SRI contributions to rice production dealing with water management constraints in northeastern...

TECHNICAL REPORT

SRI contributions to rice production dealing with watermanagement constraints in northeastern Afghanistan

Vincent Thomas • Ali Mohammad Ramzi

Received: 20 August 2010 / Revised: 7 October 2010 / Accepted: 7 October 2010 / Published online: 22 October 2010

� Springer-Verlag 2010

Abstract Rice is a major staple food in Afghanistan, and

its production contributes to the food security for millions

of Afghans. However, over the past four decades, increases

in rice cultivation in the Amu Darya River Basin in the

northeastern part of the country are contributing to head/

tail inequities in irrigation water-sharing, both at river

basin and at canal levels. Since 2007, the Participatory

Management for Irrigation System project has been

experimenting with the System of Rice Intensification

(SRI) as an alternative to the highly water-consumptive

traditional method of rice cultivation by inundation of

fields. The aim is to introduce a water-saving method for

upstream rice-growing farmers to improve the water access

for downstream users. To the extent that such a method

improves yield, this gives upstream farmers an incentive to

switch to this new method which benefits them and, indi-

rectly, other farmers downstream. In 2009, 42 farmers who

are cooperating with the Aga Khan Foundation practiced

SRI, facilitated through the project’s participatory tech-

nology development (PTD) approach. Their average SRI

yield, 9.3 tons ha-1, was considerably higher than that

obtained with their traditional rice-growing practices.

Those farmers who had 2 years of experience with SRI

methods and who greater mastery of the techniques got, on

average, 65% higher yield than first-year SRI farmers.

More-experienced farmers improved their rice production

by 27% in comparison to their previous results in 2008.

The PTD approach engages the experienced farmers as

resource persons to assist new volunteers, promoting local

transfer of knowledge. The primary factor in yield

improvement was an increase in the number of grains per

panicle (?47%). A 10% increase in the number of tillers per

square meter, despite lowered plant population, was the

second major factor. Yields appeared to be very responsive

to an increased number of mechanical weedings. Challenges

still remain to be dealt with on the way toward up-scaling,

especially as the security situation remains problematic.

However, the PTD approach is facilitating work in the field

as is cooperation with government personnel.

Keywords Afghanistan � Rice yield � System of rice

intensification � Water saving � Water scarcity � Weed

control

Introduction

Rice, a major staple food in Afghanistan, is mainly culti-

vated in the Kunduz River sub-basin, within the Amu

Darya River Basin (Fig. 1). The three provinces, Baghlan,

Takhar and Kunduz, are considered to be the grain basket

of Afghanistan, holding strategic importance for food

security at the national level.

Most of Afghanistan is arid or semi-arid, subject to large

seasonal variations in rain and snow fall during winter.

Because the country has very low water storage capacity,

water availability for irrigation fluctuates heavily, resulting

in large crop production variations from year to year.

However, over several decades, rice cultivation has been

increasing, spreading to areas where water-intensive

cropping practices were controlled by local water man-

agement institutions, cooperating with local agents of the

Agriculture Department.

In the 1970s, irrigation development to the Kunduz

River basin was given impetus by local government

agencies, motivated by vested interests within many canal

V. Thomas (&) � A. M. Ramzi

Aga Khan Foundation-Afghanistan, Kabul, Afghanistan

e-mail: [email protected]

123

Paddy Water Environ (2011) 9:101–109

DOI 10.1007/s10333-010-0228-0

systems (Pasquet 2007; Thomas and Ahmad 2009). Sugar

beet processing and cotton factories provided income and

employment at both local and national levels, which

motivated Agriculture Department officials to employ a

mix of coercive and incentive measures to encourage

farmers to grow industrial crops and to limit their rice

cultivation whenever this would compete with industrial

interests (Thomas and Ahmad 2009).

Table 1 indicates that the irrigable area under rice cul-

tivation in the Kunduz River basin today has more than

doubled from the pre-1970 levels, despite certain losses in

facilities and irrigable area due to a succession of armed

struggles in the intervening years. As seen also in Table 1,

the institutional and investment issues that have con-

strained irrigation development and utilization are over-

shadowed by significant climatic influences.

