spring summer 2019 · 2020. 2. 28. · spring/summer 2019 $12.50 THIRD SERIES, VOL. XXVII, NO. 1,...

B O S T O N U N I V E R S I T Y

A JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES AND THE CLASSICS

s p r i n g / s u m m e r 2 0 1 9

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anities and the Classics

Classics and Complexity in Walden’s “Spring”

M. D. USHER

In 1843, two years before Henry Thoreaubuilt his cabin at Walden Pond, the Fitchburg Railroad laiddown tracks through the woods near the Pond for its lineconnecting Boston to Fitchburg. The original Fitchburg Line,at 54 miles long, was, until 2010, the longest run in the pres-ent-day MBTA Commuter Rail system. And it is one of theoldest railways in New England. By 1900, fortunes swelledand the Fitchburg’s Hoosac Tunnel Line took passengers andgoods westward toward Chicago. The Lake ChamplainRoute connected Boston to points north like Burlington, Ver-mont. (See Figure 1.)

arion 27.1 spring/summer 2019

Figure 1 (left): Advertisement for theHoosac Tunnel Route in The New Eng-land Magazine (Vol. 21, Issue 6, Febru-ary, 1900).

Figure 2 (right): Herbert Wendell Gleason. The Fitchburg Railroadand Walden Pond in winter, Concord, Mass., March 24, 1920.Courtesy Concord Free Public Library.

The Railroad was literally a fixture in Thoreau’s land-scape. Its tracks pass remarkably close to Walden Pond (Fig-ure 2), and the Fitchburg Line—both its reality and thespecter of it—is practically a character in his writing: “I usu-ally go to the village along its causeway, and am, as it were,related to society by this link,” Thoreau writes in “Sounds,”a chapter of Walden that contains what must be one of themost picturesque odes (or laments) to rail travel and com-merce in all of American literature: The engine’s whistle,Thoreau complains, pierces the still silence of his idyllic re-treat like a screaming hawk circling a farmer’s field, its bil-lows of steam an ominous harbinger of “this travellingdemi-god, this cloud-compeller.”1

Thoreau’s frequent, customary walks into Concord alongthe railroad tracks took him through a heavily excavatedstretch of the line known as the Deep Cut, to which he re-turned again and again each year in early spring, even afterleaving the cabin, to observe and to record his observations.The leaf-shaped sand flows and trickling surface erosioncaused by melting frost in the banks of the Deep Cut areelaborately described in Thoreau’s chapter in Walden enti-tled “Spring,” what Laurence Buell calls the “high point ofThoreau’s epic.”2 And yet, in spite of the universal acclaimof this passage as a literary tour de force, it has not receivedthe full attention it deserves. What warrants fresh consider-ation first and foremost is “Spring”’s deep-rootedness inclassical sources. Many classical influences, allusions, and agood deal of etymological word play have gone so far un-noticed. The chapter is also important because it describes,by intimation, what contemporary scientists now call emer-gence. Emergent phenomena are properties or behaviorsthat arise in systems as a result of complex, dynamic inter-actions amongst constituent parts, including changes to asystem brought about by human interventions3—not only,e.g., climate change and wildfires, but also traffic patternsand terrorist networks; kidney function in the body; therings of Saturn. As he tries to capture the essence of the

114 classics and complexity in WALDEN’s “spring”

Deep Cut and interpret its significance, Thoreau adum-brates this concept, but also grapples ingeniously withbroader issues of perennial concern—the relationship ofNature to Culture, for example, of Wilderness to Civiliza-tion, of Science to the Humanities—making “Spring” notonly a probing work of eco-criticism and environmentalphilosophy, but of scientific reflection and poetic experi-ment as well. In short, Thoreau’s “Spring” is that rare workof classical reception that transmits both literary and scien-tific insight.

Perhaps at this point, in lieu of accolades, it is best to letThoreau start speaking for himself.

What I offer in the following pages is a commentary onthe Deep Cut passage from “Spring.” Classical referencesand aspects of systems theory will be explained and contex-tualized as they emerge, as it were, from Thoreau’s text. Thewhole chapter corresponds to pages 289–308 in Cramer’sedition of Walden—26 paragraphs all told, of which onlythe relevant ones are printed and annotated here. (Transi-tions and extraneous material are briefly summarized, asneeded, in paraphrase.) In order to preserve Thoreau’s trainof thought (again, as it were), each paragraph is presentedentire, without interruption, followed by lemmatized anno-tation and commentary. Hurried readers can parse the com-mentary first and engage Thoreau’s text directly on pointsof interest. However, as Thoreau drafted and revised thispassage about the Deep Cut nearly a dozen times before itsinclusion in Walden inasmuch as it represented for him thedenouement of the entire work, his text invites, and repays,a close reading. Indeed, it is exactly the kind of work forwhich the commentary format—the Classicist’s stock intrade—is perfectly suited. As Thoreau himself says in hischapter from Walden entitled “Reading,” “Books must beread as deliberately and reservedly as they were written.”4

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¶6

Few phenomena gave me more delight than to observe the formswhich thawing sand and clay assume in flowing down the sides ofa deep cut on the railroad through which I passed on my way to thevillage, a phenomenon not very common on so large a scale,though the number of freshly exposed banks of the right materialmust have been greatly multiplied since railroads were invented.The material was sand of every degree of fineness and of variousrich colors, commonly mixed with a little clay. When the frostcomes out in the spring, and even in a thawing day in the winter,the sand begins to flow down the slopes like lava, sometimes burst-ing out through the snow and overflowing it where no sand was tobe seen before. Innumerable little streams overlap and interlace onewith another, exhibiting a sort of hybrid product, which obeys halfway the law of currents, and half way that of vegetation. As itflows it takes the forms of sappy leaves or vines, making heaps ofpulpy sprays a foot or more in depth, and resembling, as you lookdown on them, the laciniated, lobed, and imbricated thalluses ofsome lichens; or you are reminded of coral, of leopard's paws orbirds’ feet, of brains or lungs or bowels, and excrements of allkinds. It is a truly grotesque vegetation, whose forms and color wesee imitated in bronze, a sort of architectural foliage more ancientand typical than acanthus, chiccory, ivy, vine, or any vegetableleaves; destined perhaps, under some circumstances, to become apuzzle to future geologists. The whole cut impressed me as if itwere a cave with its stalactites laid open to the light. The variousshades of the sand are singularly rich and agreeable, embracing thedifferent iron colors, brown, gray, yellowish, and reddish. Whenthe flowing mass reaches the drain at the foot of the bank it spreadsout flatter into strands, the separate streams losing their semi-cylin-drical form and gradually becoming more flat and broad, runningtogether as they are more moist, till they form an almost flat sand,still variously and beautifully shaded, but in which you can tracethe original forms of vegetation; till at length, in the water itself,they are converted into banks, like those formed off the mouths ofrivers, and the forms of vegetation are lost in the ripple marks onthe bottom.


the forms which thawing sand and clay assume: This is anallusion—in anticipation—to Ovid’s story of creation, whichThoreau quotes piecemeal in the Latin and in his own trans-lation at ¶¶18 and 21 below (quoting Metamorphoses1.61–62, 78–81, 89–96 and 107–108). There may also be anod here to the tale of Deucalion and Pyrrha and the re-cre-ation of human beings from stones tossed upon the post-diluvian Mother Earth, which Thoreau also quotes in Latin(Metamorphoses 1.414–415), with Sir Walter Raleigh’stranslation, in “Economy.” Those lines, however, are citedsomewhat less favorably there as an instance of “blind obe-dience to a blundering oracle” among “men [who] labor un-der a mistake . . . laying up treasures which moth and rustwill corrupt and thieves break through and steal” (alludingto Matthew 6:19–20).5 And yet, while Thoreau readily andeffectively alludes to the Bible throughout Walden, as in theforegoing passage, and knew from his own research that thename Adam, for example, derives from the Hebrew wordmeaning “Earth,” it is not correct to say of this passageabout the Deep Cut, as does Buell, that Thoreau “breatheslife into the biblical formula of humankind’s earthly ori-gins.”6 To the contrary, Thoreau’s vision of creation here isdistinctly unbiblical. It is self-consciously classical, as his in-voking of Ovid makes palpably clear. As he puts it later in¶18, with characteristic wordplay, “the coming in of springis like the creation of Cosmos out of Chaos” (on this formu-lation, see further below). Creation by biblical fiat or ex ni-hilo is something quite different from the emergentism thatThoreau is describing here.

There is also an imagistic glimpse in this overture—a bitblurry in the background perhaps—of sculpture wroughtfrom clay. Compare ¶8 below, where the sand flow is said tobe “like clay in the hands of the potter” and Thoreau won-ders “What is man but a mass of thawing clay?” Ovid, atany rate, offers a vivid simile for human creation from theplastic arts in that same Deucalion and Pyrrha episode (utide marmore coepta, etc.: Metamorphoses 1.405) that Thoreau

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knew well enough to quote not only in Walden’s first chap-ter, “Economy,” but also in a pre-Walden lecture delivered atthe Concord Lyceum, February 8, 1843.7 Sculptural or not,Thoreau will wax architectural soon enough in his descrip-tion of “grotesque vegetation” later in this paragraph (seecomments ad loc.).

