Standard Practice for Estimate of the Heat Gain or Loss and the Surface Temperatures of Insulated...

Designation: C680 – 10

Standard Practice forEstimate of the Heat Gain or Loss and the SurfaceTemperatures of Insulated Flat, Cylindrical, and SphericalSystems by Use of Computer Programs1

This standard is issued under the fixed designation C680; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope

1.1 This practice provides the algorithms and calculationmethodologies for predicting the heat loss or gain and surfacetemperatures of certain thermal insulation systems that canattain one dimensional, steady- or quasi-steady-state heattransfer conditions in field operations.

1.2 This practice is based on the assumption that the thermalinsulation systems can be well defined in rectangular, cylindri-cal or spherical coordinate systems and that the insulationsystems are composed of homogeneous, uniformly dimen-sioned materials that reduce heat flow between two differenttemperature conditions.

1.3 Qualified personnel familiar with insulation-systemsdesign and analysis should resolve the applicability of themethodologies to real systems. The range and quality of thephysical and thermal property data of the materials comprisingthe thermal insulation system limit the calculation accuracy.Persons using this practice must have a knowledge of thepractical application of heat transfer theory relating to thermalinsulation materials and systems.

1.4 The computer program that can be generated from thealgorithms and computational methodologies defined in thispractice is described in Section 7 of this practice. The computerprogram is intended for flat slab, pipe and hollow sphereinsulation systems.

1.5 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regardedas standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematicalconversions to SI units that are provided for information onlyand are not considered standard.

1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of thesafety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is theresponsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.

2. Referenced Documents

2.1 ASTM Standards:2

C168 Terminology Relating to Thermal InsulationC177 Test Method for Steady-State Heat Flux Measure-

ments and Thermal Transmission Properties by Means ofthe Guarded-Hot-Plate Apparatus

C335 Test Method for Steady-State Heat Transfer Proper-ties of Pipe Insulation

C518 Test Method for Steady-State Thermal TransmissionProperties by Means of the Heat Flow Meter Apparatus

C585 Practice for Inner and Outer Diameters of ThermalInsulation for Nominal Sizes of Pipe and Tubing

C1055 Guide for Heated System Surface Conditions thatProduce Contact Burn Injuries

C1057 Practice for Determination of Skin Contact Tem-perature from Heated Surfaces Using a MathematicalModel and Thermesthesiometer

2.2 Other Document:NBS Circular 564 Tables of Thermodynamic and Transport

Properties of Air, U.S. Dept of Commerce

3. Terminology

3.1 Definitions—For definitions of terms used in this prac-tice, refer to Terminology C168.

3.1.1 thermal insulation system—for this practice, a thermalinsulation system is a system comprised of a single layer orlayers of homogeneous, uniformly dimensioned material(s)intended for reduction of heat transfer between two differenttemperature conditions. Heat transfer in the system is steady-state. Heat flow for a flat system is normal to the flat surface,and heat flow for cylindrical and spherical systems is radial.

3.2 Symbols—The following symbols are used in the devel-opment of the equations for this practice. Other symbols willbe introduced and defined in the detailed description of thedevelopment.

1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee C16 on ThermalInsulation and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee C16.30 on ThermalMeasurement.

Current edition approved Nov. 1, 2010. Published March 2010. Originallyapproved in 1971. Last previous edition approved in 2008 as C680 - 08. DOI:10.1520/C0680-10.

2 For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, orcontact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTMStandards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page onthe ASTM website.

1

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where:h = surface transfer conductance, Btu/(h·ft2·°F) (W/

(m2·K)) hi at inside surface; ho at outside surfacek = apparent thermal conductivity, Btu·in./(h·ft2·°F) (W/

(m·K))ke = effective thermal conductivity over a prescribed tem-

perature range, Btu·in./(h·ft2·°F) (W/(m·K))q = heat flux, Btu/(h·ft2) (W/m2)qp = time rate of heat flow per unit length of pipe,

Btu/(h·ft) (W/m)R = thermal resistance, °F·h·ft2/Btu (K·m2/W)r = radius, in. (m); rm+1 − rm = thicknesst = local temperature, °F (K)ti = inner surface temperature of the insulation, °F (K)t1 = inner surface temperature of the systemto = temperature of ambient fluid and surroundings, °F

(K)x = distance, in. (m); xm+1 − xm = thickness´ = effective surface emittance between outside surface

and the ambient surroundings, dimensionlesss = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 0.1714 3 10-8 Btu/

(h·ft2·°R4) (5.6697 3 10-8 W/(m2·K4))Ts = absolute surface temperature, °R (K)To = absolute surroundings (ambient air if assumed the

same) temperature, °R (K)Tm = (Ts + To)/2L = characteristic dimension for horizontal and vertical

flat surfaces, and vertical cylindersD = characteristic dimension for horizontal cylinders and

spherescp = specific heat of ambient fluid, Btu/(lb·°R) (J/(kg·K))hc = average convection conductance, Btu/(h·ft2·°F) (W/

(m2·K))kf = thermal conductivity of ambient fluid, Btu/(h·ft·°F)

(W/(m·K))V = free stream velocity of ambient fluid, ft/h (m/s)y = kinematic viscosity of ambient fluid, ft2/h (m2/s)g = acceleration due to gravity, ft/h2 (m/s2)b = volumetric thermal expansion coefficient of ambient

fluid, °R-1(K-1)r = density of ambient fluid, lb/ft3 (kg/m3)DT = absolute value of temperature difference between

surface and ambient fluid, °R (K)Nu = Nusselt number, dimensionlessRa = Rayleith number, dimensionlessRe = Reynolds number, dimensionlessPr = Prandtl number, dimensionless

4. Summary of Practice4.1 The procedures used in this practice are based on

standard, steady-state, one dimensional, conduction heat trans-fer theory as outlined in textbooks and handbooks, Refs(4,5,20,21,22,30). Heat flux solutions are derived for tempera-ture dependent thermal conductivity in a material. Algorithmsand computational methodologies for predicting heat loss orgain of single or multi-layer thermal insulation systems areprovided by this practice for implementation in a computerprogram. In addition, interested parties can develop computerprograms from the computational procedures for specificapplications and for one or more of the three coordinatesystems considered in Section 6.

4.1.1 The computer program combines functions of datainput, analysis and data output into an easy to use, interactivecomputer program. By making the program interactive, littletraining for operators is needed to perform accurate calcula-tions.

4.2 The operation of the computer program follows theprocedure listed below:

4.2.1 Data Input—The computer requests and the operatorinputs information that describes the system and operatingenvironment. The data includes:

4.2.1.1 Analysis identification.4.2.1.2 Date.4.2.1.3 Ambient temperature.4.2.1.4 Surface transfer conductance or ambient wind

speed, system surface emittance and system orientation.4.2.1.5 System Description—Material and thickness for

each layer (define sequence from inside out).4.2.2 Analysis—Once input data is entered, the program

calculates the surface transfer conductances (if not entereddirectly) and layer thermal resistances. The program then usesthis information to calculate the heat transfer and surfacetemperature. The program continues to repeat the analysisusing the previous temperature data to update the estimates oflayer thermal resistance until the temperatures at each surfacerepeat within 0.1°F between the previous and present tempera-tures at the various surface locations in the system.

4.2.3 Program Output—Once convergence of the tempera-tures is reached, the program prints a table that presents theinput data, calculated thermal resistance of the system, heatflux and the inner surface and external surface temperatures.

5. Significance and Use

5.1 Manufacturers of thermal insulation express the perfor-mance of their products in charts and tables showing heat gainor loss per unit surface area or unit length of pipe. This data ispresented for typical insulation thicknesses, operating tempera-tures, surface orientations (facing up, down, horizontal, verti-cal), and in the case of pipes, different pipe sizes. The exteriorsurface temperature of the insulation is often shown to provideinformation on personnel protection or surface condensation.However, additional information on effects of wind velocity,jacket emittance, ambient conditions and other influentialparameters may also be required to properly select an insula-tion system. Due to the large number of combinations of size,temperature, humidity, thickness, jacket properties, surfaceemittance, orientation, and ambient conditions, it is not prac-tical to publish data for each possible case, Refs (31,32).