Water availability in a normal year can support about

100,000 ha of rice production in the Kunduz River basin.

Reductions in rain and snowfall and ensuing drought can cut

this area almost in half, as happened in 1998–2001 (Qureshi

2002), while a good rainfall year can add 20–30% to the

area normally available for rice. These weather parameters

exacerbate the distributional issues of how available water

will be used, making tensions over water allocation more

acute. Afghans need to figure out how to economize on the

use of whatever water becomes available so that this scarce

and fluctuating resource can be best used.

In the 1970s, there was an ambitious program to expand

infrastructure for irrigation, driven largely by commercial

interests, as noted above. This laid the foundation for an

irrigation sector where half of the area is controlled by 15%

of the farm units, those over 10 ha. At the same time, the

large majority of irrigated farms in Afghanistan are rela-

tively small,\5 ha; 70% of farms are in this category with

only 30% of the irrigated land (Maletta and Favre 2003).

The ambitious start to expand irrigated area lost

momentum after 1978 as civil strife spread. Central gov-

ernment control and support for the canal network in

northeastern Afghanistan faded away as it was no longer

safe for governors, local water management staff, and

Agriculture Department officials to go to the field to

regularly monitor water distribution and help improve

agriculture practices (Lee 2007; Thomas et al. 2009).

Rice became a preferred crop due to its higher economic

returns (Pasquet 2007), and thus its production began

spreading in the upstream areas of the canal systems in the

northeast. This, however, conflicted with downstream

farmers’ water access. Nowadays, a primary challenge for

the government of Afghanistan is to improve its agriculture

productivity in a way that ensures better food security,

while reducing the head/tail water-sharing inequity gap.

Fig. 1 The Kunduz River Basin

in northeastern Afghanistan.

Source: Varzi and Wegerich

(2009)

Table 1 Estimations of area under rice cultivation in the Kunduz

River basin (in hectares)

Year 1960sa 2007 2008 2009

Average Normal

year

Drought

year

Wet

year

Estimated rice

coverage

44,700 97,500b 55,780b 113,954b

Based on CSO (2008) figures for Baghlan, Takhar, and Kunduz

provincesa SOGREAH (1966). This figure as an average does not apply to any

specific year, representing the pre-1970 situationb Based on Normal Difference Vegetation Index analysis carried out

for the PMIS project

Sources: CSO (2008)

102 Paddy Water Environ (2011) 9:101–109

123

Since 2007, the Participatory Management for Irrigation

System (PMIS) project has been experimenting with the

System of Rice Intensification (SRI) as an alternative to the

traditional methods of rice cultivation involving inundation

of fields and submergence of the rice crop, requiring large

amounts of water. The project goal is to improve water

access for downstream farmers by promoting water-saving

methods for upstream rice-growing farmers. The PMIS

project has been implemented by the Aga Khan Foundation-

Afghanistan (AKF-A), with support from the EU since 2009.

The project is part of the Afghan Government-led program

for the Panj-Amu River Basin.

Since farmers need not pay for water in Afghanistan,

any water-saving methods must provide incentives for

upstream farmers to adopt them. The project is thus pur-

suing an integrated approach that concurrently undertakes

infrastructure rehabilitation, reductions in water demand,

and improvement in local institutions’ capacity for col-

lective water management. It is hoped that yield

improvements with reduced water application will create

impetus for more water-efficient rice production systems.

In 2007, three demo plots were established in Baghlan

and Takhar provinces to assess what benefits SRI could

offer under northern Afghan conditions. A farmer–trainer

from India visited the project area under AKF-A auspices

to give training in May 2007. Unfortunately, the results of

these initial SRI trials were not satisfactory, because the

transplanting of plots was done a month later that normal,

and there was a lack of timely technical support to

farmers.

The resulting SRI yields in 2007 did not surpass best

farmer practices, given the short growing season in this part

of Afghanistan with its high elevation and northern lati-

tude. However, Afghan farmers did observe that the SRI

plants, starting from tiny, spindly seedlings, exhibited

impressive growth, and abundant tillering. Accordingly,

this first season of trials, while not a success, actually gave

SRI introduction a boost.

