Stalin’s Politburo Background Guide

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Stalin’s Politburo

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Stanford Model UN Conference 2015

Co-Chairs: Andrea Villarreal and Raghav Mehrotra

“In the Soviet army, it takes more courage to retreat than advance.” – Joseph Stalin

Stanford Model United Nations Conference 2015

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Table of Contents

Letter from the Chair 3

History of the Soviet Politburo 4

Economic Policy-Making in the Politburo 4

Foreign Policy-Making in the Politburo 4

Composition of the Politburo 4

Historical Context 6

World War II 6

Present-Time Politburo (1943) 8

Relationship with Stalin 8

Foreign Policy 8

The Crisis 9

Operation Polyarnaya Zvezda 9

Committee Structure 12

On the Agenda 12

Members of the Politburo 13

Procedure 18

Position papers 19

Works Cited 20


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Dear Delegates,

Welcome to Stalin’s Politburo, 1943! This fall, you get three days to rule the former Soviet Union. As you swiftly maneuver between deploying troops to protect your territory, hastily amending laws to cater to a demanding population and spreading Communism to the world, remember that you are rewriting history.

My name is Raghav Mehrotra and I will be one of your chairs at SMUNC this year. I am currently a sophomore, studying Computer Science and History. Outside class, I enjoy playing squash, trying to speak in different accents, and eating Indian food. I have been an active MUNner since my freshman year of high school, and I can safely say that it has been one of my most rewarding experiences. I’ve learned unimaginable amounts over the years, and been inspired by the people that I’ve met along the way.

I am Andrea Villarreal, and I will be joining you during the weekend as the other chair for the committee. I am also a sophomore at Stanford, and I will be majoring in Management Science and Engineering, probably acquiring one or two minors along the way. I love meeting new people, traveling and learning about different cultures. I am an international student (like Raghav) from Mexico, and as such, I love how MUN gives delegates a more ample perspective of the world.

We chose this committee because, for starters, we’re both fans of constant crisis. Moreover, we thought that debating from the point of view of Soviet leaders would be a unique experience. This committee will not only require you to think out of the box, but will also test how fast you can think and arrive at compromises. With Stalin watching your every move, we can assure you that debate will be exciting and entertaining, the committee will be challenging, and not a moment will go by without a pressing Soviet crisis to solve.

If you have any questions about committee, feel free to reach out to one of us. See you in November!

Yours truly,

Raghav Mehrotra Andrea [email protected] [email protected]


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History of the Soviet Politburo

The Politburo was the supreme executive entity during Joseph Stalin’s rule. Composed of the elite members of the Central Committee, it was the principal policy-making organ in the Soviet Union.

Economic Policy-Making in the Politburo

Even though the group had a very important say in policy ever since 1927, Stalin’s will was never neglected or dismissed. As the 1930s passed, Stalin grew more decisive and dictatorial, making the Politburo overall more responsive to the nation’s leader’s wishes. In matters of dispute — investment policy and economic policy in the 1930s for example — it was Stalin who made the final decisions. Even so, the Politburo retained much of its original power and influence on administrational matters over the Soviet Union. Industrial and economical policy were overseen completely by the Politburo with little or no intervention from Stalin, who usually prefered more absolute and controlling methods for the economy. Foreign and agricultural policy, on the other hand, became an effort taken on by Stalin and the Politburo together.

Foreign Policy-Making in the Politburo

Foreign policy was second in importance to economic policy. The Soviet Union’s foreign policy strategy was traditionally composed of a need for security, relationships with other nations and a quest for great power. In the initial stages of the Politburo, its members controlled foreign, defense, and domestic policy with no interference from the ruler.

Composition of the Politburo

The group was most likely chosen by Stalin and his close advisors from among those in the Central Committee, each one of which was conveniently elected openly by the Committee to the Politburo. Although the Politburo remained an executive organ during Stalin’s rule, its members were constantly changing due to the difficulty in gaining the latter’s approval and his overall lack of loyalty to officials who were not in his close circle. However, the fact that this group was virtually untouched by Stalin’s purges is a statement to how dedicated and useful they were to the Union.


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Historical Context (1943)

This committee will convene on April 1, 1943. During this time, the global scene centered on World War II. It is this international conflict which will become the primary focus of the Soviet Politburo, as its committee members work out ways to ensure the Soviet Union’s security and position.

