Doktorski studij na FSB: Uvod u znanstveno istraživački rad 2015/2016

Franjo Kozina

SREACHING FOR CREATIVITY – THE BRAIN MAPPING

UDC 612.82

Essay

Summary

Creativity is usually defined as personal, imaginative thinking which produces a novel

and useful solution. Wary often convergent abilities are used to bring together otherwise

divergent concepts. As such, creativity can be considered from different points of view. A

nurocognitive approach to the higher cognitive functions that bridge the gap between

psychological and neural level of description is introduced. One of the possibilities for better

understanding of cognitive systems at the roots of creative behaviour is to trace its natural

history in mammals, mostly referring to non-human primates. Primate evolution has been

accompanied by complex reorganization in brain anatomy and function. However, little is

known about anatomical and functional changes induced through primate evolution. Results,

of functional magnetic resonance imaging application to determine spacious and temporal

correspondence of cortical networks in humans and monkeys, are briefly discussed. Putative

brain processes responsible for problem solving, intuition, skill learning and automatization

are mentioned as well. As indicated by effects of traumatic head injuries, strokes and disease,

there is some degree of localism of functions in human brain. Observation and documentation

of these remarks, led to the development and collection of relatively non-invasive tools and

techniques used for assessing and localising brain function in healthy human patients known

as human brain mapping. Use of those non-invasive tools, to determine the role of non-

dominant brain hemisphere in solving problems resulting in creative and novel solution, is

conjectured. Psychological, nurocognitive and computational perspective of creativity are

discussed.

Key words: Creativity; Psychology; Nurocognitive science; Evolution; Brain; Human

Brain mapping; Non-human primates; Localism of functions in brain

1. Introduction

Definitions of creativity are often considered to be unsatisfactory, however in most

general terms creativity can be associated with attitudes, capacities and behaviours that lead to

some innovatory outcome. It reflects and enhances perception, cognition and expression

which occurs either spontaneously or is caused by specific stimuli that links and incorporates

variables not ordinary in interaction with one another [1]. Creativity is usually defined as the

capacity to produce ideas that are both original and adaptive, but also workable and

functional. Thus, enabling a person to adjust to new circumstances and solve problems that

unexpectedly arise. Yet, creativity can also result in major contributions to human civilisation

[2]. Hence, how can such a broad concept bee captured? The answer can be found by

identifying two major potential pitfalls for creativity/neuroimaging/psychology/nurocognitive

research: the single focus on the iconic genius, also known as a Big “C” at the expanse of the

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vast majority of creative ventures undertaken by the other ̴99% of creative endeavours,

known as a little “c” [3]. Furthermore, the more detailed model of defining creativity, called

the 4C model has been developed [4]. This model, in addition to the aforementioned types of

creativity, also introduces Mini “C” and Pro “C” creativity archetypes [5].

Any effort to clarify the meaning of creativity, although productive, risks limiting this

important concept to a singular definition thereat neglecting other valuable interpretations [6].

Looking at the creativity from a broader point of view, it can be related to a number of

functions and characteristics of our brain, namely its plasticity and ability to elaborate a

plurality of mental schemes and various visions of our surroundings. Each mental function

includes a number of plastic, creative facets such as: perception, memory, mental imagery and

representation of reality that occurs during diurnal activities as well as sleeping. The origin of

creativity depends on the gap existing between the real world and its mental representation, or

an individual’s vision of reality. In other words, if brain limited itself to registering

information trough the formation of neutral memories without divergenting from the strict

rationality and computation stag, based on logic, there would be no room for plastic,

divergent, creative mental process [7]. For example, the continuous reconstruction of the

memories, their re-consolidation and contamination caused by linked occurrences [8], their

conscious or unconscious reorganization belongs to plastic, creative processes leading to a

representation of reality that is different from its initial core [9]. Despite great progress in the

neuroscience the higher cognitive functions, such as language, thinking, reasoning, planning,

problem solving, understanding of visual scenes, are still poorly understood. Creativity seems

to be one of the most mysterious aspects of the human mind and any attempt to elucidate

brain processes involved in it, has been surely speculative. A nurocognitive model of brain

process that would bridge the gap between psychological and neural level of description is

urgently needed to make progress in the creativity research [10]. This model should

successfully link low- and high-level cognitive functions and show how the inner experience

is manifested at the psychological level [11].