At workshop held with farmers and representatives of

the Department of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock

(DAIL) to assess the first trial, proposals were formulated

for improved SRI trials in Baghlan District in the next

irrigation season: 5 demonstration plots covering 1 jerib

(0.2 ha) on a government research farm to compare SRI

with conventional methods of rice cultivation under care-

fully controlled conditions; and 6 SRI on-farm trials with

volunteer farmers.

In 2008, the planting date was an appropriate one, and

the methods were used with more knowledge and confi-

dence. The farmers’ average yield increase on their SRI

plots, compared to the yield on their regularly-managed

rice plots, was more than 75%, with a minimum yield

increase of 55% and a maximum of 100%.

Based on these promising results of 2008, a 2009 SRI

campaign was designed to include a significantly larger

number of farmers. DAIL staffs were also included in the

project’s facilitation team as a part of the capacity-building

component of the project. The methods and results are

discussed below.

Methods

Description of the study area

The Kunduz River Basin is served by two main rivers, the

Baghlan River and the Taloqan River, which irrigate

mainly three large area, the Taloqan, Baghlan, and Kunduz

plains. The Aga Khan Foundation has been working mainly

in the Baghlan plain and to a lesser extent in the Taloqan

plain.

Currently in both areas, farmers practice double crop-

ping, except in some canals’ tail areas where water short-

ages are acute. The first crop in the farming systems is

almost exclusively wheat which is harvested in May.

Barley, flax, clover, or potato are also cultivated as first

crops in some places. For the Taloqan plain, there is a

dominance of winter wheat/summer rice rotation.

Rice nurseries are prepared in the month of May, with

harvesting then in October. Pasquet (2007) estimates that

this pattern applies for 55% of the farmers in the Taloqan

plain left bank. But due to water constraints in downstream

areas, rice as currently grown, with continuous flooding, is

not an option for a large number of tail-enders. So maize,

mung bean, melons, and watermelon are among the second

crops grown. In some waterlogged areas where wheat

cultivation is not possible, rice is cultivated as the only

crop. In this case, nursery preparation starts in April and

harvested in September.

The Baghlan plain is similar to Taloqan but with very

acute head/tail divisions. Typically the winter wheat/sum-

mer rice cropping pattern occurs in canals’ upstream areas

where water is freely available. In mid-stream areas, some

farmers manage to grow a second crop such as mung bean,

melons/watermelons, vegetables or maize. Tail-enders does

not have access to water to grow any second crop. For both

the Baghlan and Taloqan plains, the areas under each non-

rice crop are highly variable given the unpredictability of

water availability and are not systematically recorded by

local staff of the Department of Agriculture, Irrigation and

Livestock (DAIL).

The absence of rain from June to September in this area

is compensated for by the increased water flow in rivers

due to snow melt at a time of high evapotranspiration.

Recent data on evapotranspiration and rainfall are not

available in Afghanistan, however. Long-term data from

Paddy Water Environ (2011) 9:101–109 103

123

the 1950–1970s periods provide an indication of the

climatic constraints prevailing in the study area (Fig. 2).

Effective rainfall: the part of the rainfall that is effectively

used by the crop after rainfall losses due to surface runoff and

deep percolation have been accounted for; used to determine

the crop irrigation requirements (Cropwat8.0 Manual).

On-farm trials with SRI farmer-volunteers

Initially the project focus was necessarily on demonstration

plots to build up farmer interest. But beyond 2008, the

emphasis shifted to on-farm evaluations managed by

farmers themselves. We will discuss this methodology first,

then describing the project-managed trials that were

undertaken to complement the more participatory activities.

Participatory technology development approach

In 2009, a total of 42 farmers practiced SRI with facilita-

tion of the PMIS staff on a voluntary basis. The majority of

farmers came from Baghlan and Doshi districts within

Baghlan Province, while 2 farmers volunteered in Taloqan

district within neighboring Takhar Province. To ensure that

the volunteer farmers could get the necessary technical

assistance and follow-up support in a learning environ-

ment, the following steps were implemented:

Awareness-raising Before the start of the irrigation sea-

son, awareness-raising about SRI was carried out through

individual and group meetings. During this process, results

from the 2008 season were presented, and volunteers were

registered for participation in the program.