World War II

Starting in 1939 when Germany invaded Poland, World War II became a total war that forced nations involved to dedicate their economy, society and policy to the conflict. As an overview of World War II — and the Soviet Union’s part in it — we have provided you with a timeline.

September 1939Germany and the Soviet Union had just signed the previous month a non-aggression agreement with a secret supplement that divided Europe after the conflict. In September, they both invade Poland from opposite sides. Poland surrenders the same month.

November 1939 – March 1940The Soviet Union initiates the Winter War with the invasion of Finland. After signing an armistice, Finland cedes some of the country’s coasts to the invader.

June 1940 The Soviet Union takes some Romanian territory from the provinces of Bessarabia and Bukovina and occupies the Baltic States, shortly afterwards annexing them to the Soviet Union. The months preceding these actions, Germany had invaded Denmark and Norway and occupied the northern part of France, while Italy entered the war.

June – November 1941 Germany and its Axis partners, which include Italy, Romania, Slovakia, Hungary and the previously attacked Finland, invade the Soviet Union. Stalin is shocked, believing until the last moment that Hitler would adhere to the non-aggrekssion pact. The invasion is called Operation Barbarossa, and it divided the Axis Powers’ troops into Northern, Central and Southern groups. Leningrad was the principal target, and Moscow would follow. The southern invasion was primarily focused on Kiev. As this plan was put in action, Nazi Germany quickly took the Baltic States and planned a siege of Leningrad, and afterwards captured Smolensk and turned for Moscow. Kiev was captured with Romanian aid by November.


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Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

December 1941 The Soviet Union counterattacks to try to secure Moscow. Due to the non-aggression agreement, Stalin was slow to mobilize troops.

June – September 1942 After the United States gets involved in the War, the battles of the Pacific begin and Britain commences bombing the Nazi state. Germany decides to initiate another offensive movement on the Soviet Union. Its troops march towards Stalingrad and penetrate into Caucasus after successfully taking the Crimean Peninsula.

November 1942 – February 1943After the Allied troops win in El Alamein and Germany takes the Vichy Republic, The Soviet troops break Romanian and Hungarian lines near Stalingrad and force the German Sixth Army to surrender.


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Present-Time Politburo (1943)

The Politburo in the 1940s saw a significant rise in Great Russians in its membership, as opposed to earlier stages when the organ was more ethnically diverse.

Relationship with Stalin

The relationship between the Politburo and Joseph Stalin openly maintains its traditional stance in which the ruler makes suggestions to the members of the executive organ, who are ultimately to take the decisions. As Alexander Barmin wrote:

A thin appearance of collective work is still kept up at Politburo meetings. Stalin does not ‘command’, he merely ‘suggests’ or ‘pro- poses’. The fiction of voting is retained. But the vote never fails to uphold his ‘suggestions’. The decision is signed by all ten members of the Politburo, with Stalin’s signature among the rest. Yet everyone knows there is only one boss. In spite of this, the members of the Politburo devised strategies and plans to

address issues on all fronts, principally foreign, industrial and agricultural policy.

Foreign Policy

Evidence suggests that, since Stalin is away on trips for a great part of the time, the Politburo is key in determining foreign policy. Foreign policy decisions were, for the most part, left to the chairman of the Politburo — a post which was occupied by Molotov during the negotiations of the pact of non-aggression between the Soviet Union and Germany.

Foreign policy during this time was made by examining the various options that the nation has while taking into consideration the different nations at play and the overall goals the Soviet Union has.

The World War that is taking place at this time requires Politburo members to devise ways in which to maintain its enemies at bay and out of the territory, consider possible allies that can be made when considering enemies in common and thinking about the spheres of influence that will rise when the conflict ends.


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The Crisis

Operation Polyarnaya Zvezda

This operation forms the initial crisis for the committee – it was launched on April 1, 1943, the day this committee convenes.

Operation Polyarnaya Zvezda (Polar Star) was a Soviet military operation launched under the command of Georgy Zhukov, the most decorated Soviet military officials in the history of the USSR. The objective of the operation was to force troops of the German Wehrmacht to completely withdraw from Leningrad, thereby ending a nearly 600 day blockade of the city. The key to success of the Operation is to terminate the German 16th army in the Demyansk area.