The notion of “Cosmos” emerging from “Chaos” (cosmosmeans “order” in Greek) is a literary borrowing via Ovidfrom Hesiod (Metamorphoses 1.5–7: ante mare et terras etquod tegit omnia caelum / unus erat toto naturae vultus inorbe / quem dixere chaos; cf. Theogony 116). Thoreau’s evo-cation of Ovid, combined with his use of the word “Cosmos”in marked uppercase in ¶18, underscores that his account ofcreation in “Spring” is not only poetic and mythological, butharks back to the speculative, proto-scientific research of thePresocratics, as indeed does Ovid’s own.8

a phenomenon not very common on so large a scale: Sizematters, as does scale, in complex systems, as does the rela-tionship of macrocosm to microcosm and of parts to wholeas Thoreau’s statement here implies. The man-made sand-bank created the conditions for Nature to run its course as itdoes without human interference on smaller scales elsewhereunder similar conditions. In ¶2 of “Spring,” Thoreau makessome profound and perceptive remarks about scale sprungfrom his close and systematic observation of Walden’s envi-rons: “The phenomena of the year take place every day in apond on a small scale.” “The day is an epitome of the year.”“The largest pond is as sensitive to atmospheric changes asthe globule of mercury in its tube.”9

greatly multiplied since railroads were invented: The Rail-road, a product of Culture, produces in turn a marvel of Na-ture; Thoreau encounters this natural wonder while walkingfrom the Wild to the village, his track, paradoxically, thesteel trappings and wooden ties of industry. The mise-en-scène of the Deep Cut is reminiscent of Edward Byrtynsky’s


panoramic photographs of junk heaps, factory sprawl, ex-traction pits, and toxic wastelands: Beautiful, natural-look-ing forms and patterns emerge from industrial detritus anddecay and the photographs convey an eerie, Ansel Adams-like sublimity, in spite of the human exploitation of Naturethat they depict.10

Complex systems and their attendant properties and behav-iors can occur naturally or be man-made. Complexity is atwork in transit systems and termite mounds, rainforests andrent-controlled neighborhoods. Thoreau himself observes in¶8 that human institutions often resemble the dynamical sys-tems of the Earth. Both, he says, are “plastic.” At the close of¶9 he goes further: “The whole tree itself is but one leaf, andrivers are still vaster leaves whose pulp is intervening earth,and towns and cities are the ova of insects in their axils.” (Seefurther comments ad loc. below)

That the Fitchburg Railroad could inadvertently be asource for new, emergent phenomena in Nature has an in-structive modern parallel in the dormant slag heaps or terrilsof the Nord-Pas de Calais region of France, which in 2012joined the Pyramids of Egypt as a UNESCO World Heritagesite. Hundreds of terrils, some of them as tall as 150 meters,are scattered amongst now deserted model cities, which werepurpose-built as utopian worker communities in the 19thand early 20th centuries to support the region’s three-hun-dred-year-old coal mining industry. UNESCO describes theNord-Pas de Calais Mining Basin as a precious, “organicallyevolved” cultural landscape “uniquely representing the com-bined work of nature and of man.” A new and vibrantecosystem has taken hold on the terrils since active miningceased in the 1960s. In the village of Rieulay, for example, agoat farmer has put down roots and built Chevrerie des Ter-rils (“Slag-heaps Goat Farm”). He grazes his animals on thespoil tips, which produce brushy fodder that is ideal forgoats. A vintner has established a vineyard amongst the so-called “overburden” and coal “tailings.” It is France’s north-ernmost estate and produces a fine “Charbonnay.” The

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growing conditions are reportedly superb for vines: Thegravelly black soil promotes good drainage and retains heat.Ecosystems are fragile, to be sure, but Nature is resilient. Asone resident puts it, “At the end of the day, what is a terrilbut a hill of stones which we took from nature, from under-ground? Well now we are giving it back to nature. And na-ture then gives it back to us once again, by bringing flowers,and trees, and animals.”11

a sort of hybrid product . . . : This attempt to describe thesimilar behavior of seemingly unlike things nearly capturesthe essence, mutatis mutandis, of modern physics’ discoveryof the wave-particle duality of light and Niels Bohr’s conse-quent notion of “complementarity” to explain it.12 Thepowers of observation brought to bear—in Thoreau’s casethe naked eye, in Bohr’s and his colleagues’ case a particleaccelerator and various measuring devices and data process-ing machines—are both fundamentally empirical and scien-tific. What I find remarkable about this whole passage aboutthe Deep Cut is that Thoreau is seeing and identifying com-plexity for what it is with his own eyes. He is closely andcarefully observing—also measuring and sampling (as en-tries in his journals show)—but there is no laboratoryneeded for his work, and no computer. To the contrary, hecompares standing there and looking at the Deep Cut to be-ing “in the laboratory of the Artist who made the world . . .strewing his fresh designs about” (¶7). Thoreau’s methodand its ability to produce scientifically accurate descriptionsand valid theorization is exactly what was available to theancient Greeks. We see parallels in Xenophanes of Colophondrawing the inference from seeing marine fossils in the rockof land-locked quarries that water must once have beenthere.13 We see it, too, in the observation of the behavior ofself-organizing whirlpools and vortices, which struck severalearly cosmologists (Anaximander, Empedocles, Democritus,and others) as an apt analog for the creation and formationof the universe—an observation that has since been corrob-


orated by modern science.14 This kind of observation andreasoning by analogy, as Douglas Hofstadter and EmmanuelSander contend in a recent, massive tome on the topic, is afundamental trait of human cognition generally, not just ofscientific investigation.15

excrements of all kinds: A supremely learned pun. EvenWest, whose Transcendental Wordplay is the AuthorizedVersion on this subject, doesn’t do it full justice.16 The Latinword excrementum has two derivations: It comes primarilyfrom excerno, literally “what is sifted out.” Hence the mean-ing “refuse,” “waste,” or “feces.” But another, distinct wordexcrementum derives from excresco (“to grow forth, riseup”). The entry in Forcellini’s Lexicon (2nd edition 1831),to which Thoreau had access, makes this all very clear, asdoes Ainsworth’s, which he owned.17 By the time Thoreau’ssentence here has unfolded, moving as it does from sappyleaves and vines, to pulpy sprays, imbricated thalluses,lichen, coral, leopard’s paws and birds’ feet, to brains, lungsand bowels, we realize that when Thoreau says “excrementsof all kinds” he means the word in both senses (literally of

all kinds), namely out-growths, a sense that fitsthe semantic domain ofthe animals and plants inthe first half of the sen-tence, and waste products,which “brains,” “lungs”and especially “bowels”call to mind. To call it a

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Figure 3: Herbert WendellGleason. Sand Foliage fromDeep Cut on r.r. (railroad),Concord, Mass., March 17,1900. Courtesy ConcordFree Public Library.

“truly grotesque vegetation” underscores the pun on “excre-ments” while creating another double-entendre hard on itsheels involving the word grotesque (to be explained immedi-ately below), to which attention is drawn by italicized font.Thoreau’s eye and his pencil are both so sharp here that nocomment is needed to show how visually apt and evocativethese comparisons are. (Nonetheless, see Herbert Gleason’snear-period photograph of Thoreau’s sand foliage, Figure 3.)What is noteworthy—an idea embedded in the pun itself—isthe equivalence or interdependence of growth and decay thatthese comparisons suggest and which Thoreau validates asintegral, reciprocal agents of the same organic process.

a truly grotesque vegetation: The word “grotesque” also hastwo senses. In Thoreau’s time, as today, it primarily meant“ugly” and connoted “disgusting” (in the way that excre-ment is disgusting). But its original meaning, from Italiangrottesco, is “of or pertaining to a cave.” The word wascoined by artists and writers of the Italian Renaissance inconjunction with the accidental discovery—by then buriedunderground—of the emperor Nero’s notorious Domus Au-rea, or “Golden House.” Painters like Raphael and Michel-angelo, eager for inspiration from the past and armed withtorches, were lowered down by ropes into cavities in theground (across the street from where the Colosseum standstoday) that contained colorful wall paintings with ornatevegetal borders and decorations. These “cavities,” in fact,were actually rooms in the Domus Aurea, which had beenburied long before (and intentionally so), first by Trajan,and then also by centuries of further destruction and con-struction above ground. That Thoreau has in mind the art-historical sense of grotesque is clear from his appeal to the“forms and color we see imitated in bronze, a sort of archi-tectural foliage more ancient and typical than acanthus,chiccory, ivy, vine, or any vegetable leaves.” Today one cansee the earliest and most influential adaptations of Nero’sgrotesques in Raphael’s painted Loggias in the Vatican.