Formation of PTD groups Seven groups of volunteers

were formed, with each small group of volunteers

backstopped by a resource person (RP), a fellow farmer

who had experience with the SRI methodology from the

2008 season. This ensured that at any time, a participating

farmer could request and get assistance from a nearby

resource person and could easily see on an SRI field not far

away how the new methods should be implemented since

the RPs themselves were growing an SRI crop in the area.

Technical assistance at field level from PMIS/SRI spe-

cialist At each important stage of SRI practice, field-level

demonstrations were organized for each PTD group,

bringing the RP and his volunteers together at the RP’s

plot. The PMIS/SRI specialist led technical discussions and

practical demonstrations with inputs from the RP to illus-

trate to the new volunteers the management methods they

were expected to apply in their own fields. Each session

concluded with a small group discussion to summarize the

learning points. All together, 49 technical support meetings

were organized throughout the process, 7 with each PTD

group, with a high level of attendance.

Replication of demonstrated practices Demonstrated

practices were all replicated by the volunteers themselves

with assistance, if needed, from their respective RPs. During

the following meeting with the PMIS/SRI specialist (Ram-

zi), the volunteers were invited to comment and to ask any

questions on possible remaining issues they faced in their

fields.

Field days These were organized in two occasions for all

the volunteers in Baghlan, Doshi, and Taloqan districts to

see the different fields and share experiences. The research

plots being managed by the project during the season

were also visited to enable farmers to assess the results of

different SRI experiments, including different applications

of organic and inorganic fertilizers, different dates of

transplanting, with different varieties.

Overall, the new volunteers tested SRI on small plots

that averaged 340 m2. The experienced farmers (RPs)

applied SRI methods on larger plots of around 700 m2.

This represented around 13% of the land that they had

under rice cultivation (Table 2).

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Jan

uar

y

Feb

ruar

y

Mar

ch

Ap

ril

May

Jun

e

July

Au

gu

st

Sep

tem

ber

Oct

ob

er

No

vem

ber

Dec

emb

er

mm

Eto (mm/month)

Effective rain…

Standard Evapotranspiration (ETo) and Effective Rainfall in mm per month

Fig. 2 Standard evapotranspiration (ETo) and effective rainfall

(mm month-1), 1958–1970 average, recorded at Baghlan station

(long. 60�75, lat. 36�20; altitude 510 m)

Table 2 Land area under SRI cultivation for the 2009 campaign

Average

SRI land

area (m2)

Max. SRI

land area

(m2)

Average

rice land

area (m2)

Percentage

of rice land

under SRI

2008 SRI farmers

(resource persons)

698 920 5,389 13.0

2009 volunteer

farmers (first year)

339 840 12,732 2.7


123

Local government staff capacity-building

During the entire process detailed above, three extension

officers from the Department of Agriculture, Irrigation and

Livestock (DAIL) were trained and coached on SRI

methods and on the management of a PTD group. This on-

the-job capacity building was undertaken so that the

Department can have greater human resources for repli-

cating a similar process with new SRI volunteers in the

forthcoming years.

Security limitations encountered in 2009

The security situation in Baghlan has been particularly

volatile since June 2009, due to the increasing presence and

activities of armed opposition groups in northern Afghan-

istan. Six of the initial SRI volunteer farmers received

direct threats from such groups, through night letters or

verbally, instructing them to cease their activities with the

local government and NGOs. Those farmers accordingly

decided to stop their SRI trials and switched to traditional

cultivation methods. Still, 42 farmers persisted with the

evaluation.

On several occasions, farmers organized armed escorts

to the SRI plots for AKF-A technical staff in order to

ensure that the field demonstrations could still be carried

out. In some cases, volunteers’ fields could not be accessed

directly by the PMIS/SRI specialist, but these farmers

could get assistance from their RPs. A PTD approach, with

the active involvement of local farmers as local resource

persons, has proven to be particularly relevant in a poor

security environment.

Location-specific practices

Seeding and spacing Typically, all SRI farmers have been

using 1 kg of seeds per jerib, i.e., 5 kg per ha. In the

traditional method, farmers use 21 kg of seeds per jerib,

i.e., 105 kg per ha. This represents a huge saving of seed,

especially when subsequent yields are higher. For SRI, all

farmers have marked their land according to a 25 by 25 cm

square pattern and are transplanting young seedlings

accordingly.