Source: Roberts, Geoffrey. Stalin’s General: The Life of Georgy Zhukov

It was extremely important that the operation succeeded. The blockade of Leningrad had already resulted in the death of 800,000 civilians, through starvation, crossfire, or disease. Food and water supplies were scarce, industrial and military production had come to a standstill, and the Soviets knew that if Leningrad fell, Moscow, only 700 kilometers away, could fall next.


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��Map showing the blockade of Leningrad; supplies were only delivered via Lake Ladoga

(Source: "Reading - Eastern Europe." Kati Kati College, n.d. Web. 29 July 2015.)

The Soviets were confident about the success of Polyarnaya Zvezda. They believed they would completely drive the Nazi and Finnish troops out of Leningrad, thereby securing the Eastern Front. This was because just three months earlier, the Soviet 67th Army and the 2nd Shock Army had launched Operation Iskra to counter the blockade (Forczyk and Dennis, 68). Operation Iskra had achieved considerable success – while it did not force the German or the Finnish troops to withdraw, it prevented the collapse of the city into German hands, and opened up a land corridor to supply food and evacuate civilians. Before this operation, the only supply route to Leningrad was the Road of Life – a passage built over the frozen Lake Ladoga, which was only operational during the winter.

After the success of Operation Iskra, trains were able to deliver supplies to Leningrad via the land corridor that was constructed (Source: Dennis, Peter. Digital image. Osprey

Publishing Ltd, 2009. Web. 19 July 2015.)


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Besides ending the blockade, Operation Iskra also weakened the German troops surrounding Leningrad. During the installation of the land corridor, the 67th Army trapped nearly 8000 German troops and destroyed or captured 5 German Tiger I tanks (Forczyk and Dennis, 68).

Despite the huge success that came with Operation Iskra, German and Finnish troops could not be completely pushed back from Leningrad. Moreover, the purges of the Communist Party under Stalin’s leadership had completely destroyed the officer corps of the USSR. The Soviets had lost 3 of the remaining 5 Marshals of the USSR, all 11 Deputy Ministers of Defense, 75 out of 80 members of the military Soviet, nearly all the commanders of the military districts, 13 of 15 army commanders, and approximately 30% of the officers below Brigade level (Carruthers and Lowe).

As members of the Politburo, you command the Red Army, one of the most powerful military forces in the world. With advanced artillery and aircraft, you must use everything at your disposal to uphold the integrity of the Soviet people. Remember also, that spies are intercepting military orders and political secrets – the NKVD and the Gulag are yours to command.For the purpose of this crisis committee, only historical facts dating before the initial date of the committee, April 1, 1943, will be relevant. You have a challenging 3 days ahead of you. You will be responsible for speedily mobilizing troops, communicating with your military commanders, and laying out a roadmap for the defeat of Nazi Germany. With the death toll in Leningrad rising to nearly 2 million, your actions will determine the fate of the USSR.


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Committee Structure

The Politburo in 1943 comprised 14 members – 5 candidate members and 9 full members. For the purpose of this committee, the Politburo will be expanded to include 25 members. The additional members will be high-ranking Soviet politicians, administrators and military officers who played a significant role at the time. You must research your individual position thoroughly; at the same time, you must bear in mind your relationship with other members of the Politburo, whether favorable or hostile, because all important decisions must be presented before the entire committee.

For instance, if a military officer believes that deploying additional troops to a certain location is necessary, it would be in his best interest to consult his superiors, the Ministry of Defense, as well as send a communiqué to someone not physically present in the Politburo at the time.

For the purpose of this committee, the role of Joseph Stalin will be played by one of your chairs. Throughout his rule, Stalin exercised supreme control over every member of the Communist Party. Those who questioned his decisions, or were even suspected of disloyalty to him, were subjected to a show trial by the troika and either executed or exiled. Keep in mind that all your actions are being closely watched. While you have the power to change a nation’s fate, one man’s decision can change yours.

Please do remember that, although we are Stalin’s politburo, discriminatory or derogatory comments are not allowed at SMUNC. Therefore, please do not swear, make inappropriate remarks, etc., regardless of historical accuracy. If you have any questions, please ask the chair.