Over the past 30 years the field of cognitive neuroscience has emerged as an important

area. Cognitive neuroscience combines the experimental strategies of cognitive psychology

with various techniques to examine how brain functions support mental activities.

Consequently, human functional brain mapping begun when the experimental stages of

cognitive psychology were combined with modern brain-imaging techniques [12]. This

marriage of disciplines and techniques galvanized the field of cognitive neuroscience to

expand and include a broad range of the social sciences in addition to basic sciences covering

neuropsychology, cell biology and genetics [13].

A brief introduction of the nurocognitive understanding of higher cognitive functions is

presented in the text bellow. It will also show how different parts of the human brain play an

important role in this field, since the main point is to establish an understanding of cognition

from neural perspective and to link together different lobes of the Cerebral cortex.

2. The evolution of creativity - from primate to human

From an evolutionary point of view, creativity involves both process and product of

novel perception, thoughts or action. Thus, allowing an animal or the entire specie to cope

with present or potential changes in the structure of its environment. The evident behavioural

diversification among different animal species enables tracing of the evolutionary

development of the creative potential of the brain and of its innovatory amplitudes [14].

Therefore, considering the tendency towards creativity, the two different types of species can

be found: species characterised by higher levels of behavioural rigidly that have scarcely

variable responses which depend on instinctive mechanisms, and more plastic species that

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have an individual behavioural repertoire responding to the environmental constraints and

changes [15].

In a homogeneous, slowly changing environment behavioural specialization or rigid is

an advantage. However, the risk that sudden change in surroundings does not result in

adaptive mechanism exists, thus questioning the survival of an entire species. On the other

hand, a non-specialised animal or entire species that relies on a broad spectre of conducts

directed towards individual experience, spends its entire life solving those problems that are

solved by the genetic heritage of a specialised animal. In the other words, while specialised

species depends on instinctive patterns determined by genetic memories, generalist species

are more flexible and are also able to temporarily assemble different behavioural patterns to

solve new problems [14]. In simple terms, this model maintains that notable attainment in

knowledge or expertise that is provided from three step process. These process includes the

production of blind variations, the selection of that subset of variations that enhances the

organism’s adaptive fitness in some way, and retention of these selective adaptations for

future use [16]. This kind of thinking depicts a generic form under which we can assume

existence of not just biological evolution, but, in equal force, evolution of perception,

learning, problem-solving and creativity along with sociocultuarl innovation [17]. However,

the difference between specialised and non-specialised species does not merely depend on the

level of cerebral complexity. The other mechanisms that result in behavioural variability are

varied diet, safety from predators and also non agonistic environment.

Dreaming and playing are two other important factors that encourage behavioural

variability. In human infancy dreaming activity is at its peak, and during Rapid Eye

Movement (REM) periods neural circuits are shaped. During that phase memories are

categorized and consolidated, while non relevant information’s are evicted from neural

networks [18]. Play is a behavioural activity evident in higher mammals but almost absent in

other species. In children, open air games involve a number of sensations, perceptions,

emotions, movements, and last but not least a strong cognitive activity, forcing brain to reach

its peak [19]. Infants, children, adolescents and young adults, all move through the periods

when their skills are leaping forward at a fast pace, especially under conditions that support

optimal performances, as shown in Figure 1 (upper curve). In more ordinary performances,

when they are not pushing the limits of their capacity, they commonly show either linear

growth or unsystematic change (lower line) [20]. Based on the aforementioned, it can be

concluded how non agonistic surrounding, with accent on games and playing, can impact

cognitive development and thus the ability for creative thinking.

Fig. 1 Cyclical spurts for cognitive development under optimal conditions [20]

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Compared to humans, innovations by animals are considered to be less significant.