5.2 Users of thermal insulation faced with the problem ofdesigning large thermal insulation systems encounter substan-tial engineering cost to obtain the required information. Thiscost can be substantially reduced by the use of accurateengineering data tables, or available computer analysis tools, orboth. The use of this practice by both manufacturers and usersof thermal insulation will provide standardized engineeringdata of sufficient accuracy for predicting thermal insulationsystem performance. However, it is important to note that theaccuracy of results is extremely dependent on the accuracy ofthe input data. Certain applications may need specific data toproduce meaningful results.

C680 – 10

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5.3 The use of analysis procedures described in this practicecan also apply to designed or existing systems. In the rectan-gular coordinate system, Practice C680 can be applied to heatflows normal to flat, horizontal or vertical surfaces for all typesof enclosures, such as boilers, furnaces, refrigerated chambersand building envelopes. In the cylindrical coordinate system,Practice C680 can be applied to radial heat flows for all typesof piping circuits. In the spherical coordinate system, PracticeC680 can be applied to radial heat flows to or from stored fluidssuch as liquefied natural gas (LNG).

5.4 Practice C680 is referenced for use with Guide C1055and Practice C1057 for burn hazard evaluation for heatedsurfaces. Infrared inspection, in-situ heat flux measurements,or both are often used in conjunction with Practice C680 toevaluate insulation system performance and durability ofoperating systems. This type of analysis is often made prior tosystem upgrades or replacements.

5.5 All porous and non-porous solids of natural or man-made origin have temperature dependent thermal conductivi-ties. The change in thermal conductivity with temperature isdifferent for different materials, and for operation at a relativelysmall temperature difference, an average thermal conductivitymay suffice. Thermal insulating materials (k < 0.85 {Btu·in}/{h·ft2·°F}) are porous solids where the heat transfer modesinclude conduction in series and parallel flow through thematrix of solid and gaseous portions, radiant heat exchangebetween the surfaces of the pores or interstices, as well astransmission through non-opaque surfaces, and to a lesserextent, convection within and between the gaseous portions.With the existence of radiation and convection modes of heattransfer, the measured value should be called apparent thermalconductivity as described in Terminology C168. The mainreason for this is that the premise for pure heat conduction is nolonger valid, because the other modes of heat transfer obeydifferent laws. Also, phase change of a gas, liquid, or solidwithin a solid matrix or phase change by other mechanismswill provide abrupt changes in the temperature dependence ofthermal conductivity. For example, the condensation of thegaseous portions of thermal insulation in extremely coldconditions will have an extremely influential effect on theapparent thermal conductivity of the insulation. With all of thisconsidered, the use of a single value of thermal conductivity atan arithmetic mean temperature will provide less accuratepredictions, especially when bridging temperature regionswhere strong temperature dependence occurs.

5.6 The calculation of surface temperature and heat loss orgain of an insulated system is mathematically complex, andbecause of the iterative nature of the method, computers besthandle the calculation. Computers are readily available to mostproducers and consumers of thermal insulation to permit theuse of this practice.

5.7 Computer programs are described in this practice as aguide for calculation of the heat loss or gain and surfacetemperatures of insulation systems. The range of application ofthese programs and the reliability of the output is a primaryfunction of the range and quality of the input data. Theprograms are intended for use with an “interactive” terminal.Under this system, intermediate output guides the user to make

programming adjustments to the input parameters as necessary.The computer controls the terminal interactively with program-generated instructions and questions, which prompts userresponse. This facilitates problem solution and increases theprobability of successful computer runs.

5.8 The user of this practice may wish to modify the datainput and report sections of the computer programs presentedin this practice to fit individual needs. Also, additional calcu-lations may be desired to include other data such as systemcosts or economic thickness. No conflict exists with suchmodifications as long as the user verifies the modificationsusing a series of test cases that cover the range for which thenew method is to be used. For each test case, the results forheat flow and surface temperature must be identical (withinresolution of the method) to those obtained using the practicedescribed herein.

5.9 This practice has been prepared to provide input andoutput data that conforms to the system of units commonlyused by United States industry. Although modification of theinput/output routines could provide an SI equivalent of the heatflow results, no such “metric” equivalent is available for someportions of this practice. To date, there is no accepted system ofmetric dimensions for pipe and insulation systems for cylin-drical shapes. The dimensions used in Europe are the SIequivalents of American sizes (based on Practice C585), andeach has a different designation in each country. Therefore, noSI version of the practice has been prepared, because astandard SI equivalent of this practice would be complex.When an international standard for piping and insulation sizingoccurs, this practice can be rewritten to meet those needs. Inaddition, it has been demonstrated that this practice can be usedto calculate heat transfer for circumstances other than insulatedsystems; however, these calculations are beyond the scope ofthis practice.

6. Method of Calculation

6.1 Approach:6.1.1 The calculation of heat gain or loss and surface

temperature requires: (1) The thermal insulation is homoge-neous as outlined by the definition of thermal conductivity inTerminology C168; (2) the system operating temperature isknown; (3) the insulation thickness is known; (4) the surfacetransfer conductance of the system is known, reasonablyestimated or estimated from algorithms defined in this practicebased on sufficient information; and, (5) the thermal conduc-tivity as a function of temperature for each system layer isknown in detail.

6.1.2 The solution is a procedure calling for (1) estimationof the system temperature distribution; (2) calculation of thethermal resistances throughout the system based on thatdistribution; (3) calculation of heat flux; and (4) reestimation ofthe system temperature distribution. The iterative processcontinues until a calculated distribution is in reasonable agree-ment with the previous distribution. This is shown diagram-matically in Fig. 1. The layer thermal resistance is calculatedeach time with the effective thermal conductivity being ob-tained by integration of the thermal conductivity curve for thelayer being considered. This practice uses the temperature

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FIG. 1 Flow Chart

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dependence of the thermal conductivity of any insulation ormultiple layer combination of insulations to calculate heatflow.

6.2 Development of Equations—The development of themathematical equations is for conduction heat transfer throughhomogeneous solids having temperature dependent thermalconductivities. To proceed with the development, severalprecepts or guidelines must be cited:

6.2.1 Steady-state Heat Transfer—For all the equations it isassumed that the temperature at any point or position in thesolid is invariant with time. Thus, heat is transferred solely bytemperature difference from point to point in the solid.

6.2.2 One-dimensional Heat Transfer—For all equations itis assumed there is heat flow in only one dimension of theparticular coordinate system being considered. Heat transfer inthe other dimensions of the particular coordinate system isconsidered to be zero.

6.2.3 Conduction Heat Transfer—The premise here is thatthe heat flux normal to any surface is directly proportional tothe temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow, or

q 5 2kdtdp (1)

where the thermal conductivity, k, is the proportionalityconstant, and p is the space variable through which heat isflowing. For steady-state conditions, one-dimensional heatflow, and temperature dependent thermal conductivity, theequation becomes

q 5 2k~t!dtdp (2)

where at all surfaces normal to the heat flux, the total heatflow through these surfaces is the same and changes in thethermal conductivity must dictate changes in the temperaturegradient. This will ensure that the total heat passing through agiven surface does not change from that surface to the next.

6.2.4 Solutions from Temperature Boundary Conditions—The temperature boundary conditions on a uniformly thick,homogeneous mth layer material are:

t 5 tm at x 5 xm ~r 5 rm!; (3)

t 5 tm11 at x 5 xm11 ~r 5 rm!

For heat flow in the flat slab, let p = x and integrate Eq 2:

q

xm11

*xm

dx 5 2

tm11

*tm

k~t!dt (4)

q 5 ke,m

tm 2 tm11

xm11 2 xm

For heat flow in the hollow cylinder, let p = r, q = Q/(2prl)and integrate Eq 2:

Q2pl

rm11

*rm

drr 5 2

tm11

*tm

k~t!dt (5)

Q 5 ke,m

tm 2 tm11

ln~rm11 / rm!2pl

Divide both sides by 2prl

q 5 ke,m

tm 2 tm11

r ln~rm11 / rm!