On the Agenda

While doing research, here are some themes that you should keep in mind:

▪ Threat of Nazi offensive: This is the Politburo’s primary threat. Although Operation Iskra was successful, the Soviets could not completely drive the Nazis out of Leningrad. The Soviet Union is in a state of war, and if German reinforcements arrive before a counterattack can be launched, the country could fall into Hitler’s hands. Before you implement any long-term legislation to improve the lives of the Soviet people, you must act quickly on the Nazi advance.


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▪ Basic amenities for Soviets: The siege of Leningrad has already killed 800,000 civilians. Food is scarce, infrastructure is crumbling as a result of heavy German artillery fire, and communications have been severed. It is within your jurisdiction to implement legislation to build the city, and several others that have suffered heavy damages during the War.

▪ Internal threat, espionage: There are rumors that spies have infiltrated your country. Your fellow Politburo members cannot be trusted completely either – several of them may have alternate agendas. The Great Purges of 1936 killed nearly 1000 people a day on the grounds of suspected treason. Think about how you will communicate with your fellow leaders to prevent the NKVD from placing you on its radar.

▪ Spread of Communism: Once the war ends, Stalin wants Soviet Communism to spread as far as possible. Think about ways to spread the ideology across Europe in nations occupied by the USSR. Also be prepared to debate USSR’s relations with the United States and Britain during 1943, when suspicions of ‘capitalist enemies’ were high.

Members of the PolitburoAs stated above, there are 25 members of the Politburo for the purpose of this committee. Their hierarchies and relationship with Stalin vary, but they each hold important portfolios. If you cannot find substantive research on the individual whom you represent, research the Soviet institutions to which he belonged, and debate in accordance with the policies of those institutions.

Andrey AndreyevChairman of the Party Control Commission, Chairman of the Soviet of the UnionAndreyev held a key position as the head of the Party Control Commission (PCC). All members of the Communist Party were disciplined through the PCC. Moreover, Stalin himself appointed all NKVD members to the PCC, so he indirectly controlled the secret police. Andreyev was thus the link between Stalin and the NKVD.

Kliment VoroshilovEx-Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, Ex-People’s Commissar of Defense (Rapoport and Alexeev, 2)


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Voroshilov displayed his loyalty to Stalin during the Great Purges by testifying against several of his colleagues. He had years of military experience, both on the field (as a commander during the Soviet-German Wars) and off (as the People’s Commissar of Defense).

Andrei ZhdanovEx-Head of the Propaganda and Agitation DepartmentZhdanov one of the most decorated military leaders in Soviet History, with years of experience on the battlefield. More importantly, however, he was a die-hard socialist, believing in “socialist-realism”. In an address to Soviet writers in 1934, he said, “Such a congress as this can be convened by none save us Bolsheviks…Be in the front ranks of those who are fighting for a classless socialist society” (“Andrei Zhdanov Defines Socialist Realism”). He is believed to be one of the driving forces in the campaign to spread communism to smaller eastern European nations

Lazar KaganovichKaganovich was notorious for his belief in the persecution of spies and ‘enemies’ of the Soviet Union. He remained extremely loyal to Stalin until the latter’s death in 1953.

Mikhail KalininChairman of the Presidium of the Supreme SovietIn 1943, Kalinin was the Head of State of the Soviet Union. The fact that he was born of peasant parents made him widely popular with the Soviet people. While he opposed certain Stalinist policies, he managed to survive the Purges and remained in Stalin’s good favor until his death.

Anastas MikoyanEx-Minister of Foreign TradeMikoyan was instrumental in mobilizing industry towards greater exports. During Stalin’s rule, he expressed his loyalty by backing the executions of high-ranking members of the Politburo.

Nikita Khrushchev Under Stalin, Khrushchev served as an intermediary between Stalin and generals on the battlefield. He was personally present at the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942. Khrushchev supported Stalin’s Purges, himself overseeing them in Ukraine.

Lavrentiy BeriaEx-Head of the People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD)


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As the head of the NKVD, and a professional secret policeman himself, Beria played a major role in the Purges of 1936. During the Second World War, he mobilized hundreds of thousands of people in the Gulag into wartime production.

Nikolai ŠvernikŠvernik was a candidate member of the Politburo in 1943. During the Second World War, he played a major role by shifting industrial wartime production to the east coast of the USSR, away from the active Eastern Front.

Nikolai VoznesenskyChairman of the State Planning Committee (Gosplan)Voznesensky the head of the Gosplan – the chief economic planning body of the Soviet Union. It was his duty to oversee the drafting and implementation of the USSR’s 5-year plans ("USSR: The Role of the State Planning Committee (Gosplan)", 2).

