Standardizing Arguments Premise 1: New Mexico offers many outdoor

activities. Premise 2: New Mexico has rich history of

Native Americans and of Spanish conquest Premise 3: New Mexico is inexpensive.

_______________________________ Conclusion: New Mexico is an excellent

vacation choice.

Standardizing Arguments Claim: New Mexico is an excellent vacation

choice. ______________________________________ Support/Evidence 1: New Mexico offers many

outdoor activities. Support/Evidence 2: New Mexico has rich

history of Native Americans and Spanish conquest Support/Evidence 3: New Mexico is

inexpensive.

Standardizing Arguments with the

Toulmin Model

Premises(Grounds)→→→Conclusion (Claim)

REASONING (WARRANT)

G → So C; Since W

Harry was born in the U.S. (Grounds)

→ So: Harry is a U.S. citizen (Claim)

Since A person born in the U.S. is legally a U.S. citizen (Warrant) 

Toulmin Model, cont.

(G) Harry was born in the U.S. →So: (Q) presumably, (C) Harry is a U.S. citizen(R) unless he did not claim the U.S. citizenship

Since(W) A person born in the U.S. is legally a U.S.

citizenOn account of (B) U.S. immigration law

Main Types of Reasoning INDUCTIVE: forming generalizations

from specific instances DEDUCTIVE: reasoning from principles

(known facts) CAUSAL reasoning PARALLEL CASE

Inductive Reasoning Reasoning that moves from particular facts

to a general conclusion.

Guidelines for Inductive Reasoning

Are there enough specific instances? Are the specific instances typical? Are the instances recent / relevant?

Deductive Reasoning Reasoning that moves from a

general principle to a specific conclusion.

The conclusion of deductive reasoning is certain rather than probable.

Syllogisms Major Premise: All humans are mortal Minor Premise: Socrates is a human

Therefore: Conclusion: Socrates is mortal

Guidelines for Deductive Reasoning

Make sure listeners will accept your general principle (major premise)

Provide evidence to support your minor premise

Causal Reasoning Reasoning that seeks to establish causal

relationship between two phenomena / events.

A causes B

Guidelines for Causal Reasoning

Avoid the fallacy of false cause Do not assume that events have only a

single cause

Parallel cases Reasoning Reasoning in which a speaker

compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second.

Guidelines for Parallel Cases Reasoning

Above all, make sure the two cases being compared are essentially alike

Fallacy An error in reasoning.

Fallacies Hasty generalization Causal Fallacies (False cause) Bandwagon Fallacy Ad Hominem Either / Or Fallacy Invalid analogy Appeals to Misplaced Authority, Ignorance,

Emotion, Tradition

Hasty Generalization A fallacy in which a speaker jumps

to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence.

False Cause A fallacy in which a speaker

mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second.

Invalid Analogy An analogy in which the two cases

being compared are not essentially alike.

Red Herring A fallacy that introduces an

irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion.

Red Herring “Why should we worry about the

amount of violence on television when thousands of people are killed in automobile accidents each year?”

Ad Hominem A fallacy that attacks the person

rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute.

Ad Hominem “The governor has a number of

interesting economic proposals, but let’s not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family.”

Either-Or A fallacy that forces listeners to

choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist.

Either-Or “The government must either

raise taxes or reduce services for the poor.”

Bandwagon A fallacy that assumes that

because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable.

Bandwagon “The President must be

correct in his approach to domestic policy; after all, polls show that 60 percent of the people support him.”

Slippery Slope A fallacy that assumes that taking

a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented.

Slippery Slope “Passing federal laws to control the

amount of violence on television is the first step in a process that will result in absolute government control of the media and total censorship over all forms of artistic expression.”