Fertilizer applications At first, farmers were advised not

to use chemical fertilizer for their SRI plot, to demonstrate

that SRI can provide good results with reduced inputs.

However, a certain number of farmers were skeptical that

SRI would provide any result at all without any fertilizer

application. Thus, 24 farmers decided to use fertilizers,

although in much smaller quantities than for traditional

cultivation method; 18 farmers did not apply any chemical

fertilizers.

Two types of fertilizers are commonly applied in the

project area, urea (nitrogen) and diammonium phosphate

(DAP) fertilizer. All farmers used fertilizer on their tradi-

tional plots, and their applications are seen to be quite high.

We note, however, that the amounts reported are consistent

with those found in other studies (e.g., Pasquet 2007).

Fertilizer applications for SRI plots and comparison plots

are summarized in Table 3.

Water application This has not been measured volu-

metrically for SRI or traditional methods. However, for

traditional methods of rice cultivation in the project area,

rice irrigation typically involves supplying a constant

flow to maintain a water layer of 10–20 cm. During a

post-harvest SRI workshop, the 42 SRI farmers reported

that they watered their SRI field every 2–3 days only,

just to keep their soil moist. It was acknowledged by

all that the water requirements for SRI are significantly

less.

Measurement procedures

Measurement of the harvest has been done in the presence

of at least the PMIS/SRI specialist, DAIL staff, and the

volunteer farmer whose plot was being assessed. Harvest

was collected from representative samples from both the

SRI plot and a neighboring traditional-method plot for

comparison where conditions were similar.

To ensure that the results were representative of the

entire plot, 3 samples of 1 square meter each were col-

lected. As plots were not always even in terms of pro-

duction, the volunteer and DAIL staff were asked to select

3 parts of the field as follows, according to a common

methodology for estimating yield:

• First sample: 1 square meter was selected from the best

part of the plot in terms of production.

• Second sample: 1 square meter was selected from the

worst part of the plot in terms of production.

• Third sample: 1 square meter was selected from a part

of the plot which looked typical of the rest of the field

in terms of production.

Table 3 Application of fertilizers on trial plots in 2009 season

(kg ha-1)

SRI plots (N = 24) Traditional method

plots (N = 42)

Urea DAP Urea DAP

Average 78 45 500 250

Minimum 23 12 320 230

Maximum 179 83 580 290


123

In each part, 1 square meter area was cut, making a total

of 3 bunches (Qaudah). While in the field, the height of

SRI and traditional plants was measured from 3 tillers in

each sample. An average was then calculated from the 9

tillers measured.

Using the bunches that had been cut and collected, the

following steps were carried out both for the SRI sample

and those for traditional methods:

• To count the number of hills per square meter for the

traditional method, the total number of hills for the 3

bunches was counted and divided by 3 to calculate an

average.

• Measurement of the fresh weight per square meter

(grain ? straw).

• Measurement of dry weight per square meter (grain ? -

straw). This was done 1 day after the measurement of

fresh weight.

• Counting the total number of tillers per square meter.

The total number of tillers for 3 bunches was counted

and divided by 3 to get an average per square meter.

• Counting the number of grains per panicle. For this, it is

necessary to choose three samples of panicles, from

among the longest, medium, and shortest panicles, from

each sample of cut m2. The total was divided by 9 to get

an average per square meter.

• Measurement of the total weight of grains per square

meter threshed from the samples. The grains from 3

bunches were weighed together, and the result divided

by 3 to get an average.

Measurement of the net weight of grains per square meter

was done after separating out the empty seeds (chaff).

The PMIS team also conducted some experiments on the

research farm of the Baghlan Agriculture Faculty in 2009,

testing different types of fertilizers, different transplanta-

tion dates, and different varieties. The results of these

evaluations will be reported and analyzed separately. The

focus of this article is on how SRI methods have performed

on farmers’ fields.