However, this kind of decoration also appears on Corinthiancolumns and on other architectural elements the world over.Eventually the style made its way across centuries from thepalaces and temples of the great onto everyday householdfurniture. In “Sounds” Thoreau describes his first springcleaning. He empties his cabin, putting all its furniture out-side amidst the trees whilst he sweeps and muses puckishly:“A bird sits on the next bough, life-everlasting [a kind offlower] grows under the table, and blackberry vines runround its legs; pine cones, chestnut burs, and strawberryleaves are strewn about. It looked as if this was the waythese forms came to be transferred to our furniture, to ta-bles, chairs, and bedsteads,—because they once stood intheir midst.” The image Thoreau conjures here is of decora-tive forms drawn from Nature emerging spontaneously onhis furniture by virtue of its proximity to their source. “I didnot remove the books and pen and ink,” he adds, inscribinghimself into the scene, “standing amid the pines and hicko-ries. They seemed glad to get out themselves, and as if un-willing to be brought in. I was sometimes tempted to stretchan awning over them and take my seat there.”18

a puzzle to future geologists: A puzzle no longer. RobertThorson’s Walden’s Shore: Henry David Thoreau and Nine-teenth-Century Science (2014) is now the indispensableguide to the geodynamics of Walden Pond and a reliable ac-count, too, of Thoreau’s debt to the then nascent field of ge-ological science, namely the uniformitarianism of Hutton,Lyell, and their successors. Thorson, a professor of Geologyat the University of Connecticut, offers a superb analysis ofthe sand foliage at the Deep Cut as a dissipative, emergentstructure of the kind described by Nobel laureate Ilya Pri-gogine.19 Given his summons to geologists from the future,Thoreau’s comparison of the sand flow in deep time leavingin its wake bronze artifacts and architectural columns deco-rated with vegetal motifs presents an image both of fossilsand of archaeology.

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The whole cut . . . : “cut” primarily as in Deep Cut, i.e., ofthe bank itself, but also perhaps, given the comparisons tothe decorative arts, “woodcut” or “linoleum cut” is also inplay, especially with the word “impress.”

strands: Another pun, preparatory to the riot of sustained,etymological wordplay to come in the next two paragraphs.As the sand changes into a slurry, the word deforms as well:sand becomes strands become banks.

¶7

The whole bank, which is from twenty to forty feet high, is some-times overlaid with a mass of this kind of foliage, or sandy rupture,for a quarter of a mile on one or both sides, the produce of onespring day. What makes this sand foliage remarkable is its spring-ing into existence thus suddenly. When I see on the one side the in-ert bank—for the sun acts on one side first—and on the other thisluxuriant foliage, the creation of an hour, I am affected as if in a pe-culiar sense I stood in the laboratory of the Artist who made theworld and me—had come to where he was still at work, sportingon this bank, and with excess of energy strewing his fresh designsabout. I feel as if I were nearer to the vitals of the globe, for thissandy overflow is something such a foliaceous mass as the vitals ofthe animal body. You find thus in the very sands an anticipation ofthe vegetable leaf. No wonder that the earth expresses itself out-wardly in leaves, it so labors with the idea inwardly. The atomshave already learned this law, and are pregnant by it. The over-hanging leaf sees here its prototype. Internally, whether in theglobe or animal body, it is a moist thick lobe, a word especially ap-plicable to the liver and lungs and the leaves of fat (λείβω, labor,lapsus, to flow or slip downward, a lapsing; λοβος, globus, lobe,globe; also lap, flap, and many other words); externally a dry thinleaf, even as the f and v are a pressed and dried b. The radicals oflobe are lb, the soft mass of the b (single lobed, or B, double lobed),with the liquid l behind it pressing it forward. In globe, glb, the gut-tural g adds to the meaning the capacity of the throat. The feathersand wings of birds are still drier and thinner leaves. Thus, also, you


pass from the lumpish grub in the earth to the airy and flutteringbutterfly. The very globe continually transcends and translates it-self, and becomes winged in its orbit. Even ice begins with delicatecrystal leaves, as if it had flowed into moulds which the fronds ofwaterplants have impressed on the watery mirror. The whole treeitself is but one leaf, and rivers are still vaster leaves whose pulp isintervening earth, and towns and cities are the ova of insects intheir axils.

springing into existence thus suddenly: Emergence; withplay on the word “spring.”

in the very sands an anticipation of the vegetable leaf:Thoreau read Goethe’s Italian Journey, in German, in 1837.In that work, Goethe describes an epiphany he experiencedduring an extended trip to Italy that had impelled him towrite the Metamorphosis of Plants, published earlier in1790, a work Thoreau had also read. “While walking in thePublic Gardens of Palermo,” Goethe writes in Italian Jour-ney, “it came to me in a flash that in the organ of the plantwhich we are accustomed to call the leaf lies the true Proteuswho can hide or reveal himself in all vegetal forms. Fromfirst to last the plant is nothing but leaf.”20 The morphologyof the Urpflanze, or archetypal plant, became Goethe’s focusin the Metamorphosis, where he argues that the parts ofplants are but leaves transformed: “We will not fail to rec-ognize the leaf form in seed vessels—regardless of their man-ifold formations, their particular purpose and context. Thus,for example, the pod may be viewed as a single folded leafwith its edges grown together, husks as consisting of leavesgrown more over one another, and compound capsules maybe understood as several leaves united round a central pointwith their inner sides open toward one another and theiredges joined” (§78). Gordon Miller’s meticulous modernphotographs of the plants and flowers Goethe describes invarious stages of bloom (in the MIT edition of Goethe’sMetamorphosis) reveal just how uncanny, visually, Goethe’shomologies are.21 Thoreau subscribes to Goethe’s methods

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and conclusions—he declares below that “the whole tree it-self is but one leaf”—but he seeks to root his discovery in thesoil (“the very sands”) and to articulate the effects of wateron growth. For other echoes and allusions to Goethe in theDeep Cut, see comments ad loc. in ¶¶8 and 9 below.

atoms . . . pregnant by it: The word “pregnant,” arisingfrom “labors” and “inwardly,” creates a vivid picture of theinternal, molecular structure of organisms. Given that hu-man beings are also by-products—literally and figura-tively—of this same atomic “law” (see the extendedmetaphor at the end of ¶8), the image of pregnancy isweirdly suggestive of a homunculus. Note the strong alliter-ation on the headwords “leaves . . . labors . . . learned . . .law.”

prototype . . . : This flourish of linguistic and etymologicalwordplay is a carefully constructed set-piece in which soundand sense coalesce to literally formulate the argument. Mosteditors and commentators do not give this section its due. Anotable exception is West.22 Wilson and Root are also good,but neither is, as it were, thorough.23

The calculating play on the orders and classes of conso-nants in this passage is relentless and spellbinding. First,Thoreau establishes a contrasting, yet complementary rela-tionship between inner and outer, which is structured chiasti-cally: “the earth expresses itself outwardly [A] in leaves [B], itso labors [B1] with the idea inwardly [A1],” where A and A1

are related semantically as antonyms and B and B1 are con-nected not only by alliteration, but also, as Thoreau is aboutto expound (if not explicitly explain), by their phonetic “rad-icals” l-v and l-b, the v of which is a voiced labiodental frica-tive (IPA no. 129), while the b is a voiced bilabial form of thesame consonant/sound (IPA no. 102). The initial-letter alliter-ation and consonantal Ablaut proliferate in the heap of Eng-lish, Greek, and Latin words that follow. Of these, the word


“leaf”—with its voiceless labiodental fricative f (IPA no.128)—is associated with external expression; it is “dry” and“thin,” in contrast to the “fat,” “thick,” and “moist” organsthat have generated it. The extraordinarily self-consciousquality of Thoreau’s thinking and writing here is revealed inthe allusion to the pressing and drying of leaves in books(“even as the f and v are a pressed and dried b”), which them-selves, he says metaphorically—not once, but two times in ¶8and twice again in ¶9—have leaves. (Thoreau, in fact, regu-larly and systematically collected, pressed, and labeled speci-mens of leaves and grass. He willed 800 of them to theConcord Free Public Library at his death—the bulk of whichis now kept at Harvard.24) Fat, too—a soft substance—hasleaves, and crystals, a hard substance, he says with only slightsemantic stretch, have them as well. Goethe’s Ur-leaf is beingconjured before our very eyes.

As it happens, Thoreau etymologizes the word lobe in thispassage incorrectly as an o-grade noun from the Greek verbλείβω (“to drip,” or “to flow”), hence a “droplet.” And theprinting error that omitted the accent from the ultima of λο-βός in Ticknor & Fields’ first edition of Walden was left tostand in Thoreau’s personal, hand-corrected copy, and so(presumably) persists in modern editions.25 However, thepre-scientific etymology of λοβός that was available toThoreau and his contemporaries notwithstanding, the wordlobe (a visual metaphor) was and is still applied to droplet-shaped protuberances in organs and plants. Lobe, nearly adead metaphor now in common usage, is returned, as itwere, to its source here in Thoreau’s extended treatment ofthe melting sand-flow, the “liquid l behind it pressing it for-ward” like a drop of seeping water.