Georgy MalenkovMember of State Defense CommitteeMalenkov was a key player in the Great Purges of 1936 – he was responsible for maintaining records of all members of the Communist Party. As a member of the State Defense Committee, he exercised control over nearly all political and economic activities of the USSR during the Second World War.

Alexander ScherbakovDirector of Soviet Information BureauAs director of the USSR’s leading news agency, Scherbakov was responsible for swaying public perception in favor of Stalinist policies during the Second World War.

Vyacheslav MolotovEx-Chairman of the Council of People’s Commissars of the Soviet Union, Minister of Foreign AffairsWhile on the one hand considered to be simply a mouthpiece for Stalin, Molotov, on the other hand was one of the few members of the Politburo who questioned Stalin’s decisions. Molotov played a key role in cementing the Soviet Union’s ties with USA and Britain; during the course of the War, he even convinced them to open up a second front against Germany.

Nikolai BulganinEx-Deputy Prime Minister of the Soviet Union, Head of the State Bank of the USSRBulganin played a key role during the Second World War by serving as a link between Stalin and the Red Army – he not only maintained a check on the activities of the troops,


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but also conveyed important information back and forth. As the head of the State Bank, he partnered with the Gosplan administration to shape the USSR’s economic policies.

Alexei KosyginMember of State Defense CommitteeKosygin served as Stalin’s personal ‘spy’, constantly revealing information about other members’ assets and whereabouts to him. This made him unpopular with the other members.

Alexey KuznetsovIn 1943, Kuznetsov was responsible for maintaining the security of members of the Communist Party. It is believed that he was one of the most trusted members of the Party.

Maksim SaburovEx-Chairman of the GosplanWith growing fears of a global economic collapse after the Second World War, Stalin appointed Saburov Chairman of the Gosplan, the agency responsible for drafting and implementing 5-year plans. Even while exercising his influence on the economy, Saburov advocated for purges within both the Party and the Gosplan administration.

Mikhail KovalyovColonel-General Kovalyov commanded several battalions during Stalin’s rule. Most notably, he was a leading figure during the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939.

Semyon TimoshenkoPeople’s Commissar for the Defense of the Soviet UnionTimoshenko was a leading figure during the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939. Along with experience on the battlefield, he also strongly advocated for the mechanization of the Soviet Union’s army.

Leonid GovorovGovorov was a Soviet military commander during the Second World War. His most notable achievement was the partial liberation of Leningrad from German troops during Operation Iskra.

Lev MekhlisDeputy Chairman of the Council of People’s Commissars Mekhlis was a senior military official of the Soviet Union during the Second World War. As Stalin’s close aide, he was responsible for identifying possible traitors within the Red Army, and reporting them to the NKVD.


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Victor AbakumovAbakumov was Stalin’s deputy within the NKVD. For most of his political career, he worked in the Gulag administration, where he extracted confessions from accused traitors. During the Second World War, he was responsible for the internal security of the Red Army.

Alexander PoskrebyshevHead of the Special Section of the Central CommitteePoskrebyshev was primarily responsible for maintaining and processing classified documents during Stalin’s rule. He was Stalin’s personal assistant; many even consider him to be Stalin’s alter ego (Brackman, 20).

Ivan KonevKonev was a Soviet military commander during the Second World War. During the early 1940s, he was posted to the Eastern Front, where he played a role in resisting the German advance into the Soviet Union, and launching counter-attacks against German troops.

Ivan BagramyanBagramyan was one of the most decorated military officers of the Soviet Army. His most notable achievement was the defeat of Nazi troops during the Battle of Moscow in 1941. He launched several more counterattacks against the German troops after they invaded the Soviet Union.

ProcedureProceedings of the Politburo will be conducted in accordance with the following special procedural rules:

Debate: All debate will be conducted through either the General Speaker’s List, or a Moderated Caucus.▪ General Speaker’s List: This is usually opened at the beginning of committee, and

gives members an opportunity to introduce themselves – their portfolios, key topics to discuss, etc.

▪ Moderated Caucus: This is opened when delegates wish to debate a specific sub-topic within the broader topic being discussed. For instance, in this committee, a moderated caucus could be raised to debate means to deliver food to the city of Leningrad during the Nazi blockade.