Nevertheless, some species have been observed as creative and tested experimentally. The

rate of innovations is particularly high in birds and non-human primates. For example,

pigeons tested in laboratory and in the field, creatively solved the food-reaching problem and

spread that knowledge to the rest of their flock [21]. The other example of the avian creativity

comes from the blue tit birds observed stealing milk from foil sealed milk bottles by punching

trough with their beaks. In the non-human primate category, chimpanzees and oran-gurtans

are the most innovative [22]. One of the behavioural activities taken into consideration is the

manipulation of non-edible object. For this purpose, a seminal study on the more than 100

animal species was conducted. Assessment of reactivity or curiosity by visual orientation

towards a new object and its manipulation were measured on the animal subjects ranging

from reptiles to non-human primates. Within primates, clear differences are evident in terms

of both curiosity and object manipulation. The most exploratory were gorillas, orang-utans

and chimpanzees, gibbons and macaques showed tepid interest, while the new world monkeys

were characterised by a scarce body interaction with the new object [14]. In general, non-

human primates make contact with the object trough large number of body parts, they also

make large number of non-stereotypical movements that included the object, as well as used it

like a tool. Thusly they produced new behavioural patterns in a kind of a recombination play.

And, it is from this play, that something new may suddenly emerge and become a part of the

behavioural repertoire of the individual or the entire pack [15].

To summarize, large brain size strongly correlates with innovations in the birds,

particularly with brain region known as the hyperstriatum, a nucleus in the brain of the

songbirds necessary for both learning and the producing of a bird song [23], and neostriatum

that projects both auditory and tactile sensations and occupies the greatest part of the brain

hemisphere of the adult birds [24]. In non-humans primates the regions involved are

isocortex, the larger part of mammalian cerebral cortex composed of a large number of nerve

cells arranged in six layers that are divided into a several regions with different functions [25],

and striatum that is equivalent to cortical associations in humans, and mediates cognition

involving motor function, certain executive functions and stimulus-response learning [26].

These human association areas have grown in size several times in the human brain compared

to other mammals and other primates in the course of adaptive evolution. So, innovations in

animals are strictly related to tool use, learning and abilities dealing with seasonal changes.

Innovation capability in animals is driven by biological need to survive. Jet, same needs seem

to be passed on to humans and are now entwined with other creative capacities unique for

humans. By conducting structural and functional brain comparison to animals, some brain

areas in humans, that might by responsible for our high creativity rate, have been illuminated

[22]. By performing a special clustering analysis of resting state maps (RSN) provided by

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), clusters of activity belonging to

corresponding RSN in the two different species (humans and monkeys), as well as clusters

belonging to a monkey or a human RSN, with no corresponding to other species, were

identified [27]. fMRI is a functional neuroimaging technology that measures brain activity by

detecting changes associated with blood flow, relaying on the assumption that cerebral blood

flow and neural activities are connected [28]. Resting state fMRI (RS-fMRI) investigates

synchronous activities between regions that are spatially distinct and their activities are

occurring in the absence of a task or stimulus [29]. The results of these tests are shown in

Figure 2. The spatial clustering of monkey and human RSNs resulted in definition of 15

clusters in total. Of those, 11 contained spatially corresponding clusters to RSNs in both

species. Five of those 11 clusters comprised early auditory, visual and sematomotor regions.

Analysis also shoved 1 monkey-specific and 3 human-specific RSNs. The human-specific

clusters have been implicated in behavioural control and human intelligence, as well as in

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various forms of procedural and abstract reasoning in left and right hemisphere. These skills

are considered to be human specific and are crucial for tool use and making logical

inferences. These changes, in differentiation between monkey and human brain, may

underline the acquisition of novel cognitive abilities during evolution [27].

3. Neuropsychology, cognition, brain mapping and creativity

This chapter is going to begin with several definitions referring to psychology,

neuropsychology, cognition and brain mapping. Psychology is defined as a study of behaviour

and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought.

It is an academic discipline and a social science that tends to understand individuals and

groups by establishing general principles and researching specific chases. Perception,

cognition, attention, emotion (affect), intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain

functioning and personality are investigated by psychology. Psychologists generally consider

organism to be the basis of the mind. Psychiatrists and neuropsychologist work at the

interface of the mind and body. Biological psychology, known as physiological psychology,

or neuropsychology, is the study of the biological substrates and includes comparative

psychology which studies humans in relation with other animals. It also involves the

perception of physical mechanism of sensation as well as neural and mental processing [30].