The introduction of the word globe to the scheme is explainedby Thoreau himself: “In globe, glb, the guttural g adds to themeaning the capacity of the throat.” As West demonstrates inexhilarating detail, Thoreau gets the idea that guttural letters are“causative” (as much else in this passage) from a learned, butoddball work by an Hungarian émigré-turned-Boston-school-

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master named Charles Kraitsir—Glossology: Being a Treatiseon the Nature of Language and the Language of Nature (1852),portions of which Thoreau copied out by hand from a hardcopy in Emerson’s library, and whose related work, Significanceof the Alphabet (1846), Thoreau owned a copy of himself.“Globe” makes explicit the cosmological implications of all thisword-hoarding. The remarks on the “double lobed” version ofthe b-radical—i.e., upper-case B—adds a pictorial dimension tothe stream of sounds and draws attention to a letter that will beemployed momentarily to good effect. (See my next paragraphbelow.) Indeed, the phrase “double lobed” is a visual and pho-netic palindrome. Even the use of “radical” here is not innocentof etymologizing, since the word stems from the Latin “root.”As for “lapsus . . . slip . . . also lap, flap”—how can one ever re-cover from the sound effects of that?

The picture-making and extended metaphors continue un-abated in the description of the feathers and wings of birdsas leaves—"feathers” with an f, “birds” with a b, the feathera part to the wing’s whole. But things literally metamor-phose before our eyes and ears in the sentence “Thus, also,you pass from the lumpish grub in the earth to the airy andfluttering butterfly.” This is another deft chiasm (ABBA)—chrysalis-like—with “earth” and “airy” comprising the con-trasting B-elements and “grub” and “butterfly” the outerA-terms. That the butterfly is, biologically speaking, the em-bryonic realization of the grub underscores the link. Theirintimate, organic relation is further reinforced by the termi-nal b-sound in “grub,” the initial b in “butterfly,” as if oneis, as Thoreau puts it, “translating” itself into the other, andby the breathtaking internal assonance/alliteration of thetwo noun-adjective combinations: “fluttering butterfly”;“lumpish grub.” If that were not clever enough, the grub ismoist, the butterfly dry, and each word contains its corre-sponding labiodental (b and f respectively). Finally, thephrase “the very globe” sums up the extent of the butterfly’sdomain as it takes wing from earth to its airy abode in flight.“Orbit,” used to describe its course, is yet another b-word,


and apposite to both butterflies and celestial globes.Thoreau’s cosmic etymologizing here stretches much fur-

ther back than to his reading of Kraitsir and other 19th cen-tury compendiums: Lucretius proposes just these kinds ofhomologies between letters of the alphabet and the elementsof Nature—the word elementum used for both—in De Re-rum Natura (cf. 1.196–98). Poems, the implication is, areevolutionary, emergent structures analogous to the onesformed from atoms and molecules in Nature. Or, to take aslightly different angle, as Hadot puts it, the cosmogonicpoet, like a scientist, “knows the universe’s mode of produc-tion, or the way in which it was constituted.”26

The whole tree itself is but one leaf: Not just an allusion toGoethe, but an observation/proposition that has been veri-fied by modern complexity science in the mathematicaldemonstration of the principle of self-similarity in Nature,represented visually by fractals27 and, in Thoreau’s day, bythe meticulous drawings of biologist Ernst Haeckel in Kunst-formen der Natur (published serially from 1899 to 1904).

intervening: Given Thoreau’s propensity for etymologicalpuns and all the talk of leaves and then of blood-vessels, “si-licious matter,” and arteries (of rivers) immediately below in¶8 (= an allegory about the formation of the human body),perhaps we are meant to hear also the homophone intervein-ing: both word-stems are spelled ven- in Latin (“vein” < vêna,-ae, “blood-vessel”; “intervening” < venîre, “to come”), thoughthe etymology of vêna is admittedly indeterminate.

insects . . . axils: an effective alliterative jingle to round outthe thought.

¶8

When the sun withdraws the sand ceases to flow, but in the morn-ing the streams will start once more and branch and branch againinto a myriad of others. You here see perchance how blood-vessels

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are formed. If you look closely you observe that first there pushesforward from the thawing mass a stream of softened sand with adrop-like point, like the ball of the finger, feeling its way slowly andblindly downward, until at last with more heat and moisture, as thesun gets higher, the most fluid portion, in its effort to obey the lawto which the most inert also yields, separates from the latter andforms for itself a meandering channel or artery within that, in whichis seen a little silvery stream glancing like lightning from one stageof pulpy leaves or branches to another, and ever and anon swal-lowed up in the sand. It is wonderful how rapidly yet perfectly thesand organizes itself as it flows, using the best material its mass af-fords to form the sharp edges of its channel. Such are the sources ofrivers. In the silicious matter which the water deposits is perhaps thebony system, and in the still finer soil and organic matter the fleshyfibre or cellular tissue. What is man but a mass of thawing clay? Theball of the human finger is but a drop congealed. The fingers andtoes flow to their extent from the thawing mass of the body. Whoknows what the human body would expand and flow out to undera more genial heaven? Is not the hand a spreading palm leaf with itslobes and veins? The ear may be regarded, fancifully, as a lichen,umbilicaria, on the side of the head, with its lobe or drop. The lip—labium, from labor(?)—laps or lapses from the sides of the cav-ernous mouth. The nose is a manifest congealed drop or stalactite.The chin is a still larger drop, the confluent dripping of the face. Thecheeks are a slide from the brows into the valley of the face, op-posed and diffused by the cheek bones. Each rounded lobe of thevegetable leaf, too, is a thick and now loitering drop, larger orsmaller; the lobes are the fingers of the leaf; and as many lobes as ithas, in so many directions it tends to flow, and more heat or othergenial influences would have caused it to flow yet farther.

branch and branch: A play on “branch,” proper primarily to“tree,” yet secondarily/ metaphorically to “streams” of sand.The metaphor is greatly expanded as the paragraph develops.

artery: Suggestive of “blood-vessel,” and also of the gradualemergence of humans from hard “silicious matter.” (Rockforms possess “veins” and so, by extension, “arteries.”)


how rapidly yet perfectly the sand organizes itself: Self-or-ganization is one of the defining features of complex sys-tems.28

What is man but a mass of thawing clay? Humananatomy, too, grows from the drips and drops of sand-flow.This playful, fanciful description, especially its recourse torocks and stones, recalls natural formations like the “OldMan of the Mountain” at Franconia Notch, New Hamp-shire. First noted as a landmark in 1805, the Old Man—anapparent human profile formed naturally from erodedrock—became a popular tourist destination until he col-lapsed in 2003. It is not known if Thoreau ever saw the sitewith his own eyes, but other notable 19th century men ofletters from New England did (Daniel Webster, for example,and Nathaniel Hawthorne). Thoreau’s imagery is also remi-niscent of the Renaissance portraits painted by GiuseppeArcimboldo, the most famous of which depicts Rudolph II,the Holy Roman Emperor, as Vertumnus, ancient Romangod of seasons who presided over gardens and orchards, theanatomy of whose face and torso is comprised entirely offruits and vegetables. For the Ovidian influence here, seenotes on ¶6 above and below on ¶¶18 and 21.

umbilicaria: also known as “rock tripe,” for the shape andtexture this lichen assumes. Similarly, we speak pic-turesquely of a “cauliflower” ear. As it happens, both rocktripe and cauliflower are classic examples of fractal self-sim-ilarity in Nature.

lip . . . laps . . . lapses, etc.: The onomatopoetic repetition ofp-sounds here and in the surrounding sentences (c- and t- aswell) conveys the sound of dripping.

The lip—labium, from labor(?): Thoreau’s question markhappens to reflect the actual uncertainty among modernIndo-European philologists about the derivation and hence

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relationship of these words—including λοβός. All, it wouldseem, come from a verb labo, “to waver,” but that is not yetsatisfactorily demonstrable.

face, given the context, suggests a cliff or rock face.

¶9

Thus it seemed that this one hillside illustrated the principle of all theoperations of Nature. The Maker of this earth but patented a leaf.What Champollion will decipher this hieroglyphic for us, that wemay turn over a new leaf at last? This phenomenon is more exhila-rating to me than the luxuriance and fertility of vineyards. True, it issomewhat excrementitious in its character, and there is no end to theheaps of liver, lights, and bowels, as if the globe were turned wrongside outward; but this suggests at least that Nature has some bowels,and there again is mother of humanity. This is the frost coming outof the ground; this is Spring. It precedes the green and floweryspring, as mythology precedes regular poetry. I know of nothingmore purgative of winter fumes and indigestions. It convinces methat Earth is still in her swaddling-clothes, and stretches forth babyfingers on every side. Fresh curls spring from the baldest brow. Thereis nothing inorganic. These foliaceous heaps lie along the bank likethe slag of a furnace, showing that Nature is ‘in full blast’ within.The earth is not a mere fragment of dead history, stratum upon stra-tum like the leaves of a book, to be studied by geologists and anti-quaries chiefly, but living poetry like the leaves of a tree, whichprecede flowers and fruit—not a fossil earth, but a living earth; com-pared with whose great central life all animal and vegetable life ismerely parasitic. Its throes will heave our exuviae from their graves.You may melt your metals and cast them into the most beautifulmoulds you can; they will never excite me like the forms which thismolten earth flows out into. And not only it, but the institutionsupon it are plastic like clay in the hands of the potter.

one hillside . . . all the operations of Nature: microcosm andmacrocosm; see the remarks on complexity and scale at ¶6.

patented: another pun; “patent,” from Latin pateo, “to


open, lay bare,” but also meant, with considerable bathos,in the conventional sense of a patent for a mechanical inven-tion.