For radial heat flow in the hollow sphere, let p = r, q =Q/(4pr2) and integrate Eq 2:

Q4p

rm11

*rm

dr

r2 5

tm11

*tm

k~t!dt (6)

Q 5 ke,m

tm 2 tm11

1rm

21

rm11

4p

Divide both sides by 4pr2 and multiply both sides by rmrm11/rmrm11

q 5 ke,m

rmrm11

r2

tm 2 tm11

rm11 2 rm

Note that the effective thermal conductivity over the tem-perature range is:

ke,m 5

tm11

*tm

k~t!dt

tm11 2 tm(7)

6.3 Case 1, Flat Slab Systems:6.3.1 From Eq 4, the temperature difference across the mth

layer material is:

tm 2 tm11 5 qRm (8)

where Rm 5~xm11 2 xm!

ke,m

Note that Rm is defined as the thermal resistance of the mthlayer of material. Also, for a thermal insulation system of nlayers, m = 1,2...n, it is assumed that perfect contact existsbetween layers. This is essential so that continuity of tempera-ture between layers can be assumed.

6.3.2 Heat is transferred between the inside and outsidesurfaces of the system and ambient fluids and surroundingsurfaces by the relationships:

q 5 hi~ti 2 t1! (9)

q 5 ho~tn11 2 to!

where hi and ho are the inside and outside surface transferconductances. Methods for estimating these conductances arefound in 6.7. Eq 9 can be rewritten as:

ti 2 t1 5 qRi (10)

tn11 2 to 5 qRo

where Ri 51hi

, Ro 51ho

For the computer program, the inside surface transfer con-ductance, hi, is assumed to be very large such that Ri = 0, andt1 = ti is the given surface temperature.

6.3.3 Adding Eq 8 and Eq 10 yields the following equation:

ti 2 to 5 q~R1 1 R2 1...1Rn 1 Ri 1 Ro! (11)

From the previous equation a value for q can be calculatedfrom estimated values of the resistances, R. Then, by rewritingEq 8 to the following:

tm11 5 tm 2 qRm (12)

t1 5 ti 2 qRi, for Ri . 0

The temperature at the interface(s) and the outside surfacecan be calculated starting with m = 1. Next, from the calculated

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temperatures, values of ke,m (Eq 7) and Rm (Eq 8) can becalculated as well as Ro and Ri. Then, by substituting thecalculated R-values back into Eq 11, a new value for q can becalculated. Finally, desired (correct) values can be obtained byrepeating this calculation methodology until all values agreewith previous values.

6.4 Case 2, Cylindrical (Pipe) Systems:6.4.1 From Eq 5, the heat flux through any layer of material

is referenced to the outer radius by the relationship:

qn 5 qm

rrn11

5 ke,m

tm 2 tm11

rn11 ln~rm11 / rm!(13)

and, the temperature difference can be defined by Eq 8,where:

Rm 5rn11 ln~rm11 / rm!

ke,m(14)

Utilizing the methodology presented in case 1 (6.3), the heatflux, qn, and the surface temperature, tn+1, can be found bysuccessive iterations. However, one should note that thedefinition of Rm found in Eq 14 must be substituted for the onepresented in Eq 8.

6.4.2 For radial heat transfer in pipes, it is customary todefine the heat flux in terms of the pipe length:

qp 5 2prn11qn (15)

where qp is the time rate of heat flow per unit length of pipe.If one chooses not to do this, then heat flux based on theinterior radius must be reported to avoid the influence ofouter-diameter differences.

6.5 Case 3, Spherical Systems:6.5.1 From Eq 6, the flux through any layer of material is

referenced to the outer radius by the relationship:

qn 5 qm

r2

rn112 5 ke,m

rmrm11 ~tm 2 tm11!

rn112

~rm11 2 rm!(16)

The temperature difference can be defined by Eq 8, where:

Rm 5rn11

2~rm11 2 rm!

ke,mrmrm11(17)

Again, utilizing the methodology presented in case 1 (6.3),the heat flux, qn, and the surface temperature, tn+1, can be foundby successive iterations. However, one should note that thedefinition of Rm found in Eq 17 must be substituted for the onepresented in Eq 8.

6.6 Calculation of Effective Thermal Conductivity:6.6.1 In the calculational methodologies of 6.3, 6.4, and 6.5,

it is necessary to evaluate ke,m as a function of the two surfacetemperatures of each layer comprising the thermal insulatingsystem. This is accomplished by use of Eq 7 where k(t) isdefined as a polynomial function or a piecewise continuousfunction comprised of individual, integrable functions overspecific temperature ranges. It is important to note that tem-perature can either be in °F (°C) or absolute temperature,because the thermal conductivity versus temperature relation-ship is regression dependent. It is assumed for the programs inthis practice that the user regresses the k versus t functionsusing °F.

6.6.1.1 When k(t) is defined as a polynomial function, suchas k(t) = a + bt + ct2+ dt3, the expression for the effectivethermal conductivity is:

ke,m 5

tm11

*tm

~a 1 bt 1 ct2 1 dt3!dt

~tm11 2 tm!(18)

ke,m 5

a~tm11 2 tm! 1b2 ~tm11

2 2 tm2! 1

c3 ~tm11

3 2 tm3! 1

d4 ~tm11

4 2 tm4!

~tm11 2 tm!

ke,m 5 a 1b2 ~tm 1 tm11! 1

c3 ~tm

2 1 tmtm11 1 tm112

! 1d4 ~tm

3 1 tm2 tm11

1 tmtm112 1 tm11

3!

It should be noted here that for the linear case, c = d = 0, andfor the quadratic case, d = 0.

6.6.1.2 When k(t) is defined as an exponential function,such as k(t) = ea+bt, the expression for the effective thermalconductivity is:

ke,m 5

tm11

*tm

ea1btdt

~tm11 2 tm!(19)

ke,m 5

1b ~ea1btm11 2 ea1btm!

~tm11 2 tm!

ke,m 5~ea1btm11 2 ea1btm!

b~tm11 2 tm!

6.6.1.3 The piece-wise continuous function may be definedas:

k~t! 5 k1~t! tbl # t # tl (20)

5k2~t! tl # t # tu tbl # tm and tm11 # tbu

5k3~t! tu # t # tbu

where tbl and tbu are the experimental lower and upperboundaries for the function. Also, each function is integrable,and k1(tl) = k2(tl) and k2(tu) = k3(tu). In terms of the effectivethermal conductivity, some items must be considered beforeperforming the integration in Eq 8. First, it is necessary todetermine if tm+1 is greater than or equal to tm. Next, it isnecessary to determine which temperature range tm and tm+1 fitinto. Once these two parameters are decided, the effectivethermal conductivity can be determined using simple calculus.For example, if tbl # tm # tl and tu # tm+1 # tbu then theeffective thermal conductivity would be:

ke,m 5

Tl

*tm

k1~t!dt 1

Tu

*Tl

k2~t! 1

tm11

*Tu

k3~t!

~tm11 2 tm!(21)

It should be noted that other piece-wise functions exist, butfor brevity, the previous is the only function presented.

6.6.2 It should also be noted that when the relationship of kwith t is more complex and does not lend itself to simplemathematical treatment, a numerical method might be used. Itis in these cases that the power of the computer is particularlyuseful. There are a wide variety of numerical techniquesavailable. The most suitable will depend of the particularsituation, and the details of the factors affecting the choice arebeyond the scope of this practice.

6.7 Surface Transfer Conductance:

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6.7.1 The surface transfer conductance, h, as defined inTerminology C168, assumes that the principal surface is at auniform temperature and that the ambient fluid and othervisible surfaces are at a different uniform temperature. Theconductance includes the combined effects of radiant, convec-tive, and conductive heat transfer. The conductance is definedby:

h 5 hr 1 hc (22)

where hr is the component due to radiation and hc is thecomponent due to convection and conduction. In subsequentsections, algorithms for these components will be presented.

6.7.1.1 The algorithms presented in this practice for calcu-lating surface transfer conductances are used in the computerprogram; however, surface transfer conductances may beestimated from published values or separately calculated fromalgorithms other than the ones presented in this practice. Onespecial note, care must be exercised at low or high surfacetemperatures to ensure reasonable values.

6.7.2 Radiant Heat Transfer Conductance—The radiationconductance is simply based on radiant heat transfer and iscalculated from the Stefan-Boltzmann Law divided by theaverage difference between the surface temperature and the airtemperature. In other words:

hr 5s´ ~Ts

4 2 To4!