Fig. 2 Topological correspondence of RSN between species [27]

The contemporary field of behavioural neuroscience focuses on physical causes related

to the way in which an animal or a human behaves in response to a particular situation or

stimulus [31]. Evolutionary psychology examines cognition and personality traits from an

evolutionary perspective, thus suggesting that psychological adaptations evolved to solve

current problems in human ancestry. Cognitive neuroscience, investigates neural correlations

of psychological processes in humans using imaging tools, while neuropsychologists conduct

psychological assessment to define specific aspects and extent of cognitive deficits caused by

brain damage or disease [30]. By defying cognition as the mental action or a process of

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acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and the senses [32], they

set biopsychosocial models that are integrated towards understanding consciousness,

behaviour, and social interaction. A set of neuroscience techniques predicated on the mapping

of biological or physiological quantities or properties onto special representations of the brain,

is known as brain mapping. Human brain mapping is an experimental discipline that

establishes structure-function correspondence in the human brain through the combine

application of experimental psychology, human neuroscience and non-invasive neuroimaging

[33]. However, it is important to know that enterprise of brain mapping did not begin with

development of non-invasive imaging tool. That understanding has been well established for

more than 50 years, as shown in Figure 3. The data gathered for these Figure was obtain in

two ways: bay studying people with lesions (caused by stroke, disease or wounds) and by

applying direct electrical stimulations to the cortex of patients undergoing brain surgery. Jet,

after developing modern non-invasive neuroimaging techniques, nothing was found to be

wrong with this Figure. Use of modern techniques allowed for the acquiring of knowledge

about the localisation of functions in some areas of the brain, additionally refining this map

[34].

As aforementioned, leading the research of cognitive neuroscience in normal humans

are the techniques of functional brain imaging: position emersion tomography (PET) and

fMRI along with electroencephalography (EEG), electrocorticography (ECoG),

magnetoenceplalography (MEG) and most recently optical imaging with near-infrared

spectroscopy (NIRS) [13].

Fig. 3 Localisation of the human brain functions observed in 1957 [34]

The signals obtained with PET scan and fMRI are based on changes in blood flow,

oxygen consumption and glucose utilisation related to the cellular activity of the brain. The

majority of functional brain imaging is made possible because of the localised changes in

blood flow related to the changes in cellular activity [35]. For a long period of time it was

believed, that behaviourally induced increase in blood flow was a direct consequence of an

increase in the brain’s need for oxygen to metabolize glucose. But, it was conclusively

demonstrated that functional increase in blood flow in normal humans were not accompanied

by changes of similar magnitude in consumption of oxygen [13]. Unlike aforementioned

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methods, EEG records voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current within the neurons of

the brain [36]. In cognitive psychology EEG is used for measuring Event-related potentials

that are result of a specific sensory, cognitive or motor event [37]. Like EEG, ECoG also

measures electrical activity of the neurons, but the electrodes are placed directly on the

exposed surface of the brain. ECoG is used because it allows for the better spatial resolution

[38]. For mapping brain by recording magnetic fields naturally produced by electrical currents

in the brain, MGE method is used. Applications of MEG include basic research into

perceptual and cognitive brain processes, localization regions affected by pathology before

surgical removal, determining the function of various parts of the brain and neurofeedback

[39].

From this information it is not difficult to conclude how the neuroscientists interested in

brain functions from a cellular and molecular perspective are now obligated to understand not

only the concepts and strategies of cognitive psychology but also a wide verity of behavioural

disciplines covered by social sciences [40]. Parallel, behavioural scientists interested in

relating their work generally to the brain, are conflicted by a rapid increase of knowledge

concerning the biological correlations of functional neuroimaging signals. Understanding this

work depends on the complex concept not only from perspective of neurophysiology, but also

from the aspects of theoretical neuroscience, cell biology and even genetics [13].

3.1 Creativity from psychological and nurocognitive perspective

Creativity manifests itself not only in creating novel theories or innovations, but

encroach our everyday actions like understanding language and interacting with other people.