What Champollion will decipher this hieroglyphic . . .?: Theprodigy French linguist Jean Francois Champollion(1790–1832) cracked the Rosetta Stone when Thoreau wasstill a boy. Champollion’s discovery, a scholarly reflex of awider Egyptomania in the air in the wake of Napoleon’scampaigns, was au courant in the intellectual circles ofThoreau’s place and time. The allusion here, however, ismore deeply embedded in a pre-Champollionic tradition ofreading the hieroglyphic “signatures” of Nature thatstretches back to the early Modern period. Paracelsus, SirThomas Browne, and Jacob Boehme, among others, wereleading exponents. Goethe invokes this tradition of readingNature’s “code” in his introductory poem to the Metamor-phosis of Plants. Addressing his wife, to whom the book wasdedicated, Goethe characterizes his scientific treatise to herthus: “Name upon name assails thy ears and each / Morebarbarous-sounding than the one before . . . And so thechoir hints a secret law / A sacred mystery.”29 Novalis givesan even more expressive account of the doctrine. In TheNovices of Sais (1802) the poet invites his initiands to “seestrange figures emerge, figures which seem to belong to thatgreat cipher which we discern written everywhere, in wings,eggshells, clouds and snow, in crystals and in stone forma-tions, on ice-covered waters, on the inside and outside ofmountains, of plants, beasts and men, in the lights ofheaven, on scored disks of pitch or glass or in iron filingsround a magnet, and in strange conjunctures of chance.”30

The view of Nature as a mysterious text to be decipheredappears, too, in the scientific polymath and explorer Alexan-der von Humboldt, who took both Americas, North andSouth, by storm at just this time, as Andrea Wulf’s recentblockbuster ably recounts.31 Thoreau had read Humboldt’sEssai sur la géographie des plantes (1807) in German. In it

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he would have seen the book’s frontispiece engraving byBertel Thorvaldsen that shows Apollo, lyre in hand, remov-ing a veil from a statue of Isis depicted as Diana of the Eph-esians Polymaston (“of many breasts”), a copy of Goethe’sMetamorphosis of Plants at her feet.32 (The German transla-tion of Humboldt’s Essai, also published in 1807, was dedi-cated to Goethe.) See Figure 4.

Thoreau’s familiarity with the trope about Nature’s hiero-glyphs, and of Nature as a goddess unveiled by the arts of po-etry and song, informs the imagery and wordplay of thefollowing sentences, though the poet of Walden Pond takes adistinctly New England, no-nonsense approach to the theme.First there is the pun on “bowels,” which is clearly meant inboth its literal and figurative, biblical sense (biblical as inColossians 3:12’s “bowels of mercies” in the King James Ver-sion). However, the pun is, I suggest, compounded whenThoreau adds “as if the globe were turned the wrong side out-ward”: Are we not to picture here concave bowls, whichwould be used to collect the “heaps” of organs when dressing,for example, poultry (as anyone who’s done the deed wouldknow)? That Thoreau’s colloquialism “lights,” meaninglungs, belongs to the idiom of offal (lungs, liver, heart, giz-zards, kidneys)—and refers especially to the viscera of poul-try—supports the suggestion.

The phrase “there is againmother of humanity” isequally suggestive and am-biguous. On the one hand, itclearly calls to mind Diana asbeneficent Mother Nature.


Figure 4: Bertel Thorvaldsen,frontispiece to Alexander vonHumboldt, Ideen zu einer Ge-ographie Pflanzen (Tubingen:F.G. Cotta, 1807).

But—just possibly—given the words “excrementitious,”“bowels,” “vineyards,” and the images of fecundity and birthnearby, “mother” is meant also to suggest the slimy, placenta-like “mother” that grows in vinegar (i.e., the oxidized bacter-ial substance that turns the alcohol of vineyards into aceticacid). That this suggestion is not so far-fetched as it mightseem, consider the image of Earth in “swaddling-clothes”stretching forth “baby fingers” in the sentences immediatelybelow. Mixed metaphors, to be sure, are hard, if not impossi-ble, to unmix. What is more distinct, to me at least, is thatThoreau definitely has the Ephesian Diana in mind generallywhen he pictures “Mother Earth.” Earlier in “Spring,” for ex-ample, when describing his research and experiments on thefrozen pond (¶2), Thoreau exults: “The earth is all alive andcovered with papillae.” Cramer glosses papillae here correctly,yet also somewhat amusingly, missing the pun: “Tiny sensitiveprotruding cells, as in any small nipplelike protuberance of thebody or small fleshy projection on a plant.”33 Yet surelyThoreau is also thinking of the image of Diana of the ManyBreasts (i.e., papillae).34 In “Reading,” at any rate, he refers toher explicitly: “The oldest Egyptian or Hindoo philosopherraised a corner of the veil from the statue of the divinity,” hesays, referring in the first instance to Isis, whose attributes andfunctions were conflated with Diana’s, as in Thorvaldsen’sfrontispiece, which is modeled on ancient originals. None ofthis is to suggest that Thoreau was a Cabbalist, or that his ref-erences, although sincere and indicative of a worldview, arenot at the same time all in good fun.

excrementitious: Thoreau’s qualification “somewhat,” com-bined with his connecting exrementitious to “the luxurianceand fertility of vineyards,” all but guarantees the pun on twosenses of excrement proposed in the comments to ¶6 above,which is also in play here.

as mythology precedes regular poetry: Poetry and mythologyin early Greek society comprise between them a dynamical

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system of communication that shaped and was in turnshaped by Greek kinship structures and social institutions.35

Cognitive linguists would speak of this phenomenon interms of deep-structure and surface-structure, somethingThoreau perhaps intimates by way of anticipation here insaying mythology “precedes” poetry.36 At any rate, onewould not go far wrong to say the ways in which Greek cult,institutions, poetic utterance, and mythology interact form acomplex system—i.e., a self-perpetuating, self-augmenting,interactive semiotic network of signification and values de-signed to transmit cultural knowledge for survival to futuregenerations.

like the slag of a furnace: see remarks on the terrils of Nord-pas de Calais, ¶6 above.

like the leaves of a book: The simile states an unfavorablecontrast here, unlike the use of the word leaf elsewhere in“Spring,” as if a book were a dead thing compared to Na-ture itself.

Its throes will heave our exuviae from their graves: asonorous collocation of v-words; exuviae, used especially ofinsect larvae, recalls the transformation of the lumpish grubinto a butterfly.

¶10

Ere long, not only on these banks, but on every hill and plain andin every hollow, the frost comes out of the ground like a dormantquadruped from its burrow, and seeks the sea with music, or mi-grates to other climes in clouds. Thaw with his gentle persuasion ismore powerful than Thor with his hammer. The one melts, theother but breaks in pieces.

Thaw . . . Thor: A pun that works better in Bostonianbrogue than in other dialects of American English. Thoreauhere again finds his comparandum in pagan antiquity, not


biblical scriptures. The contrast between force and persua-sion is also stark: Nature melts; Man (to the extent the an-thropomorphic Thor stands for Culture) breaks in pieces. Itis a deeply Romantic view. We hear an echo here perhaps ofThoreau himself, self-described earlier in this chapter (¶2) assmacking the pond ice with his axe-head, Thor-like, to testits timbre and rigidity.37

[¶¶11–17]

In these paragraphs Thoreau describes the myriad early signs of

spring—the burgeoning of grasses and shrubs; the return of squirrels

and honking geese; rushing brooks; birds and their birdcalls, etc.—in

loving detail. Thoreau’s own melodious birdsong of words heralding

the arrival of spring is the antitype to Rachel Carson’s “A Fable for

Tomorrow,” Chapter 1 of her environmental classic, Silent Spring(1962): “There was a strange stillness,” Carson intones. “The birds,

for example—where had they gone? Many people spoke of them,

puzzled and disturbed. The feeding stations in the backyards were

deserted. The few birds seen anywhere were moribund; they trem-

bled violently and could not fly. It was a spring without voices. On

the mornings that had once throbbed with the dawn chorus of

robins, catbirds, doves, jays, wrens, and scores of other bird voices

there was now no sound; only silence lay over the fields and woods

and marsh.”

This section of “Spring” is also notable for a quotation, in Latin

and without translation, from Varro (Res Rustica 2.2.14): et prim-itus oritur herba imbribus primoribus evocata (“and the grasswhich is called forth by the early rains is just now growing”). It is

as if, Thoreau says, “the earth sent forth an inward heat to greet

the returning sun.” Compare the similar image in ¶9: “These folia-

ceous heaps lie along the bank like the slag of a furnace, showing

that Nature is ‘in full blast’ within.”

Thoreau was fond of quoting the Roman agricultural writers as

authorities. In “Where I Lived,” for example, he calls Cato’s De ReRustica “my ‘Cultivator’”—a reference to a common title for agri-

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cultural trade magazines at the time (e.g., The Boston Cultivator,published weekly from 1841 to 1876).38

¶18

As every season seems best to us in its turn, so the coming in ofspring is like the creation of Cosmos out of Chaos and the realiza-tion of the Golden Age. —

Eurus ad Auroram Nabathaeaque regna recessit, Persidaque, et radiis iuga subdita matutinis.

‘The East-Wind withdrew to Aurora and the Nabathean kingdom, And the Persian, and the ridges placed under the morning rays.