Ts 2 Toor (23)

hr 5 s´ · ~Ts3 1 Ts

2To 1 TsTo2 1 To

3! or

hr 5 s´ · 4Tm3 F1 1 STs 2 To

Ts 1 ToD2G

where:´ = effective surface emittance between outside surface

and the ambient surroundings, dimensionless,s = Stefan-Boltzman constant, 0.1714 3 10-8 Btu/

(h·ft2·°R4) (5.6697 3 10-8 W/(m2·K4)),Ts = absolute surface temperature, °R (K),To = absolute surroundings (ambient air if assumed the

same) temperature, °R (K), andTm = (Ts + To)/2

6.7.3 Convective Heat Transfer Conductance—Certain con-ditions need to be identified for proper calculation of thiscomponent. The conditions are: (a) Surface geometry—plane,cylinder or sphere; (b) Surface orientation—from vertical tohorizontal including flow dependency; (c) Nature of heattransfer in fluid—from free (natural) convection to forcedconvection with variation in the direction and magnitude offluid flow; (d) Condition of the surface—from smooth tovarious degrees of roughness (primarily a concern for forcedconvection).

6.7.3.1 Modern correlation of the surface transfer conduc-tances are presented in terms of dimensionless groups, whichare defined for fluids in contact with solid surfaces. Thesegroups are:

Nusselt, NuL—

5hc—

Lkf

or NuD—

5hc—

Dkf

(24)

Rayleigh, RaL 5g · b · r · cp~DT!L3

n · kfor RaD 5

g · b · r · cp~DT!D3

n · kf

(25)

Reynolds, ReL 5VLn

or ReD 5VDn

(26)

Prandtl, Pr 5n · r · cp

kf(27)

where:L = characteristic dimension for horizontal and vertical

flat surfaces, and vertical cylinders feet (m), ingeneral, denotes height of vertical surface or length ofhorizontal surface,

D = characteristic dimension for horizontal cylinders andspheres feet (m), in general, denotes the diameter,

cp = specific heat of ambient fluid, Btu/(lb·°R) (J/(kg·K)),

hc— = average convection conductance, Btu/(h·ft2·°F) (W/

(m2·K)),kf = thermal conductivity of ambient fluid, Btu/(h·ft·°F)

(W/(m·K)),V = free stream velocity of ambient fluid, ft/h (m/s),n = kinematic viscosity of ambient fluid, ft2/h (m2/s),g = acceleration due to gravity, ft/h2 (m/s2),b = volumetric thermal expansion coefficient of ambient

fluid, °R-1(K-1),r = density of ambient fluid, lb/ft3 (kg/m3), andDT = absolute value of temperature difference between

surface and ambient fluid, °R (K).It needs to be noted here that (except for spheres–forced

convection) the above fluid properties must be calculated at thefilm temperature, Tf, which is the average of surface andambient fluid temperatures. For this practice, it is assumed thatthe ambient fluid is dry air at atmospheric pressure. Theproperties of air can be found in references such as Ref (23).This reference contains equations for some of the propertiesand polynomial fits for others, and the equations are summa-rized in Table A1.1.

6.7.3.2 When a heated surface is exposed to flowing fluid,the convective heat transfer will be a combination of forcedand free convection. For this mixed convection condition,Churchill (26) recommends the following equation. For eachgeometric shape and surface orientation the overall averageNusselt number is to be computed from the average Nusseltnumber for forced convection and the average Nusselt numberfor natural convection. The film conductance, h, is thencomputed from Eq 24. The relationship is:

~Nu—

2 d!j 5 ~Nuf

—2 d!

j 1 ~Nun—

2 d!j (28)

where the exponent, j, and the constant, d, are defined basedon the geometry and orientation.

6.7.3.3 Once the Nusselt number has been calculated, thesurface transfer conductance is calculated from a rearrange-ment of Eq 24:

hc 5 Nu—

L · kf / L (29)

h—

c 5 Nu—

D · kf / D

where L and D are the characteristic dimension of thesystem. The term ka is the thermal conductivity of air deter-mined at the film temperature using the equation in Table A1.1.

6.7.4 Convection Conductances for Flat Surfaces:6.7.4.1 From Heat Transfer by Churchill and Ozoe as cited

in Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by Incropera and

C680 – 10



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Dewitt, the relation for forced convection by laminar flow overan isothermal flat surface is:

Nu—

f,L 50.6774 ReL

1/2Pr1/3

@1 1 ~0.0468 / Pr!2/3

#1/4 ReL , 5 3 105 (30)

For forced convection by turbulent flow over an isothermalflat surface, Incropera and Dewitt suggest the following:

Nu—

f,L 5 ~0.037 ReL4/5 2 871! Pr1/3 5 3 105 , ReL , 108 (31)

It should be noted that the upper bound for ReL is anapproximate value, and the user of the above equation must beaware of this.

6.7.4.2 In “Correlating Equations for Laminar and Turbu-lent Free Convection from a Vertical Plate” by Churchill andChu, as cited by Incropera and Dewitt, it is suggested fornatural convection on isothermal, vertical flat surfaces that:

Nu—

n,L 5 H0.825 10.387 RaL

1/6

@1 1 ~0.492 / Pr!9/16

#8/27J2

All RaL (32)

For slightly better accuracy in the laminar range, it issuggested by the same source (p. 493) that:

Nu—

n,L 5 0.68 10.670 RaL

1/4

@1 1 ~0.492 / Pr!9/16

#4/9 RaL , 109 (33)

In the case of both vertical flat and cylindrical surfaces thecharacteristic dimension, L or D, is the vertical height (ft). Tocompute the overall Nusselt number (Eq 28), set j = 3 and d =0. Also, it is important to note that the free convectioncorrelations apply to vertical cylinders in most cases.

6.7.4.3 For natural convection on horizontal flat surfaces,Incropera and Dewitt (p. 498) cite Heat Transmission byMcAdams, “Natural Convection Mass Transfer Adjacent toHorizontal Plates” by Goldstein, Sparrow and Jones, and“Natural Convection Adjacent to Horizontal Surfaces of Vari-ous Platforms” for the following correlations:

Heat flow up: Nu—

n,L 5 0.54 RaL1/4 104 , RaL , 107 (34)

Nu—

n,L 5 0.15 RaL1/3 107 , RaL , 1011

Heat flow down: Nu—

n,L 5 0.27 RaL1/4 105 , RaL , 1010

In the case of horizontal flat surfaces, the characteristicdimension, L, is the area of the surface divided by the perimeterof the surface (ft). To compute the overall Nusselt number (Eq28), set j = 3.5 and d = 0.

6.7.5 Convection Conductances for Horizontal Cylinders:6.7.5.1 For forced convection with fluid flow normal to a

circular cylinder, Incropera and Dewitt (p. 370) cite HeatTransfer by Churchill and Bernstein for the following correla-tion:

Nu—

f,D 5 0.3 10.62ReD

1/2 Pr1/3

@1 1 ~0.4 / Pr!2/3

#1/4 F1 1 S ReD

282 000D5/8G4/5

(35)

All ReD · Pr . 0.2

In the case of horizontal cylinders, the characteristic dimen-sion, D, is the diameter of the cylinder, (ft). In addition, thiscorrelation should be used for forced convection from verticalpipes.

6.7.5.2 For natural convection on horizontal cylinders, In-cropera and Dewitt (p. 502) cite “Correlating Equations for

Laminar and Turbulent Free Convection from a HorizontalCylinder” by Churchill and Chu for the following correlation:

Nu—

n,D 5 H0.60 10.387RaD

1/6

@1 1 ~0.559 / Pr!9/16

#8/27J2

RaD , 1012

(36)

To compute the overall Nusselt number using Eq 28, set j =4 and d = 0.3.