Results

Average yield improvement

On average, grain yield increased by 66% with SRI

methods. Detailed results are shown in Fig. 3. Only one

farmer (#15) got a lower yield with SRI practices than with

his traditional methods. This result was attributed to late

transplanting, doing only 2 mechanical weedings, and bad

timing of weeding. The fields on which the alternative

management methods were applied were considered by the

participating farmers to be comparable, so farmer and soil

differences were kept to a minimum.

The 27 farmers (#14–#40) located in Baghlan District

managed to get the highest average SRI yield, 10 t ha-1.

This represented an increase of 59% compared to their

traditional practices (Table 4).

Yield achieved by experienced farmers vs. new

volunteers

The experienced SRI farmers (RPs #1, 8, 14, 22, 29, 36,

and 41 in Fig. 2) got an average of 13.3 t ha-1 while the

new volunteers got in average 8.7 t ha-1 with their first use

of SRI methods. Among the RPs, only farmer #8 got a

yield as low as 7.3 t ha-1, explainable by particular cir-

cumstances. In 2009 he enlarged his cultivable land,

Fig. 3 Yield comparisons—SRI versus traditional methods


123

transferring some of his fertile soil in the process. As a

consequence, the results from both his traditional and SRI

cultivation were lower than expected.

Another comparison is that the seven experienced

farmers improved their yield by an average of 27% from

2008 to 2009, reflecting their greater mastery of SRI

methods. During a post-harvest workshop, the experienced

farmers indicated that first-year trial experience had con-

vinced them that SRI can bring excellent results if the

methods are meticulously applied. They understood better

the critical stages of nursery preparation, transplanting, and

first weeding. So in 2009, these farmers have shown great

dedication to applying SRI methods (Table 5).

Conversely, new volunteers indicated their initial skep-

ticism, and some of them said they had not put full effort

into taking care of their SRI demo plots, since they were

somewhat dubious that the effort would produce the

expected results. These farmers often discovered too late,

after the second or third weeding of their plots, or after

visiting the plot of their RP, that SRI can actually deliver

very good results. The average SRI yield of these volun-

teers, including those who put less effort into carefully

following the recommended steps was still 55% higher

than they got with their traditional methods (Table 6).

Yield and cropping patterns

Results show that in the context of Afghanistan, SRI can be

cultivated either as a single, separate crop, or as a second

crop in rotation with wheat. Yield results were quite con-

sistent for both categories of farmers. There is about a 16%

yield advantage for growing SRI rice as a single crop, but

the benefits of having another (wheat) crop compensate for

the slightly lower rice yield with double cropping.

Factors associated with higher yields

The PMIS trials in 2009 show that the key contributing

factor to higher yield with SRI methods was the average

47% increase in the number of grains per panicle. The

second most important factor was the average 10%

increase in number of tillers per m2. Contrary to expecta-

tions, the average grain weight was almost the same with

both methods. However, it was noted that the experienced

SRI farmers (RPs) had an average grain weight of ?12%

higher in their SRI crop.

Benefits of mechanical weeding (soil aeration)

The results from the 42 farmers’ comparison plots clearly

indicated that doing more weedings enhances the ensuing

yield (Fig. 4). The mechanical weeder that farmers were

encouraged to use not only eliminates weeds, by churning

them into the soil to decompose, but it actively aerates the

soil. This promotes larger and healthier root growth, and it

also stimulates the prospering of aerobic soil organisms

that are thought to provide beneficial services to the plants

(Uphoff et al. 2009). This is in line with experiments in

other parts of the world which have shown that each extra

weeding, if done on time, can bring between 1 and 2 tons

per ha extra yield (WASSAN/CSA/WWF 2006).

From informal interviews with farmers during harvest-

ing, it was found that in the early stages of the SRI cycle,

such as transplanting, most volunteers were very skeptical

about the potential of the young seedlings’ development.