. . . . . . .

Man was born. Whether that Artificer of things, The origin of a better world, made him from the divine seed; Or the earth, being recent and lately sundered from the high Ether, retained some seeds of cognate heaven.’

Cosmos out of Chaos: Order out of seeming chaos = com-plexity. See the remarks on ¶6 above.

the realization of the Golden Age: The quotations here, withThoreau’s own translations, are from Ovid Metamorphoses1.61–62 and 78–81. Ovid’s lines about the East-Wind seemto have been triggered by the comment at the end of the pre-vious paragraph about winds blowing “to correct this slightoscillation of the poles and preserve the equilibrium of Na-ture.” Perhaps Thoreau is referring in some indistinct way toatmospheric circulation, or to the polar jet stream, both ofwhich do indeed play a role in the overall equilibrium of theEarth’s climate. In any event, the larger context in Ovid is re-vealing. It concerns the unnamed mundi fabricator (i.e.,Jupiter) putting an end to strife amongst the four siblingwinds (Eurus, Zephyrus, Boreas, Auster) who would havetorn the new universe apart, says Ovid (quin lanient


mundum), had not Jupiter assigned each their proper place.“So great,” he concludes, “is the discord among brothers”(tanta est discordia fratrum; line 60). That last editorializingphrase, which appears in the line immediately prior to thetwo lines Thoreau quotes here, is pregnant with an allusionto the civic discord of Ovid’s own time and foreshadows theAges of Man myth he recounts at 89–150, where life in theIron Age is characterized by the loss of common decency andthe world descends into internecine, interfamilial strife (lines126–150). Thoreau’s ellipse (. . .), I think, suggests not justthe missing lines of a sequence, but is meant to evoke thislarger context, especially in that he returns to the same pas-sage again below in describing the Golden Age more fully(and with another ellipse) in ¶21 (see comments there).

¶19

A single gentle rain makes the grass many shades greener. So ourprospects brighten on the influx of better thoughts. We should beblessed if we lived in the present always, and took advantage ofevery accident that befell us, like the grass which confesses the in-fluence of the slightest dew that falls on it; and did not spend ourtime in atoning for the neglect of past opportunities, which we calldoing our duty. We loiter in winter while it is already spring. In apleasant spring morning all men’s sins are forgiven. Such a day is atruce to vice. While such a sun holds out to burn, the vilest sinnermay return. Through our own recovered innocence we discern theinnocence of our neighbors. You may have known your neighboryesterday for a thief, a drunkard, or a sensualist, and merely pitiedor despised him, and despaired of the world; but the sun shinesbright and warm this first spring morning, recreating the world,and you meet him at some serene work, and see how it is exhaustedand debauched veins expand with still joy and bless the new day,feel the spring influence with the innocence of infancy, and all hisfaults are forgotten. There is not only an atmosphere of good willabout him, but even a savor of holiness groping for expression,blindly and ineffectually perhaps, like a new-born instinct, and fora short hour the south hill-side echoes to no vulgar jest. You see

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some innocent fair shoots preparing to burst from his gnarled rindand try another year’s life, tender and fresh as the youngest plant.Even he has entered into the joy of his Lord. Why the jailer doesnot leave open his prison doors—why the judge does not dismisshis case—why the preacher does not dismiss his congregation! It isbecause they do not obey the hint which God gives them, nor ac-cept the pardon which he freely offers to all.

We should be blessed if we lived in the present always: Com-pare Seneca: Nemo tantum praesentibus miser est (Letters5.9).

confesses: This word, only faintly metaphorical when predi-cated of grass, becomes more charged in light of the religiousimagery that follows, where “In a pleasant spring morningall men’s sins are forgiven.” This whole paragraph, in fact,with its pageant of biblical phraseology is an Ode to Joyworthy of Schiller and Beethoven—and a worthy precursor,as well, to Nietzsche’s interpretation of both that poem andits musical setting in Birth of Tragedy (1872). There is, inother words, in Thoreau’s liturgical strains a resoundingDionysiac voice of redemption. (For the jailor, compare Acts16:25–34 with Euripides, Bacchae 580–603.) The third itemin Thoreau’s three-fold, anaphoric crescendo of rhetoricalquestions—“why the preacher does not dismiss his congre-gation!”—plays brilliantly on the word dismiss: One thinksreadily of the Nunc Dimittis of Evensong.

¶20

‘A return to goodness produced each day in the tranquil and benef-icent breath of the morning, causes that in respect to the love ofvirtue and the hatred of vice, one approaches a little the primitivenature of man, as the sprouts of the forest which has been felled. Inlike manner the evil which one does in the interval of a day pre-vents the germs of virtues which began to spring up again from de-veloping themselves and destroys them.’

‘A return to goodness . . .’: This and the first half of the next


paragraph are quotations from Mencius, which Thoreauread in Pauthier’s French translation and translates into hisown English here. Note how the sentiment reinforcesThoreau’s point in the previous paragraph, made there witha mixture of Christian and Dionysian imagery, with an addi-tional appeal to a non-Christian author from the Far East.

¶21

‘After the germs of virtue have thus been prevented many timesfrom developing themselves, then the beneficent breath of eveningdoes not suffice to preserve them. As soon as the breath of eveningdoes not suffice longer to preserve them, then the nature of mandoes not differ much from that of the brute. Men seeing the natureof this man like that of the brute, think that he has never possessedthe innate faculty of reason. Are those the true and natural senti-ments of man?’

‘The Golden Age was first created, which without any avenger Spontaneously without law cherished fidelity and rectitude. Punishment and fear were not; nor were threatening words read On suspended brass; nor did the suppliant crowd fear The words of their judge; but were safe without an avenger. Not yet the pine felled on its mountains had descended To the liquid waves that it might see a foreign world, And mortals knew no shores but their own.

. . . . . . .

There was eternal spring, and placid zephyrs with warm Blasts soothed the flowers born without seed.’

‘The Golden Age . . .’: Ovid Metamorphoses 1.89–96 and107–108, again in Thoreau’s own translation. The transla-tion itself, like Thoreau’s other renditions of Latin inWalden, is a tad school-boyish. But that is neither here northere. His thought is rather more sophisticated, and his pur-pose in quoting these lines is apparent from the context ofthe Ovid quotations discussed in ¶18. Again, the ellipse in-vites us to consider that larger context.

The Golden Age is a mythological scheme derived from

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Hesiod (Works & Days 109–120). It is an age of sponta-neous growth in Nature and harmonious concord in therealm of Culture. It is notable for human beings’ lack ofneed for the accoutrements, technologies, and institutions ofmore advanced stages of (decadent) civilization. (This is in-dicated in Ovid’s original by a spate of repeated negatives.)The Golden Age is essentially a utopian myth, like, e.g.,William Morris’s Dream of John Ball (1888) or News fromNowhere (1890)—a heuristic exercise in envisioning whatthe world used to be or could be like under different initialconditions, premises, and assumptions.

For Thoreau, Ovid’s depiction of the Golden Age rein-forces his own vision of the “brotherhood of man” as setforth in the quotations from Mencius in ¶¶20–21 and in hisown biblicizing idiom in ¶19. Given the title and topic ofthis chapter—“Spring”—Ovid’s phrase ver erat aeternum(“there was eternal spring”) may have been what broughtthe whole passage to mind in the first place.

[¶¶22–23]

These two paragraphs describe further signs of spring in late

April. Thoreau recounts the arrival of new birds and small mam-

mals while fishing on the Pond. He catches “a rare mess of golden

and silver and bright cupreous fishes, which looked like a string of

jewels” and feels wholly alive basking in the light of spring. “O

Death, where is thy sting?” he sings in triumph (1 Corinthians

15:55). “O Grave, where was thy victory, then?”

¶24

Our village life would stagnate if it were not for the unexploredforests and meadows which surround it. We need the tonic of wild-ness—to wade sometimes in marshes where the bittern and themeadow-hen lurk, and hear the booming of the snipe; to smell thewhispering sedge where only some wilder and more solitary fowlbuilds her nest, and the mink crawls with its belly close to the


ground. At the same time that we are earnest to explore and learnall things, we require that all things be mysterious and unex-plorable, that land and sea be infinitely wild, unsurveyed and un-fathomed by us because unfathomable. We can never have enoughof nature. We must be refreshed by the sight of inexhaustible vigor,vast and titanic features, the sea-coast with its wrecks, the wilder-ness with its living and its decaying trees, the thunder-cloud, andthe rain which lasts three weeks and produces freshets. We need towitness our own limits transgressed, and some life pasturing freelywhere we never wander. We are cheered when we observe the vul-ture feeding on the carrion which disgusts and disheartens us, andderiving health and strength from the repast. There was a deadhorse in the hollow by the path to my house, which compelled mesometimes to go out of my way, especially in the night when the airwas heavy, but the assurance it gave me of the strong appetite andinviolable health of Nature was my compensation for this. I love tosee that Nature is so rife with life that myriads can be afforded tobe sacrificed and suffered to prey on one another; that tender or-ganizations can be so serenely squashed out of existence like pulp—tadpoles which herons gobble up, and tortoises and toads run overin the road; and that sometimes it has rained flesh and blood! Withthe liability to accident, we must see how little account is to bemade of it. The impression made on a wise man is that of universalinnocence. Poison is not poisonous after all, nor are any woundsfatal. Compassion is a very untenable ground. It must be expedi-tious. Its pleadings will not bear to be stereotyped.