Brains of creative and intelligent people are different in the density of synaptic connections,

contributing to the richer structure of associations and registration of more complex

waveforms on the EEG potentials [41].

At the neural level, creativity requires two components, namely distributed chaotic

neural activity and filtering of interesting results. Distributed fluctuation or chaotic neural

activity is constrained by the strength of associations between sub-networks coding different

concepts responsible for imagination. The second level described as filtering is based on

prime expectations, forming associations and arousing emotions [41].

3.2 Creativity from computational perspective

As a product of ordinary nurocognitive processes, creativity should be susceptible to

computational modelling. Jet, insufficient understanding of creative activity, resulted in low

interest of the computational intelligence community in creative computing. So far, a very few

computational models have been implemented, the most interesting being Copycat, Metacat

and Magnificat [42]. These models define and explore “fluid concepts” that are sufficiently

flexible and context-sensitive to led to automatic creative outcome in challenging domains

[43].

3.3 Creative brain - physiology of creativity

If we consider creativity from the neural base, a first most classical approach refers to

the different functions of the two cerebral hemispheres [14]. Videlicet, the human brain is

composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum and brainstem. The cerebrum is the largest part of the

human brain and is composed of right and left hemisphere. Cerebrum is in charge of

performing higher functions like interpreting sensory stimuli as well as speaking, reasoning,

emotions, learning and fine movement control. The right and the left hemispheres of the brain

are joined by the bundle of fibres called the corpus callosum that delivers massages from one

side to the other. Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body [44].

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When solving a problem in novel or creative way, from one side we are endowed by

logic-symbolic activities that mostly depend on language and therefore are located on the left

side of the brain. Parallel, holistic approach leads to a strategy that considers a number of

facts, in particular emotional facts that are received and interpreted by the right hemisphere of

the brain. Symbolic interpretation of the brain functions is given in the Figure 4. However,

even if characterisation of the hemispheric functions are more variegated, the fact that the left

half of the brain plays a role in symbolic-linguistic activities as well as in computational

processes, cannot be minimized [14].

Many studies, mostly based on results of fMRI, are centred on the asymmetric role of

the two cerebral hemispheres. These studies suggest that creative solutions are associated to

the fact that left hemisphere is “switched off” while the right half of the brain in “turned on”.

This hypothesis is supported by fluid association, metaphors, and analogies at the new point

of view [46].

The role of the right hemisphere in the discovery of a new and innovatory solution or a

new explanation for already existing problem is emphasized by the fact that this hemisphere is

involved in a number of functions, such as musical perception and production, visual imagery

and visual artistic creation that are considered crucial in this endeavour. The same hemisphere

is implicated in the production of associations caused by verbal stimulus. Therefore, verbal

stimulus processed by the right hemisphere result in a higher number of mental associations,

thane those processed by the left hemisphere of the brain. Furthermore, a sudden discovery of

the solution to the problem is the process that mostly involves the right hemisphere of the

brain [14].

Fig. 4 A symbolic interpretation of the brain functions [45]

The separation of the hemispheric competences often results in a notion of the creativity

in which right brain function are associated with creative, emotional and instinctual processes.

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In antagonism to the left half of the brain that is reduced to rationality and semantic cognitive

activity [14].

However, the last findings related to the neuroscience of creativity suggest that right to

left brain distinction does not offer the full picture of how creativity is implemented in the

human brain. It is stated that creativity does not involve a single brain region or a single side

of the brain. In contrary, depending on the type of creative process and the stage of the

creativity, different brain regions are recruited to handle the task. In Figure 5 entire creative

process is divided into several stages, consisting of many interacting cognitive processes, both

conscious and unconscious, as well as emotional [47]. According to the Figure the creative

process can be divided into four stages:

1. The preparation stage that consists of problem defining and gathering of all

information’s that are needed, as well as setting the criteria for verifying their

acceptability.

2. The incubations stage infers the distancing from the problem and contemplation

over the gathered information.

3. The ideas arise from the mind to provide the basis of a creative response in the

illumination stage. Unlike the previous stages, illumination is often very brief

and involves a tremendous rush of insight.

4. In the finale stage, known as verification, the activities are carried out to see

whether or not results of illumination stage satisfy need and criteria defined in

the preparation stage [48].