Thus they tended to reduce their effort in applying SRI

methods. Hence, some of them did not do the first weeding

on time, if at all. By contrast, the 4 farmers who did 4

Table 4 Comparison of yields (t ha-1) with SRI versus conventional methods in three districts, 2009

SRI methods Conventional methods Percent increase

Districts Ave. Range SD Ave. Range SD

Baghlan (n = 27) 10.0 4.0–20.0 3.8 6.3 5.0–9.0 6.3 59

Doshi (n = 13) 7.8 4.1–13.0 2.4 4.4 2.0–6.0 4.4 76

Taloqan (n = 2) 9.0 8.3–9.6 0.9 4.2 4.0–4.4 0.3 113

Total (n = 42) 9.3 4.0–20.0 3.4 5.6 2.0–9.0 1.5 66

Table 5 Yield results with SRI as a first or a second crop (grown in

rotation with wheat)

SRI as 1st crop SRI as 2nd crop

Number of farmers 8 34

Yield (t ha-1) 10.5 9.0

Table 6 Average yield from SRI plots with or without use of

chemical fertilizer, 2009

Use of fertilizer (urea

and/or DAP)

Average SRI yield

(t ha-1)

Average number of

weedings

No (n = 18) 9.3 2.8

Yes (n = 24) 9.25 2.6


123

mechanical weedings were all farmers who had used SRI

practices the previous season and had been convinced of

the merits of this practice. The three other experienced

farmers did 3 weedings.

Yield and fertilizer application

A yield comparison between farmers who used fertilizers

for SRI and those who did not show similar results for both

groups. To some extent this could be due to the fact that

fertilizer application was very low when compared to what

is usually applied traditionally. Note also that the average

number of weedings, which has seen to be an influential

factor in yield variations, was similar for both categories.

The fact that SRI farmers got a yield of 66% higher than

on their traditional plot despite using much less fertilizer if

any would be one of the most positive results from SRI

management if confirmed in further trials because this

could be a big cost saving for Afghan farmers.

Yield and varieties

Five different varieties, all ‘‘traditional,’’ i.e., unimproved,

were tested by the 42 farmers who applied SRI methods

in 2009. Their results in terms of yield differences with

traditional methods are compiled in Table 7. The terms

garmah and sardah mean literally ‘‘warm’’ and ‘‘cold,’’

respectively, indicating that the latter can or should be

planted earlier in the season. The terms also correspond

roughly to the length of crop cycle; sardah takes longer to

mature but also it can be planted earlier. The characteristics

of the different varieties used are summarized in Table 8.

In Baghlan, there were not clear and systematic differ-

ences in terms of average yield results for SRI between

both varieties, although the very best results (19.5 and

20 t ha-1) were obtained with Surkha Zerati (medium

garmah). Varietal differences were more pronounced with

SRI management in Doshi and Taloqan Provinces, but the

numbers of observations there were quite small. One con-

clusion supported by the data from the limited evaluation in

2009 was that SRI methods can be applied beneficially to

any local variety.

Lessons learned and recommendations

The SRI is proving to be a valuable alternative to tradi-

tional cultivation method in northeastern Afghanistan,

giving an average yield improvement of 66% for the 42

farmers who practiced its new methods in 2009. SRI can be

practiced either as a single crop (rice only) or double-

cropped with wheat. In particular, it was seen that timely

and frequent weeding gives a significant boost to produc-

tion. Although no measurements of quantitative differences

Fig. 4 Impact of soil-aerating

weeding on crop yield

Table 7 Yields with SRI and

traditional methods for different

varieties, 2009

District Variety N SRI yield

(t ha-1)

Traditional

method

yield (t ha-1)

Percentage

increase

Baghlan Surkha Zerati (medium garmah) 7 12.1 7.0 ?74

Surkha Zerati (medium sardah) 20 9.2 6.0 ?54

Doshi Loog 6 7.2 4.9 ?47

Surkha Zerati (long garmah) 1 11.6 4.3 ?169

Surkha Zerati (medium garmah) 1 9.0 6.0 ?50

Surkha Zerati (medium sardah) 5 7.6 3.6 ?111

Taloqan Shah Lawangi 1 9.6 4.4 ?118

Surkha Zerati (medium garmah) 1 8.3 4.0 ?108


123

in water application could be made, the difference between

continuous flooding, the traditional practice, and just

keeping soil moist was substantial according to farmers’

observation.

The participatory technology development (PTD)

approach and the use of experienced farmers as resource

persons is a relevant way to facilitate effective sharing of

experience. This is particularly relevant in a context like

Afghanistan where security concerns tend to limit the field

involvement for international NGOs and even sometimes

for government personnel. The credibility of experienced

farmers can be very great, especially when they have

demonstration fields nearby to refer to.