We need the tonic of wildness: This whole paragraph reeksof Dionysian ecstasy and excess. In his essay “Walking,”originally composed and delivered as a lecture to the Con-cord Lyceum in 1851 but reworked for performance andeventual posthumous publication over ten years subse-quently, Thoreau famously declares with sententious flairthat “In Wildness is the preservation of the World”:

Every tree sends its fibers forth in search of the Wild. The citiesimport it at any price. Men plow and sail for it. From the forest andwilderness come the tonics and barks which brace mankind. Ourancestors were savages. The story of Romulus and Remus being

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suckled by a wolf is not a meaningless fable. The founders of everystate which has risen to eminence have drawn their nourishmentand vigor from a similar wild source. It was because the children ofthe Empire were not suckled by the wolf that they were conqueredand displaced by the children of the northern forests who were.

Joseph Wood Krutch, an environmentalist writer workingabout the time systems science was coming into its own(which was called then “cybernetics”), saw Thoreau’s viewof Nature in “Walking” as an anticipation of a paradigmshift: “A very popular concept today,” Krutch wrote in1963, “is embodied in the magic word cybernetic—or self-regulating. ‘Feedback’ is the secret of our most astonishingmachines. But the famous balance of Nature is the most ex-traordinary of all cybernetic systems. Left to itself it is al-ways self-regulated.”39

Implicit, if often unrecognized and unsaid, in the observa-tion that Nature is a self-regulating system is the existentialand moral problem of our place in it. In this regard,Thoreau’s anticipation of Nietzsche, I would suggest, is evenmore profound. In this paragraph from Walden we hearThoreau exude: “We can never have enough of nature.”“We need to witness our own limits transgressed.” “Wemust be refreshed by the sight of inexhaustible vigor, vastand titanic features.” These could be sentences from theBirth of Tragedy. In Beyond Good and Evil (1886), Niet-zsche’s tone is less celebratory of Nature’s titanic vigor thanit is in Birth. In Beyond he calls out the Stoics for their doc-trine of “living according to Nature” with words relevant towhat I take to be Thoreau’s larger point here:

You desire to LIVE ‘according to Nature’? Oh, you noble Stoics,what fraud of words! Imagine to yourselves a being like Nature,boundlessly extravagant, boundlessly indifferent, without purposeor consideration, without pity or justice, at once fruitful and barrenand uncertain: imagine to yourselves INDIFFERENCE as apower—how COULD you live in accordance with such indiffer-ence? To live—is not that just endeavouring to be otherwise thanthis Nature? Is not living valuing, preferring, being unjust, being


limited, endeavouring to be different? And granted that your im-perative, ‘living according to Nature,’ means actually the same as‘living according to life’—how could you do DIFFERENTLY? Whyshould you make a principle out of what you yourselves are, andmust be? In reality, however, it is quite otherwise with you: whileyou pretend to read with rapture the canon of your law in Nature,you want something quite the contrary, you extraordinary stage-players and self-deluders! In your pride you wish to dictate yourmorals and ideals to Nature . . . to see Nature FALSELY . . . Butthis is an old and everlasting story: what happened in old timeswith the Stoics still happens today, as soon as ever a philosophy be-gins to believe in itself. It always creates the world in its own im-age; it cannot do otherwise.40

For all his paradoxes and coloratura, Thoreau, too, seemsawake nonetheless to the pitfalls and dishonesty of any sim-plistic, uncritical embrace of Nature in its awesome totality.(Not that the Stoics represent that, but that is an argumentfor another occasion.) We need a tonic of wildness, Thoreausays—a medicinal—but along with it an underlying, soberrespect for what he calls “the strong appetite and inviolablehealth of Nature.” A putrid horse, a vulture gorging itself oncarrion, creatures “squashed out of existence like pulp,” tinytadpoles quaffed down whole, toads and turtles splotchedon the road are all quotidian signs of Nature’s prodigality—“so rife with life,” Thoreau reflects, “that myriads can be af-forded to be sacrificed.” The thought of prodigal Nature isperhaps, as he says, a “compensation” for the experientialreality of such things, but it provides no consolation. AsThoreau says in “Economy,” “The better part of the man issoon ploughed into the soil for compost.”41 Whitman’spoem “This Compost,” published a few short years afterWalden appeared, goes a long way toward reconciling thesetwo views of Nature—Nature as a life-affirming, self-regu-lating organism on the one hand, and, simultaneously, amonstrous, amoral, indifferent, voracious usurper on theother: “Behold this compost!” Whitman exclaims. “Whatchemistry!” he says of Earth, contemplating the innumerable

M. D. Usher 145

corpses buried in the ground since the Descent of Man:“That it will not endanger me with the fevers that have de-posited themselves in it, / That the cool drink from the welltastes so good, / That blackberries are so flavorous and juicy,/ That when I recline on the grass I do not catch any disease,/ Though probably every spear of grass rises out of what wasonce a catching disease. / It grows such sweet things out ofsuch corruptions.”42

unsurveyed: Ironically, or perhaps, rather, revealingly,Thoreau made his living as a land surveyor.43

the sea-coast with its wrecks: In Cape Cod, publishedposthumously in 1865, Thoreau provides an eyewitness ac-count of the wreck of the St. John outside of Cohasset Har-bor in 1849. Surveying the scene of bodies and debris, herecords his reaction: “On the whole it was not so impressivea scene as I might have expected. If I had found one bodyupon the beach in some lonely place, it would have affectedme more. I sympathized rather with the winds and waves, asif to toss and mangle these poor human bodies was the orderof the day. If this was the law of Nature, why waste any timein awe or pity?”44

universal innocence: A very condensed thought is introducedhere that stretches the sense of both “universal” and “inno-cence.” “Universal innocence” means not that everyone is in-nocent, but that the universe does not cause harm by maliceor intent. Thoreau puts the same idea differently just mo-ments before—significantly, using the language of insurance,accounting, or reckoning: “With liability to accident we mustsee how little account is to be made of it.” In saying that“poison is not poisonous after all, nor are any wounds fatal”Thoreau approaches a view of Nature we find also in Hera-clitus as a paradoxical unity of opposites held in tension, aworld in which, as Heraclitus puts it, “justice is strife” and“the road up and down is one and the same.”45 The last three


sentences of this paragraph, cryptic on the surface, also Her-aclitean in tone, become more transparent when one seesThoreau’s etymological plays on the leading words: “Com-passion is a very untenable ground”—untenable, from Latinteneo, means here ground that “cannot be held or occupied”because it is not conducive to settlement, not that compas-sion is “unreasonable,” or “illegitimate” in and of itself; “Itmust be expeditious”—expeditious as in compassion needsto “get out from underfoot” (ex-pedio) on such shiftingsands; “Its pleadings will not bear to be stereotyped”—stereotyped (from Greek στερεός, “solid, firm” + τυπόω, “tostamp, impress”) means literally that compassion’s pleadingscannot be “impressed on a solid surface [i.e., ground]”—again, because that ground is “untenable.” Together thesethree sentences comprise a copious redundancy, where thethought is not so much developed or advanced from one sen-tence to the next as reinforced. The general sentiment, andthe principle that ethics must proceed from physics, accordsclosely with Heraclitus’s doctrine of ἁρμονίη (‘harmony’) andthat “everything flows” (πάντα ῥεῖ).46

[¶¶25–26]

Early May sees the trees begin to bud and bloom; the loon returnsto the Pond, with a host of other birds. “And so,” Thoreau rues,“the seasons went rolling on into summer, as one rambles intohigher and higher grass.” Then, in fine, he concludes:

Thus was my first year’s life in the woods completed; and the sec-ond year was similar to it. I finally left Walden September 6th,1847.

in an early chapter of Walden entitled “Reading,” Thoreaudeclares,

Men sometimes speak as if the study of the classics would at

M. D. Usher 147

length make way for more modern and practical studies; but the ad-venturous student will always study classics, in whatever languagethey may be written and however ancient they may be. For what arethe classics but the noblest recorded thoughts of man? They are theonly oracles which are not decayed, and there are such answers tothe most modern inquiry in them as Delphi and Dodona never gave.We might as well omit to study Nature because she is old. 47

This remarkable statement, which places the study of an-cient literature on par with contemporary research in sci-ence—both pursuits necessarily taking the long view ofthings—is telling of Thoreau’s overall method and disposi-tion. His verdict is reminiscent of Aristotle’s observation that“Nature is not a series of unconnected episodes, like a badtragedy” (Metaphysics 1090b19),48 which also hangs lowfrom the branch, ripe for the picking, linking as it does twotraditionally separate domains of inquiry, that of the hu-manities (i.e., poetics and interpretation) and the hard sci-ences. In the Deep Cut, Thoreau confounds these twodomains in a sustained attempt to describe and understand acomplex, naturally-occurring, yet man-made phenomenon,having recourse only to his own powers of observation, histalents as a writer, and his deep familiarity with classical lit-erature and the classical tradition. The result of his effortsrecalls another of Aristotle’s maxims—“the whole is some-thing besides its parts” (Metaphysics 1045a9)49—which, asit happens, is regularly invoked in complexity circles as ananticipation of the emergence-concept, one of the field’s cor-nerstone doctrines. In an age like ours dominated by theSTEM disciplines, the relevance of ancient thought to con-temporary concerns, including scientific pursuits, is usuallythought to be negligible or a dubious prospect at best. Andyet Thoreau—himself equal parts observing scientist and lit-erary scholar—turns this false dichotomy on its head: In theDeep Cut, he offers up a profound account of a beautifullystrange, emergent phenomenon. In the course of doing so, hepresents perhaps the best possible case for the ongoing rele-vance of the Classics in contemporary discourse.


acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities at theUniversity of Edinburgh for fellowship support in 2018 and to the generos-ity of friends who read and commented helpfully on earlier versions of thiswork: Lilah Grace Canevaro (Edinburgh), Benjamin Pickford (Lausanne),Michael Carroll (St. Andrews), and Jesse Lundquist (Oxford).

notes

1. All citations from Walden correspond to the pagination in Jeffrey S.Cramer, Walden: A Fully Annotated Edition (New Haven and London2004); here, 113.