6.7.6 Convection Conductances for Spheres:6.7.6.1 For forced convection on spheres, Incropera and

DeWitt cite S. Whitaker in AIChE J. for the followingcorrelation:

Nu—

f,D 5 2 1 ~0.4 ReD1/2 1 0.06 ReD

2/3! Pr0.4S µ

µsD1/4

(37)

0.71 , Pr , 380

3.5 , ReD , 7.6 3 104

1.0 , ~µ/µs! , 3.2

where µ and µs are the free stream and surface viscosities ofthe ambient fluid respectively. It is extremely important to notethat all properties need to be evaluated based on the free streamtemperature of the ambient fluid, except for µs, which needs tobe evaluated based on the surface temperature.

6.7.6.2 For natural convection on spheres, Incropera andDeWitt cite “Free Convection Around Immersed Bodies” by S.W. Churchill in Heat Exchange Design Handbook (Schlunder)for the following correlation:

Nu—

n,D 5 2 10.589 RaD

1/4

@1 1 ~0.469 / Pr!9/16

#4/9 (38)

0.7 # Pr

RaD , 1011

where all properties are evaluated at the film temperature. Tocompute the overall Nusselt number for spheres (Eq 28) set j =4 and d = 2.

7. Computer Program

7.1 General:7.1.1 The computer program(s) are written in Microsoftt

Visual Basic.7.1.2 The program consists of a main program that utilizes

several subroutines. Other subroutines may be added to makethe program more applicable to the specific problems ofindividual users.

7.2 Functional Description of Program—The flow chartshown in Fig. 1 is a schematic representations of the opera-tional procedures for each coordinate system covered by theprogram. The flow chart presents the logic path for enteringdata, calculating and recalculating system thermal resistancesand temperatures, relaxing the successive errors in the tem-perature to within 0.1° of the temperature, calculating heat lossor gain for the system and printing the parameters and solutionin tabular form.

7.3 Computer Program Variable Descriptions—The de-scription of all variables used in the programs are given in thelisting of the program as comments.

7.4 Program Operation:

C680 – 10



--`,`,````,,`````,`,,,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

7.4.1 Log on procedures and any executive program forexecution of this program must be followed as needed.

7.4.2 The input for the thermal conductivity versus meantemperature parameters must be obtained as outlined in 6.6.The type code determines the thermal conductivity versustemperature relationship applying to the insulation. The sametype code may be used for more than one insulation. Aspresented, the programs will operate on three functionalrelationships:

Type Functional Relationship

Quadratic k = a + bt + ct2

where a, b, and c are constants

Linear k = a1+ b1t; t < tLk = a2+ b2t; tL < t < tUk = a3+ b3t; t > tUwhere a1, a2, a3, b1, b2, b3 are constants, and

tL and tU are, respectively, the lower and upperinflection points of an S-shaped curve

Additional or different relationships may be used, but themain program must be modified.

8. Report

8.1 The results of calculations performed in accordancewith this practice may be used as design data for specific jobconditions, or may be used in general form to represent theperformance of a particular product or system. When theresults will be used for comparison of performance of similarproducts, it is recommended that reference be made to thespecific constants used in the calculations. These referencesshould include:

8.1.1 Name and other identification of products or compo-nents,

8.1.2 Identification of the nominal pipe size or surfaceinsulated, and its geometric orientation,

8.1.3 The surface temperature of the pipe or surface,8.1.4 The equations and constants selected for the thermal

conductivity versus mean temperature relationship,

8.1.5 The ambient temperature and humidity, if applicable,8.1.6 The surface transfer conductance and condition of

surface heat transfer,8.1.6.1 If obtained from published information, the source

and limitations,8.1.6.2 If calculated or measured, the method and signifi-

cant parameters such as emittance, fluid velocity, etc.,8.1.7 The resulting outer surface temperature, and8.1.8 The resulting heat loss or gain.8.2 Either tabular or graphical representation of the calcu-

lated results may be used. No recommendation is made for theformat in which results are presented.

9. Accuracy and Resolution

9.1 In many typical computers normally used, seven signifi-cant digits are resident in the computer for calculations.Adjustments to this level can be made through the use of“Double Precision;” however, for the intended purpose of thispractice, standard levels of precision are adequate. The format-ting of the output results, however, should be structured toprovide a resolution of 0.1 % for the typical expected levels ofheat flux and a resolution of 1°F (0.55°C) for surface tempera-tures.

NOTE 1—The term “double precision” should not be confused withASTM terminology on Precision and Bias.

9.2 Many factors influence the accuracy of a calculativeprocedure used for predicting heat flux results. These factorsinclude accuracy of input data and the applicability of theassumptions used in the method for the system under study.The system of mathematical equations used in this analysis hasbeen accepted as applicable for most systems normally insu-lated with bulk type insulations. Applicability of this practiceto systems having irregular shapes, discontinuities and othervariations from the one-dimensional heat transfer assumptionsshould be handled on an individual basis by professionalengineers familiar with those systems.

FIG. 2 Thermal Conductivity vs. Mean Temperature

C680 – 10



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9.3 The computer resolution effect on accuracy is onlysignificant if the level of precision is less than that discussed in9.1. Computers in use today are accurate in that they willreproduce the calculated results to resolution required ifidentical input data is used.

9.4 The most significant factor influencing the accuracy ofclaims is the accuracy of the input thermal conductivity data.The accuracy of applicability of these data is derived from twofactors. The first is the accuracy of the test method used togenerate the data. Since the test methods used to supply thesedata are typically Test Methods C177, C335, or C518, thereports should contain some statement of the estimates of erroror estimates of uncertainty. The remaining factors influencingthe accuracy are the inherent variability of the product and thevariability of the installation practices. If the product variabil-ity is large, the installation is poor, or both, serious differencesmight exist between measured performance and predictedperformance from this practice.

10. Precision and Bias

10.1 When concern exists with the accuracy of the input testdata, the recommended practice to evaluate the impact ofpossible errors is to repeat the calculation for the range of theuncertainty of the variable. This process yields a range in thedesired output variable for a given uncertainty in the inputvariable. Repeating this procedure for all the input variableswould yield a measure of the contribution of each to the overalluncertainty. Several methods exist for the combination of theseeffects; however, the most commonly used is to take the squareroot of the sum of the squares of the percentage errors inducedby each variable’s uncertainty. Eq 39 from Theories of Engi-neering Experimentation by H. Schenck gives the expressionin mathematical form:

SR 5 S (

i51

n SS]R]xiDDxiD2D1/2

(39)

FIG. 3 Mean Temperature vs. Thermal Conductivity

FIG. 4 Thermal Conductivity vs. Mean Temperature

C680 – 10



--`,`,````,,`````,`,,,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

where:S = estimate of the probable error of the procedure,R = result of the procedure,xi = ith variable in procedure,]R/]xi = change in result with respect to change in ith

variable,Dxi = uncertainty in value of variable, i, andn = total number of variables in procedure.

10.2 ASTM Subcommittee C16.30, Task Group 5.2, whichis responsible for preparing this practice, has prepared Appen-dix X1. The appendix provides a more complete discussion of

the precision and bias expected when using Practice C680 inthe analysis of operating systems. While much of that discus-sion is relevant to this practice, the errors associated with itsapplication to operating systems are beyond the primaryPractice C680 scope. Portions of this discussion, however,were used in developing the Precision and Bias statementsincluded in Section 10.

11. Keywords

11.1 computer program; heat flow; heat gain; heat loss;pipe; thermal insulation

ANNEX

(Mandatory Information)

A1. EQUATIONS DERIVED FROM THE NIST CIRCULAR

A1.1 Table A1.1 lists the equations derived from the NBSCircular for the determination of the properties of air as used inthis practice.

A1.2 Tk is temperature in degrees Kelvin, Tf is temperaturein degrees Farenheit.

APPENDIXES

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. APPLICATION OF PRACTICE C680 TO FIELD MEASUREMENTS

X1.1 This appendix has been included to provide a morecomplete discussion of the precision and bias expected whenusing this practice in the analysis of operating systems. Whilemuch of the discussion below is relevant to the practice, theerrors associated with its application to operating systems is

beyond the immediate scope of this task group. Portions of thisdiscussion, however, were used in developing the Precisionand Bias statements included in Section 10.

