing from 5th
c. AD
• Archaeological evidence reveals Andean society from 1st millennium BC
• Development of cities 1000-1500 AD
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Before the Coming of the Incas• After displacement of Chavín, Moche
societies• Development of autonomous regional states
in Andean South America• Kingdom of Chucuito
– Lake Titicaca (border of Peru and Bolivia)– Potato cultivation, herding of llamas, alpacas
• Kingdom of Chimu (Chimor)– Peruvian coast– Capital Chanchan
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The Inca Empire• From valley of Cuzco• Refers to people who spoke Quecha language• Settlement around Lake Titicaca mid 13th
century• Ruler Pachacuti (r. 1438-1471) expands
territory– Modern Peru, parts of Equador, Bolivia, Chile,
Argentina– Population 11.5 million
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The Inca Empire,
1471-1532 AD
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Quipu and Inca Administration
• Incas ruled by holding hostages, colonization
• No writing, used system of cords and knots called quipu
• Mnemonic aid
Inca Quipu
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The The QuipuQuipu: An Incan : An Incan DatabaseDatabase
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Cuzco
• Capital of Inca empire
• Residents high nobility, priests, hostages
• Gold facades on buildings
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Cuzco: Ancient Capital of the IncaCuzco: Ancient Capital of the Inca(11,000 ft. above sea level)(11,000 ft. above sea level)
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Machu PicchuMachu Picchu
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Machu PicchuMachu Picchu
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Incan Terrace FarmingIncan Terrace Farming
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Incan MummiesIncan Mummies
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Inca Gold & SilverInca Gold & Silver
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Inca roads
• Massive road building system• Two north-south roads, approximately
10,000 miles– Mountain route– Coastal route
• Paved, shaded, wide roads• Courier and messenger services• Limited long-distance trade, held by
government monopoly
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Incan Society and Religion
• Social elites dominated by infallible king– Claimed descent from the sun
• Worship of ancestors– Remains preserved in mummified form– Regularly consulted– Sacrifices offered– Paraded on festive occasions
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Aristocrats, Priests, and Peasants
• Aristocrats receive special privileges– Earlobe spools as adornment
• Priestly class ascetic, celibate
• Peasants organized into community groups called ayllu– Land, tools held communally– Mandatory work details on land of aristocrats– Public works
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Inca Religion
• Inti sun god
• Viracocha creator god
• Temples as pilgrimage sites
• Peasant sacrifices usually produce, animals (not humans)
• Sin understood as disruption of divine order
Viracocha
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The Societies of Oceania
• Nomadic foragers of Australia– Virtually static culture
• No agriculture
• New Guinea – Swine herding, root cultivation c. 5000 BCE
• Small-scale trade of surplus food, some goods– Pearly oyster shells, spears, boomerangs
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Aborigine with Boomerang
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Cultural and Religious Traditions
• Loosely tied to environment
• Myths, stories about geological features
• Rituals to ensure continuing food supply
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The societies of Oceania
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The Development of Pacific Island Societies
• Established in almost all islands in early centuries BC
• Trade between island groups
• Long-distance voyaging on intermittent basis– Brought sweet potatoes from South America
c. 300 AD– Voyages preserved in oral traditions
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Population Growth
• Extensive cultivation
• Fishing innovations– Fish ponds allow small fish in, trap larger fish
• Population density leads to social strife, economic degradation
• C. 1500 AD fierce fighting, cannibalism
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Development of Social Classes
• Complexity of population leads to articulation of distinct classes– High chiefs, lesser chiefs, commoners,
artisans, peasants
• Small multi-island empires form– Limited before 19th century– Yet controlled land allocation, labor and
military conscription
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Polynesian Religion
• Priests as intermediaries to divine
• Gods of war, agriculture most prominent
• Ceremonial precinct or temple: Marae (heiau)
Taputapuātea, an ancient marae at Ra'iātea in the Society Islands, restored in 1994.