2. Laurence Buell, The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, NatureWriting, and the Formation of American Culture (Cambridge, MA 1995).170).

3. For a comprehensive overview of systems science, see Fritjof Capra &Pier Luigi Luisi, The Systems View of Life: A Unifying Vision (Cambridge2014). For complex systems in particular, see Neil Johnson, Simply Com-plexity: A Clear Gui de to Complexity Theory (London 2009). Stuart Kauff-man, At Home in the Universe: The Search for Laws of Self-Organizationand Complexity (Oxford and New York 1995) provides a perspective fromthe biological sciences. Brian Castellani’s genealogical chart of the historyand disciplinary configurations of complexity studies is especially helpfuland can be accessed at www.art-sciencefactory.com/complexity-map_feb09.html.

4. Cramer (note 1), 99.


6. Buell (note 2), 171.

7. The lecture was entitled “The Life and Character of Sir WalterRaleigh.” See Bradley P. Dean & Ronald Wesley Hoag, “Thoreau’s Lecturesbefore Walden: An Annotated Calendar,” Studies in the American Renais-sance (1995), 127–228; here 139–41.

8. See Claudia Zatta, “Plants’ Interconnected Lives: From Ovid’s Mythsto Presocratic Thought and Beyond,” Arion: A Journal of Humanities andthe Classics 24.2 (2016), pp. 101–26.

9. Cramer (note 1), 291. A classic statement on qualitative changes at-tending changes of scale in complex systems is P. W. Anderson, “More IsDifferent,” Science, N.S. 177.4047 (1972), 393–96.

10. Jennifer Baichwal, director, Manufactured Landscapes (ZeitgeistFilms, 2007).

11. Nord-Pas de Calais: UNESCO official page: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1360; see also Henri Samuel, “France’s slag heaps join Pyramids onlist of UNESCO world treasures,” The Telegraph (1 July, 2012). and Hugh

M. D. Usher 149

Schofield, “Making a vineyard out of slag-heap,” BBC News Magazine (4August, 2015).

12. See Neils Bohr, Atomic Theory and the Description of Nature [1934](Cambridge 2011). For a brilliant graphic novel treatment of Bohr’s life andthought, see Jim Ottaviani, Suspended in Language: Niels Bohr’s Life, Dis-coveries, and the Century He Shaped, illustrated and lettered by LelandPurvis, et al., (G. T. Labs, 2nd edition, 2009). An image of the wave-parti-cle duality of light was captured for the first time in 2015 and can beviewed here: www.zmescience.com/science/physics/light-particle-wave-03032015;

13. Xenophanes = XEN. D22 in André Laks and Glenn W. Most (eds.),Early Greek Philosophy Vol. III, Loeb Classical Library no. 526 (Cam-bridge, MA 2016).

14. Ancient: John Ferguson, “ΔΙΝΟΣ,” Phronesis 16.2 (1971), 97–115;modern: Philip S. Marcus, “Jupiter’s Great Red Spot and Other Vortices,”Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 31 (1993), 523–69, andCapra & Luisi (note 3), 176–81.

15. Douglas Hofstadter & Emmanuel Sander, Surfaces and Essences:Analogy as the Fuel and Fire of Thinking (New York 2013). See, too, G. E.R. Lloyd, Analogical Investigations: Historical and Cross-cultural Perspec-tives on Human Reasoning (Cambridge 2015). J. Robert Oppenheimer,“Analogy in Science,” American Psychologist 11.3 (1956), 127–35, high-lights the role of analogical thinking in the hard sciences from the perspec-tive of a physicist.

16. Michael West, Transcendental Wordplay: America's Romantic Pun-sters and the Search for the Language of Nature (Athens, OH 2000).

17. For the contents of Thoreau’s personal library, see F. B. Sanborn, TheLife of Henry David Thoreau, Including Many Essays Hitherto Unpub-lished and Some Account of His Family and Friends (Boston 1917),505–17.


19. Robert Thorson, Walden’s Shore: Henry David Thoreau and Nine-teenth-Century Science (Cambridge, MA 2014), 278–88.

20. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Italian Journey, trans. W. H. Audenand Elizabeth Mayer (London 1970), 366.

21. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, The Metamorphosis of Plants, trans.Douglas Miller; introduction and photography, Gordon L. Miller (Cam-bridge, MA 2009).

22. West (note 16), 183–218.

23. Eric Wilson, “Thoreau, Thales, and the Distribution of Water,” TheConcord Saunterer, N.S., Vol. 7 (1998), 26–44; Christina Root, “The Pro-teus Within: Thoreau’s Practice of Goethe’s Phenomenology,” Janus Head8.1 (2005), 232–49.

24. Thoreau’s specimens: http://botlib.huh.harvard.edu/libraries/Thoreau.htm.


25. Assessment based on personal autopsy of the book in the Davis Fam-ily Library’s Department of Special Collections at Middlebury College (withthanks to archivist Joseph Watson).

26. Pierre Hadot, The Veil of Isis: An Essay on the History of the Idea ofNature, trans. Michael Chase [2004] (Cambridge, MA 2006), 207.

27. See Benoit B. Mandelbrot, The Fractal Geometry of Nature (NewYork 1982). For the mathematics behind fractals, see Capra & Luisi (note3), 104–25), and in more detail, Heinz–Otto Peitgen, Hartmut Jürgens, &Dietmar Saupe, Chaos and Fractals: New Frontiers of Science, 2nd edition(New York 2004), 541–94.

28. Capra & Luisi (note 3), 144–54.

29. Goethe (note 21), 1.

30. Novalis, The Novices of Sais, illustrations by Paul Klee; trans. RalphManheim (Brooklyn, NY 2005), 3.

31. Andrea Wulf, The Invention of Nature: Alexander von Humboldt’sNew World (New York 2016).

32. Cramer (note 1), 97; the Hindu concept-divinity Maya (‘Illusion’) isthe other reference here.


34. A Diana Fountain in moss-covered stone at the 16th century VillaD’Este in Tivoli is constructed so that water spurts from the Goddess’s nip-ples.

35. The so-called Myth-Ritualists champion this view. See Robert A. Se-gal, ed., The Myth and Ritual Theory: An Anthology (Malden, MA 1998),1–13). Cf. H. S. Versnel, “Prospects,” in Transition and Reversal in Mythand Ritual (Leiden 1993).

36. See Noam Chomsky, The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory(Chicago and London 1985). Also Roman Jakobson, “Two Aspects of Lan-guage and Two Types of Aphasic Disturbances,” in On Language, eds. LindH. Waugh and Monique Monville-Burston [1956] (Cambridge, MA 1995);and M. A. K. Halliday, An Introduction to Functional Grammar (London1985).



39. Joseph Wood Krutch, “In Wildness Is Preservation,” The Rotarian113:4 (1968), 38, originally appearing in The Saturday Review (8 June1963).

40. Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, trans. R. J. Hollingdale;intro. Michael Tanner (London 1973), 30.

41. Cramer (note 1), 3).

42. “This Compost” was published in the 1856 edition of Leaves ofGrass; some lines that are consecutive in the original have been elided in thequotation here.

43. Patrick Chura, Thoreau the Land Surveyor (Gainesville, FL 2012).

M. D. Usher 151

44. It is this passage that riled Kathryn Schulz to write a spirited, moral-izing rant recently in The New Yorker entitled “Pond Scum.” KathrynSchulz, “Pond Scum: Henry David Thoreau’s Moral Myopia,” The NewYorker, October 19 issue, 2015.

45. HER. D63 and D51 in Laks & Most (note 13).

46. HER. D49 and D65c in Laks & Most (note 13).

47. Cramer (note 1), 98–99).

48. οὐκ ἔοικε δ᾿ ἡ φύσις ἐπεισοδιώδης οὖσα ἐκ τῶν φαινομένων, ὥσπερ μο-χθηρὰ τραγῳδία.

49. τὸ πᾶν . . . ἔστι τι τὸ ὅλον παρὰ τὰ μόρια.


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