X1.2 This appendix will consider precision and bias as it

TABLE A1.1 Equations and Polynomial Fits for the Properties of Air Between −100ºF and 1300ºF(NBS Circular 564, Department of Commerce [1960])

Property Equation Units

Thermal Conductivity, ka 6.325 3 1026 · =Tk

@1 1 ~245.4 · 10512/Tk! / Tk#· 241.77

Btu/(hr·ft·°F)

Dynamic Viscosity, µµ 5

145.8 · Tk · =Tk

Tk 1 110.4 · 241.9 3 1027 lb/(h·ft)

Prandtl Number, Pr Pr 5 0.7189 2 Tf · @1.6349 3 1024 2 Tf · ~1.8106 3 1027 2 5.6617 3 10211 · Tf!#

Volumetric Expansion Coefficient, bb 5

11.8 · Tk

°R-1

Density, rr 5

22.0493Tk

lb/ft3

Kinematic Viscosity, nn 5

µr

ft2/h

Specific Heat, cp cp 5 0.24008 2 Tf · @1.2477 3 1026 2 Tf · ~4.0489 3 1028 2 1.6088 3 10211 · Tf!# Btu/(lb·°R†)

† Editorially corrected June 2007.

C680 – 10



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relates to the comparison between the calculated results of thePractice C680 analysis and measurements on operating sys-tems. Some of the discussion here may also be found in Section10; however, items are expanded here to include analysis ofoperating systems.

X1.3 Precision:

X1.3.1 The precision of this practice has not yet beendemonstrated as described in Specification E691, but aninterlaboratory comparison could be conducted, if necessary, asfacilities and schedules permit. Assuming no errors in pro-gramming or data entry, and no computer hardware malfunc-tions, an interlaboratory comparison should yield the theoreti-cal precision presented in X1.3.2.

X1.3.2 The theoretical precision of this practice is a func-tion of the computer equipment used to generate the calculatedresults. Typically, seven significant digits are resident in thecomputer for calculations. The use of “Double Precision” canexpand the number of digits to sixteen. However, for theintended purpose of this practice, standard levels of precisionare adequate. The effect of computer resolution on accuracy isonly significant if the level of precision is higher than sevendigits. Computers in use today are accurate in that they willreproduce the calculation results to the resolution required ifidentical input data is used.

X1.3.2.1 The formatting of output results from this has beenstructured to provide a resolution of 0.1 % for the typicallyexpected levels of heat flux, and within 0.1°F (0.05°C) forsurface temperatures.

X1.3.2.2 A systematic precision error is possible due to thechoices of the equations and constants for convective andradiative heat transfer used in the program. The interlaboratorycomparison of X1.3.3 indicates that this error is usually withinthe bounds expected in in-situ heat flow calculations.

X1.3.3 Precision of Surface Convection Equations:X1.3.3.1 Many empirically derived equation sets exist for

the solution of convective heat transfer from surfaces ofvarious shapes in various environments. If two differentequation sets are chosen and a comparison is made usingidentical input data, the calculated results are never identical,not even when the conditions for application of the equationsappear to be identical. For example, if equations designed forvertical surfaces in turbulent cross flow are compared, resultsfrom this comparison could be used to help predict the effect ofthe equation sets on overall calculation precision.

X1.3.3.2 The systematic precision of the surface equationset used in this practice has had at least one through intralabo-ratory evaluation (9). When the surface convective coefficientequation (see 6.6) of this practice was compared to anothersurface equation set by computer modeling of identical condi-tions, the resultant surface coefficients for the 240 typical datasets varied, in general, less than 10 %. One extreme case (forflat surfaces) showed variations up to 30 %. Other observershave recorded larger variations (in less rigorous studies) whenadditional equation sets have been compared. Unfortunately,there is no standard for comparison since all practical surfacecoefficient equations are empirically derived. The equations in6.6 are accepted and will continue to be recommended untilevidence suggests otherwise.

X1.3.4 Precision of Radiation Surface Equation:X1.3.4.1 The Stefen-Boltzmann equation for radiant trans-

fer is widely applied. In particular, there remains some concernas to whether the exponents of temperature are exactly 4.0 inall cases. A small error in these exponents cause a larger errorin calculated radiant heat transfer. The exactness of thecoefficient 4 is well-founded in both physical and quantumphysical theory and is therefore used here.

X1.3.4.2 On the other hand, the ability to measure andpreserve a known emittance is quite difficult. Furthermore,though the assumptions of an emittance of 1.0 for the surround-ings and a “sink” temperature equal to ambient air temperatureis often approximately correct in a laboratory environment,operating systems in an industrial environment often divergewidely from these assumptions. The effect of using 0.95 for theemittance of the surroundings rather than the 1.00 assumed inthe previous version of this practice was also investigated bythe task group (9). Intralaboratory analysis of the effect ofassuming a surrounding effective emittance 0.95 versus 1.00indicates a variation of 5 % in the radiation surface coefficientwhen the object emittance is 1.00. As the object emittance isreduced to 0.05, the difference in the surface coefficientbecomes negligible. These differences would be greater if thesurrounding effective emittance is less than 0.95.

X1.3.5 Precision of Input Data:X1.3.5.1 The heat transfer equations used in the computer

program of this practice imply possible sources of significanterrors in the data collection process, as detailed later in thisappendix.

NOTE X1.1—Although data collection is not within the scope of thispractice, the results of this practice are highly dependent on accurate inputdata. For this reason, a discussion of the data collection process is includedhere.

X1.3.5.2 A rigorous demonstration of the impact of errorsassociated with the data collection phase of an operatingsystem’s analysis using Practice C680 is difficult without aparametric sensitivity study on the method. Since it is beyondthe intent of this discussion to conduct a parametric study forall possible cases, X1.3.5.3-X1.3.5.7 discuss in general termsthe potential for such errors. It remains the responsibility ofusers to conduct their own investigation into the impact of theanalysis assumptions particular to their own situations.

X1.3.5.3 Conductivity Data—The accuracy and applicabil-ity of the thermal conductivity data are derived from severalfactors. The first is the accuracy of the test method used togenerate the data. Since Test Methods C177, C335, and C518are usually used to supply test data, the results reported forthese tests should contain some statement of estimated error orestimated uncertainty. The remaining factors influencing theaccuracy are the inherent variability of the product and thevariability of insulation installation practice. If the productvariability is large or the installation is poor, or both, seriousdifferences might exist between the measured performance andthe performance predicted by this method.

X1.3.5.4 Surface Temperature Data—There are many tech-niques for collecting surface temperatures from operatingsystems. Most of these methods assuredly produce some errorin the measurement due to the influence of the measurement on

C680 – 10



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the operating condition of the system. Additionally, the in-tended use of the data is important to the method of surfacetemperature data collection. Most users desire data that isrepresentative of some significant area of the surface. Sincesurface temperatures frequently vary significantly across oper-ating surfaces, single-point temperature measurements usuallylead to errors. Sometimes very large errors occur when the datais used to represent some integral area of the surface. Someusers have addressed this problem through various means ofdetermining average surface temperature, Such techniques willoften greatly improve the accuracy of results used to representaverage heat flows. A potential for error still exists, however,when theory is precisely applied. This practice applies only toareas accurately represented by the average point measure-ments, primarily because the radiation and convection equa-tions are non-linear and do not respond correctly when the datais averaged. The following example is included to illustrate thispoint:

(1) Assume the system under analysis is a steam pipe. Thepipe is jacketed uniformly, but one-half of its length is poorlyinsulated, while the second half has an excellent insulationunder the jacket. The surface temperature of the good half ismeasured at 550°F. The temperature of the other half ismeasured at 660°F. The average of the two temperatures is605°F. The surface emittance is 0.92, and ambient temperatureis 70°F. Solving for the surface radiative heat loss rates for eachhalf and for the average yields the following:

(2) The average radiative heat loss rate corresponding to a605°F temperature is 93.9 Btu/ft2/h.

(3) The “averaged” radiative heat loss obtained by calcu-lating the heat loss for the individual halves, summing the totaland dividing by the area, yields an “averaged” heat loss of102.7 Btu/ft2/h. The error in assuming the averaged surfacetemperature when applied to the radiative heat loss for this caseis 8.6 %.

(4) It is obvious from this example that analysis by themethods described in this practice should be performed only onareas which are thermally homogeneous. For areas in whichthe temperature differences are small, the results obtainedusing Practice C680 will be within acceptable error bounds.For large systems or systems with significant temperaturevariations, total area should be subdivided into regions ofnearly uniform temperature difference so that analysis may beperformed on each subregion.