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Directives: Directives are mini resolutions. If passed by a 2/3rd majority (for this committee, 17 members), they are binding and come into effect immediately. This committee will be fast paced, so several directives will likely be introduced in a single session. Directives can have at most 3 authors, and must have at least 3 signatories to be discussed in committee. It is important that directives be specific and historically accurate. For instance, a directive that reads “Deploy 1000 troops to Leningrad” is vague; the chair may not allow it to be introduced.

Communiqués: Communiqués are messages from committee to an entity that is not physically present in committee – such as the head of state of another country, leader of a rogue paramilitary group, etc.

It is essential that you embody your character completely during debate. That means making sure you speak and write in accordance with your character’s beliefs, and interacting with other members of committee like your character would have. Failure to do so will result in gravely unexpected, and likely disastrous results for committee.


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Position PapersAs per SMUNC policy, delegates who wish to be considered for awards are required to hand in position papers before the deadline.

Your position paper for this committee should be one page, single spaced in 12 point, Times New Roman font. It should comprise 3 sections, as follows:▪ The first section: Use this to introduce yourself. Describe what your character’s

powers are, and the jurisdiction within which you can enforce those powers. You may even choose to include previously held positions. If you believe that your family background has played a significant role in your professional career (for instance, you were born into a peasant family), you may choose to include that as well.

▪ The second section: There are definitely other characters within committee with whom you have worked. Describe your relationship with them. If you believe that your relationship with Stalin is of particular importance at the time committee begins (April 1, 1943), mention that too.

▪ The third section: Identify at most three issues that you wish to tackle during committee, listing ways in which you plan to address them. Remember that you can only implement solutions within your jurisdiction.

Use your position paper to get to know your character better, and to convey to us what you think are your character’s most defining characteristics. And remember, Stalin is watching.


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Works Cited

Brackman, Roman. The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life. London: Frank Cass, 2001. Web. 25 July 2015.

Carruthers, Robert, and Lara Lowe. "Siege of Leningrad." YouTube. Cromwell Productions, 27 Dec. 2007. Web. 25 July 2015.

Davis, R.W. et al. “The Politburo and Economic Policy Making”. The Nature of Stalin’s Dictatorship. Ed. E.A. Rees. 59-78. New York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2004. Print.

Dennis, Peter. Train arriving through land corridor post Operation Iskra. Digital image. Osprey Publishing Ltd, 2009. Web. 19 July 2015.

Forczyk, Robert, and Peter Dennis. Leningrad, 1941-44: The Epic Siege. Oxford: Osprey, 2009. Osprey Publishing Ltd, 2009. Web. 19 July 2015.

Mawdsley, Evan. “An Elite within an Elite: Politburo/Presidium Membership under Stalin, 1927-1953.” The Nature of Stalin’s Dictatorship. Ed. E.A. Rees. 59-78. New York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2004. Print.

Rapoport, Vitaly, and Yuri Alexeev. "High Treason: Essays on the History of the Red Army 1918-1938." National Council for Soviet and East European Research (n.d.): n. pag. National Council for Soviet and East European Research, June 11, 1984. Web. 28 July 2015.

"Reading - Eastern Europe." Kati Kati College, n.d. Web. 29 July 2015. <http://moodle.kkc.school.nz/pluginfile.php/10067/mod_scorm/content/0/page_04.htm>.

Roberts, Geoffrey. Stalin’s General: The Life of Georgy Zhukov. United States: Random House, 2012. Print.

“The Occupation of the Soviet Union”. Holocaust Education and Archive Research Team, n.d. Web. 12 Aug 2015.

"USSR: The Role of the State Planning Committee (Gosplan)." (n.d.): n. pag. Central Intelligence Agency, 1998. Web. 29 July 2015. Information requested by Alan Greenspan


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Watson, Derek. “The Politburo and Foreign Policy Making in the 1930s”. The Nature of Stalin’s Dictatorship. Ed. E.A. Rees. 59-78. New York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2004. Print.

“World War II: Timeline”. Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, June 2014. Web. 12 Aug 2015.

Zhdanov, Andrei. "Andrei Zhdanov Defines Socialist Realism." Choice Reviews Online (n.d.): n. pag. 1935. Web. 29 July 2015.


Stalin’s Politburo Background Guide

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