In the 2010 season, it was not possible for the project to

continue its formal program in Baghlan district because of

the security situation there. However, in Doshi, the number

of participating farmers has risen from 13 in 2009 to 48 in

2010, while in Takhar, the number has increased from 2 to

59. Thus, in these two provinces, the total number of par-

ticipating farmers in 2010 is 150% higher than in the 2009

program, despite having to withdraw from activities in

Baghlan, the main project area last year. Probably there is

some continuation of SRI activities and extension in

Baghlan district. Staffs of the Department of Agriculture

there are applying on their own what they learned in the

past year, working with a small group of new volunteers,

and the AKF project is assisting them logistically.

The amount of labor required for careful transplanting of

young seedlings remains a constraint that limits the

attractiveness of SRI to some farmers, although this is not

an insuperable problem. Direct seeding, which has been

tried according to SRI principles in some countries, should

be experimented with under Afghan conditions.

An increase in spacing for transplantation could be also

tested as this would reduce the labor requirements for

transplanting and might give better or at least acceptable

results. Tests could be done at 30 9 30 cm and 40 9 40 cm

spacing. Especially as SRI cultivation enhances soil fertility,

through organic soil amendments and increased root exu-

dation, such wider spacing could become more productive

over time.

References

CSO (2008) Afghanistan statistical yearbook, 2007–2008. Central

Statistical Organization, Kabul

Lee JL (2007) Water management, livestock and the opium economy:

the performance of community water management systems.

Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, Kabul

Maletta H, Favre R (2003) Agriculture and food production in post-

war Afghanistan: a report on the winter agricultural survey

2002–2003. UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Kabul.

http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ae407e/ae407e00.HTM

Pasquet J (2007) Participatory management of irrigation systems:

farming systems research—Final report. Groupe Urgence

Rehabilitation et Developpement, Kabul

Qureshi, AS (2002) Water resources management in Afghanistan: the

issues and options. Water policy paper 49. International Water

Management Institute, Pakistan Program, Lahore

SOGREAH (1966) Kunduz Khanabad irrigation study final report.

Afghan Water and Soil Survey Authority, Kabul (for World

Bank)

Thomas V, Ahmad M (2009) Historical perspective on the Mirab

system: a case study of the Jahgharoq Canal, Baghlan. Afghan-

istan Research and Evaluation Unit, Kabul

Thomas V, Osmani A, Abdi S (2009) Nahr-e-Said and Nahr-e-Zargar

Canal Assessment. PMIS project report. Aga Khan Foundation

Afghanistan, Kabul

Uphoff N, Anas I, Rupela OP, Thakur AK, Thiyagarajan TM (2009)

Learning about positive plant-microbial interactions from the

system of rice intensification (SRI). Aspects Appl Biol 98:29–54

Varzi M, Wegerich K (2009) Much ado about nothing: sub-basin

working groups in Kunduz River Basin. Afghanistan Water and

Development Publications, Helsinki University of Technology,

Helsinki

WASSAN/CSA (2006) SRI—An emerging alternative: an SRI

manual. Watershed Support Services and Activities Network,

and Centre for Sustainable Agriculture, Hyderabad, with support

of World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)

Table 8 Characteristics of the varieties used in farmer SRI trials in 2009

Surkha Zerati Type Duration (days) Particular characteristics

Medium garmah Indica Medium (145–150) Good market price, though less than long garmah

Medium sardah Indica Long (150–155) Good market price though less than long garmah; more sensitive

to climatic changes (cold weather)

Long garmah Indica Medium (145–150) Good market price; less resistant to dusty weather during flowering stage

Loog Japonica Short (130–135) Does not require parboiling; cannot be used for Qabli Palaw (the national dish)

Shah Lawangi Not classified Medium (135–140) Matures earlier than Surkha Zerati but not than Loog; said to have very good taste


123

http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ae407e/ae407e00.HTM

SRI contributions to rice production dealing with water management constraints in northeastern...

Documents

Transcript of SRI contributions to rice production dealing with water management constraints in northeastern...