Fig. 5 A illustration of creativity as a whole brain process [48]

To conclude, the stages of preparation and verification belong to the left hemisphere

of human brain, while the stages of incubation and illumination occur in the right hemisphere

[48]. However, some differences in the processing of brain hemispheres can be found. So, for

example, the right side of the brain looks at the visual references as a whole, noticing the

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details later. On the other hand, the left side of the brain firstly notices details and then joins

them together to form the full picture [48].

Problems that require creativity are difficult to solve because neural circuits

representing object features and variables that characterize the problem have only weak

connections. Consequently, the probability of forming appropriate sequence of cortical

activities is very small. During preparation period all relative information are introduced,

activating corresponding neural circuits in the visual, auditory somatosensory and motor areas

used in extended representation. These brain subnetworks mutually reinforce their activity

forming many transient configurations and inhibiting other, less important, actions. Difficult

problems require long incubation periods that may be followed by an impasse and despair

periods. The desperation period is results of inhibition that lowers the activity of primed

circuits to allow recruitment of new circuits that could be helpful in solving the problem. In

the incubation period distributed sustained activity among primed circuits lead to various

transient associations, most of them being immediately forgotten. Almost all of these

activations do not have much sense and are transient configurations. This is usually called

imagination. Interesting associations are noticed by the central executive network and

amplified by emotional filters that provide neurotransmitters increasing the plasticity of the

circuits involved and forming new associations and pathways in the conceptual space [50].

Depending on the difficulty of the presented problem, different networks are awoken to meet

it, as shown in Figure 6. When the battle for the creative solution begins, the Executive

Attention Network is recruited to focus the attention no working memory.

a)

b)

c)

Fig. 6 fMRI imagines of different brain networks: a) Executive Attention Network, b) Imagination Network, c)

Silence Network [47]

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The Imagination Network is involved in constructing more dynamic mental simulations based

on personal past experiences used in remembering, thinking about the future. This network is

also involved in social cognition. While aforementioned network are wary active in solving

the problem, the Silence Networks quietly monitors external events and internal stream of

consciousness flexibly trying to find the information most crucial for the solution.

Creativity requires imagination and filtering. Imagination should be constrained by

probabilities of composition of elementary operations, corresponding to activations of specific

brain subnetworks. Products of imagination should be ranked and filtered in a domain-

specific way. The same principles should apply to creativity in design, mathematics, and other

domains

4. Conclusion

Creativity is a complex and vast construct that has been vital to the progress of human

civilisation and very likely the development of human reasoning process. While the varieties

of creative expression are many, the cognitive processes critical to its manifestation are likely

to be relatively few, thus, researchers have attempted to identify cognitive processes crucial to

creative cognition. Humans are characterized by specific cognitive skills, related to

intelligence and their ability to manipulate the environment, which distinguish them from all

other animals and primates. In search of these human-specific abilities, numerous studies have

investigated evolution-driven changes in the primate brain. A fascinating, but yet to be

answered question is whether human-specific cognitive abilities emerged from evolution of

novel human-specific cortical networks. As our knowledge of the brain increases, it is more

and more evident that a cognitive function often depends on a multiplicity of mechanisms

instead on a single structure or system. The analysis of creativity shows that a plurality of

structures and functions are implicated in its occurrence and that the traditional duality

between right and left hemispheric functions cannot fully explain creative behaviours. As a

consequence of these multifaceted relations between brain and creativity we should keep in

mind that inventive and original attitudes may be enhanced during infancy by encouraging a

multiplicity of activities that are considered to be precondition to creative behaviour, such as

free and social play, analogical thinking, and focused attention.

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Searching for Creativity - The Brain Mapping Franjo Kozina

13

[49]http://www.webdesignerdepot.com/2009/11/understanding-your-brain-for-better-design-left-vs-right/,

Underestanding your Brain for Better Design: Left vs. Right.

[50] W. Duch, Creativity and the Brain, http://cogprints.org/7300/1/06-Creativity-Brain.pdf

Defined: 12.12.2016

Delivered 09.01.2017.

Franjo Kozina

fkozin@simet.hr