X1.3.5.5 Ambient Temperature Variations—In the standardanalysis by the methods described in his practice, the tempera-ture of the radiant surroundings is taken to be equal to theambient air temperature (for the designer making comparativestudies, this is a workable assumption). On the other hand, thisassumption can cause significant errors when applied toequipment in an industrial environment, where the surround-ings may contain objects at much different temperatures thanthe surrounding air. Even the natural outdoor environment doesnot conform well to the assumption of air temperatures whenthe solar or night sky radiation is considered. When thispractice is used in conjunction with in-situ measurements ofsurface temperatures, as would be the case in an audit survey,extreme care must be observed to record the environmental

conditions at the time of the measurements. While the com-puter program supplied in this practice does not account forthese differences, modifications to the program may be madeeasily to separate the convective ambient temperature from themean radiative environmental temperature seen by the surface.The key in this application is the evaluation of the magnitudeof this mean radiant temperature. The mechanism for thisevaluation is beyond the scope of this practice. A discussion ofthe mean radiant temperature concept is included in theASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals (2).

X1.3.5.6 Emittance Data—Normally, the emittance valuesused in a Practice C680 analysis account only for the emittanceof the subject of the analysis. The subject is assumed to becompletely surrounded by an environment which has anassigned emittance of 0.95. Although this assumption may bevalid for most cases, the effective emittance used in thecalculation can be modified to account for different values ofeffective emittance. If this assumption is a concern, using thefollowing formula for effective surface emittance will correctfor this error:

éff 5AA

~1–Á! Á AA 1 1/AA FAB 1 ~1–´B! /´B AB(X1.1)

where:éff = effective mean emittance for the two surface com-

bination,Á = mean emittance of the surface A,´B = mean emittance of the surrounding region B,FAB = view factor for the surface A and the surrounding

region B,AA = area of region A, andAB = area of region B.

This equation set is described in most heat transfer texts onheat transfer. See Holman (4), p. 305.

X1.3.5.7 Wind Speed—Wind speed is defined as wind speedmeasured in the main airstream near the subject surface. Airblowing across real objects often follows flow directions andvelocities much different from the direction and velocity of themain free stream. The equations used in Practice C680 analysisyield “averaged” results for the entire surface in question.Because of this averaging, portions of the surface will havedifferent surface temperatures and heat flux rates from theaverage. For this reason, the convective surface coefficientcalculation cannot be expected to be accurate at each locationon the surface unless the wind velocity measurements are madeclose to the surface and a separate set of equations are appliedthat calculate the local surface coefficients.

X1.3.6 Theoretical Estimates of Precision:X1.3.6.1 When concern exists regarding the accuracy of the

input test data, the recommended practice is to repeat thecalculation for the range of the uncertainty of the variable. Thisprocess yields a range of the desired output variable for a giveninput variable uncertainty. Several methods exist for evaluatingthe combined variable effects. Two of the most common areillustrated as follows:

X1.3.6.2 The most conservative method assumes that theerrors propagating from the input variable uncertainties areadditive for the function. The effect of each of the individual

C680 – 10



--`,`,````,,`````,`,,,,,,```,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

input parameters is combined using Taylor’s Theorem, aspecial case of a Taylor’s series expansion (10).

SR 5(

i51

n U]R]xiU·Dxi (X1.2)

where:S = estimate of the probable error of the procedure,R = result of the procedure,xi = ith variable of the procedure,]R/]S = change in result with respect to a change in the ith

variable (also, the first derivative of the functionwith respect to the ith variable),

xi = uncertainty in value of variable i, andn = total number of input variables in the procedure.

X1.3.6.3 For the probable uncertainty of function, R, themost commonly used method is to take the square root of thesum of the squares of the fractional errors. This technique isalso known as Pythagorean summation. This relationship isdescribed in Eq 39, Section 10.

X1.3.7 Bias of Practice C680 Analysis:X1.3.7.1 As in the case of the precision, the bias of this

standard practice is difficult to define. From the precedingdiscussion, some bias can result due to the selection ofalternative surface coefficient equation sets. If, however, thesame equation sets are used for a comparison of two insulationsystems to be operated at the same conditions, no bias of

results is expected from this method. The bias due to computerdifferences will be negligible in comparison with other sourcesof potential error. Likewise, the use of the heat transferequations in the program implies a source of potential biaserrors, unless the user ensures the applicability of the practiceto the system.

X1.3.8 Error Avoidance—The most significant sources ofpossible error in this practice are in the misapplication of theempirical formulae for surface transfer coefficients, such asusing this practice for cases that do not closely fit the thermaland physical model of the equations. Additional errors evolvefrom the superficial treatment of the data collection process.Several promising techniques to minimize these sources oferror are in stages of development. One attempt to addresssome of the issues has been documented by Mack (11). Thistechnique addresses all of the above issues except the problemof non-standard insulation k values. As the limitations andstrengths of in-situ measurements and Practice C680 analysisbecome better understood, they can be incorporated intoadditional standards of analysis that should be associated withthis practice. Until such methods can be standardized, the bestassurance of accurate results from this practice is tat eachapplication of the practice will be managed by a user who isknowledgeable in heat transfer theory, scientific data collectionpractices, and the mathematics of programs supplied in thispractice.

X2. COMMENTARY

X2.1 Introduction and History of Practice C680:

X2.1.1 The history of the development of this practice hasbeen prepared for inclusion in the document. The followingdiscussion, while not complete, provides a brief overview ofthe changes that have taken place over the years since thepractice was first written.

X2.1.2 The practice was originally published in 1971. Aprogram listing written in FORTRAN was included to allowthe user to be able to calculate heat losses and surfacetemperatures of a variety of insulated piping and equipment.The user had to have access to a computer, a method of typingthe program into a usable form, then running the program toget the results. At that time the most common method ofentering a program was to prepare a card deck. Each card in thedeck represented a line of program code or a line of datarequired by the program. The deck was then read by a cardreader and the program run with the output printed on a printer.There was much discussion on the choice of equations to usefor the determination of the surface transfer coefficient. Thetask group finally selected a modified form of the equationspublished in Ref (3). Langmuir was credited with equations fornatural convection and a multiplier to account for forcedconvection. Rice and Heilman were credited for the develop-ment of equations representing heat loss from a variety ofsurfaces. Langmuir presents theoretical analyses of convectionheat transfer from wires and plane surfaces and experimentaldata for plane surfaces. For wires, he refers to earlier publisheddata on platinum wires having diameters from 0.0016 to 0.020

inches. Because of the small size of the wires, experimentalconvection coefficients for them cannot be applied to muchlarger pipes. For plane surfaces, Langmuir experimented withcircular metal disks, 71⁄2-in. in diameter. The total heat loss wasmeasured for the disks when placed in still air at 80.3°F andheated to temperatures of 125°F to 1160°F. One of the diskswas made of pure polished silver, which had a very lowemittance. The emittance for this disk was estimated from thetheoretical Hagen-Rubens equation, and the radiation heattransfer was calculated and subtracted from the total heat lossto give the natural convection coefficient. The convection heatlosses for a vertical surface were compared with a theory byLorenz. Langmuir noted that changing the numerical coeffi-cient from 0.296 to 0.284 would give good agreement with hismeasured data. He noted that convection from a horizontalsurface facing upwards was about 12 % larger than for avertical surface (actually, his data indicates the percentage tobe closer to 10 %). For a horizontal surface facing downwards,he states that the convection is about one-half as great as thatfacing upwards (his numbers indicate a factor of 0.45 ratherthan 0.5).

X2.1.3 To investigate the effect of air currents, Langmuirmade measurements on a 71⁄2-in. diameter vertical disk of“calorized” steel. The steel disk was heated to 932°F. Heat lossmeasurements were made in still air and then when subjectedto the wind produced by an electric fan. Wind speeds of 6.0,8.3, and 9.2 miles per hour were used. From these data, hederived the factor used in the practice. Since these data were

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taken with one geometry, one surface size, and one surfacetemperature, it is not obvious that his correlation can begeneralized to all other conditions. Langmuir does note thatKennelly had found a similar factor for the effect of wind onsmall wires. Instead of the factor of 1.277, Kennelly obtaineda factor of 1.788. Kennelly’s wires were less than 0.0275 in. indiameter.

X2.1.4 Heilman measured the total heat loss from nominal1-in., 3-in., and 10-in. bare steel pipes. The pipes weresurrounded by still air at 80°F. Data were obtained for the 1-in.pipe for pipe temperatures from about 200°F to about 650°F.For the 3-in. pipe, the temperature range was 175 to 425°F, andfor the 10-in. pipe, the range was 125 to 390°F. He madeindependent measurements of the emittance, calculated theradiation heat loss, and subtracted this from the total heat lossto obtain the convective heat loss. He obtained his correlationfrom dimensional reasoning and analysis of this data.

X2.1.5 Heilman also measured the total heat loss from 1-in.and 3-in. vertical pipes with heights of 3 feet. These data led tothe factor of 1.235 to be used his correlation. For plane verticalsurfaces, he used three heavily silver-plated and highly pol-ished brass disks. The silver plating and polishing greatlyreduced the radiation heat loss. The three plates had diametersof 3.47, 6.55, and 9.97 inches, and corresponding thicknessesof 0.758, 0.80, and 0.90 inches. From data on these disks, hederived the factor of 1.394. He suggested that “further inves-tigational work should be carried out on larger plane surfacesthan were used during this investigation.” For horizontal plates,he relied upon experimental data of Griffiths and Davis on a50-in. square plate. They found the convection upward from ahorizontal plate to be 28 % higher than for a vertical plate, andthe convection downward to be about 34 % less than that for avertical plate. Heilman applied these percentage changes to the

factor of 1.394 to obtain factors of 1.79 and 0.89 for thehorizontal plate facing upward and downward, respectively.Heilman’s paper deals only with still air conditions, and thushis equations do not contain any reference to wind speed. Themultiplication of Heilman’s equation by Langmuir’s windfactor appears to have been made later by Malloy.

X2.2 The next major revision occurred in 1982. Theprogram was rewritten in the BASIC programming language tomake it more readily available to users of desktop personalcomputers, since BASIC came with the operating system.There were no major changes in the methodology or theequations used to determine the surface transfer coefficients.

X2.3 The 2002 revision represents a major change in thedetermination of the surface heat transfer coefficient. After thework of Langmuir, Rice, and Heilman, many improved corre-lations of more extensive sets of data have been published.Prominent heat transfer texts by McAdams, Holman, andIncropera and DeWitt all list recommended correlations, seeRefs (21-29). Correlations presented by Holman and by In-cropera and DeWitt are very similar. In general, the correla-tions by Incropera and DeWitt are used in this revision. Therewas also discussion on the use of the ISO equations.

X2.4 The 2008 revision changes the method used tocalculate the wall thickness of pipe insulation. The currentversion of Practice C585 includes a table of Nominal WallThickness. The insulation thickness used in the program wasbased on that table. The 2008 revision changes the method ofcalculating the wall thickness based on the insulation ID andOD tables in Practice C585. This will change the calculatedheat loss and surface temperature by a small percentage, butthe task group consideres the ID and OD method to be moreaccurate.

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X3. PROGRAM SOURCE CODE LISTINGS

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REFERENCES

(1) Arpaci, V. S., Conduction Heat Transfer, Addison-Wesley, 1966, pp.129–130.

(2) ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, Chapter 23, “Design HeatTransmission Coefficients,” American Society of Heating, Refrigerat-ing, and Air Conditioning Engineers Inc., Atlanta, GA, Table 1, p.23.12 and Tables 11 and Tables 12, p. 23.30, 1977.

(3) Turner, W. C., and Malloy, J. F., Thermal Insulation Handbook,McGraw Hill, New York, NY, 1981.

(4) Holman, J. P., Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill, New York, NY, 1976.(5) McAdams, W. H., Heat Transmission, McGraw Hill, New York, NY,

1955.(6) Turner, W. C., and Malloy, J. F., Thermal Insulation Handbook,

McGraw Hill, New York, NY, 1981, p. 50.(7) Heilman, R. H., “Surface Heat Transmission,” ASME Transactions,

Vol 1, Part 1, FSP-51-91, 1929, pp. 289–301.(8) Schenck, H., Theories of Engineering Experimentation, McGraw

Hill, New York, NY, 1961.(9) Mumaw, J. R., C680 Revision Update—Surface Coeffıcient Compari-

sons, A Report to ASTM Subcommittee C16.30, Task Group 5.2, June24, 1987.

(10) Beckwith, T. G., Buck, N. L., and Marangoni, R. D., MechanicalMeasurement, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1973.

(11) Mack, R. T., “Energy Loss Profiles,” Proceedings of the FifthInfrared Information Exchange, AGEMA, Secaucus, NJ, 1986.

(12) Langmuir, I., “Convection and Radiation of Heat,” Transactions ofthe American Electrochemical Society, Vol 23, 1913, pp. 299-332.

(13) Rice, C. W., “Free Convection of Heat in Gases and Liquids—II,”Transactions A.I.E.E., Vol 43, 1924, pp. 131-144.

(14) Langmuir, I., Physical Review, Vol 34, 1912, p. 401.(15) Hagen, E., and Rubens, H., “Metallic Reflection,” Ann. Phys., Vol 1,

No.2, 1900, pp. 352-375.(16) Lorenz, L., Ann. Phys., Vol 13, 1881, p. 582.(17) Kennelly, A. E., Wright, C. A., and Van Bylevelt, J. S., “The

Convection of Heat from Small Copper Wires,” TransactionsA.J.E.E., Vol 28, 1909, pp. 363-397.

(18) Griffiths, E., and Davis, A. H., “The Transmission of Heat byRadiation and Convection,” Food Investigation Board, Special Re-port 9, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Published byHis Majesty’s Stationery Office, London, England.

(19) Malloy, J. F., Thermal lnsulation, Van Nostrand Reinhold, NewYork, NY, 1969.

(20) McAdams, W. H., Heat Transmission, 3rd ed., McGraw-HiII, NewYork, NY, 1954.

(21) Holman, J. P., Heat Transfer, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY,1981.

(22) Incropera, F. P., and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat and MassTransfer, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1990.

(23) Hilsenrath, J., et al, “Tables of Thermodynamic and TransportProperties of Air, Argon, Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, Hydro-gen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Steam,” NBS Circular 564, U.S.Department of Commerce, 1960.

(24) Churchill, S. W., and Bernstein, M., “A Correlating Equation forForced Convection from Gases and Liquids to a Circular Cylinder inCross Flow,” Intl Heat Transfer, Vol 99, 1977, pp. 300-306.

(25) Churchill, S. W., and Chu, H. H. S., “Correlating Equations forLaminar and Turbulent Free Convection from a Horizontal Cylinder,”Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol 18, 1975, pp. 1049-1053.

(26) Churchill, S. W., “Combined Free and Forced Convection AroundImmersed Bodies,” Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, Section2.5.9, Schlunder, E. U., Ed.-in-Chief, Hemisphere Publishing Corp.,New York, NY, 1983.

(27) Churchill, S. W., and Ozoe, H., “Correlations for Laminar ForcedConvection in Flow over an Isothermal Flat Plate and in Developingand Fully Developed Flow in an Isothermal Tube,” J.Heat Transfer,Vol 95, 1973, p. 78.

(28) Churchill, S. W., “A Comprehensive Correlating Equation for ForcedConvection from Flat Plates,” AIChE Journal, Vol 22, No. 2, 1976,pp 264-268.

(29) Churchill, S. W., and Chu, H. H. S., “Correlating Equations forLaminar and Turbulent Free Convection from a Vertical Plate,” Int.J. Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol 18, 1975, pp. 1323-1329.

(30) Kreith, F., Principals of Heat Transfer, 3rd ed., Intext, 1973.(31) ORNL/M-4678, Industrial Insulation for Systems Operating Above

Ambient Temperature, September 1995.(32) Economic Insulation Thickness Guidelines for Piping and Equip-

ment, North American Insulation Manufacturers Association, Alex-andria, VA.

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