Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics · 2017-11-02 · Sports Performance Measurement and...

Sports PerformanceMeasurement and Analytics

The Science of Assessing Performance,

Predicting Future Outcomes,

Interpreting Statistical Models,

and Evaluating the Market Value of Athletes

LORENA MARTIN

Publisher: Paul Boger

Editor-in-Chief: Amy Neidlinger

Executive Editor: Jeanne Glasser Levine

Cover Designer: Alan Clements

Managing Editor: Kristy Hart

Project Editor: Andy Beaster

Manufacturing Buyer: Dan Uhrig

Consulting Editor: Thomas W. Miller

c©2016 by Lorena Martin

Published by Pearson Education, Inc.

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Printed in the United States of America

First Printing February 2016

ISBN-10: 0-13-419330-X

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-419330-4

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2015958702

Contents

Preface v

Figures ix

Tables xi

Exhibits xiii

1 Anatomy and Physiology 1

2 Assessing Physical Variables 15

3 Sport Psychological Measures 41

4 Selecting Statistical Models 53

5 Touchdown Analytics 69

6 Slam Dunk Analytics 95

7 Home Run Analytics 117

8 Golden Goal Analytics 137

9 Game, Set, Match Analytics 157

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iv Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics

10 Performance and Market Value 173

Statistics Glossary 187

Football Glossary 193

Basketball Glossary 201

Baseball Glossary 209

Soccer Glossary 227

Tennis Glossary 241

Bibliography 247

Index 289

Preface

“Impossible is just a big word thrown around by small men who find iteasier to live in the world they’ve been given than to explore the power theyhave to change it. Impossible is not a fact. It’s an opinion. Impossible is nota declaration. It’s a dare. Impossible is potential. Impossible is temporary.Impossible is nothing.”

—MUHAMMAD ALI

I have played sports my entire life. I began playing the sport of tennis at theage of thirteen, too late in the eyes of many tennis experts to become a topprofessional tennis player. I trained six hours a day from the first day that Iwon a match against a boy at a neighborhood tennis court. In an instant, Iwas addicted to the sport.

I dreamed of becoming a professional tennis player. I spent countless hourson the court, skipping hangouts, holidays, and dates just to hit tennis balls.I went on to play high school and college tennis. I dropped out of collegeto play professional tennis. I worked for an airline so I could travel inex-pensively to compete in professional tennis tournaments around the world.Tournaments were (and still are) scattered across the globe, giving a personof lower socioeconomic status a very slim chance of making it. Throughmy tennis training and competition, I reached a Florida state ranking ofnumber three and a top 200 women’s professional ranking in the USA.

As an undergraduate, I majored in psychology. I wanted to learn about thepsychological and behavioral profiles of successful professional athletes. Iwent on to get a master’s degree in psychology.

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vi Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics

After studying psychology, I wanted to obtain a deeper understanding ofthe importance of physiology and physical fitness variables in sports, suchas muscular strength, power, endurance, anaerobic power, cardiorespira-tory endurance, and flexibility. I felt it was essential to learn as much aspossible about the processes going on inside an elite athlete’s mind andbody. I earned a doctorate in exercise physiology from the University ofMiami and was recruited to conduct postdoctoral research in behavioralmedicine at the University of California, San Diego.

I have always been driven to learn about statistics, about what is and is notbeing said by the numbers. I wanted to see which variables could be used topredict sport performance and to answer a simple question: “What are thequalities a person must have to become a world class athlete?” This ques-tion and many more may be answered through research, measurement,statistics, and analytics.

I went on to teach research methods and statistical design at Florida In-ternational University. Later I joined Northwestern University, where Icurrently teach introduction to statistical analysis as well as sports perfor-mance analytics.

As a teacher of sports performance analytics, I tried to find a book that en-compassed sports-relevant anatomy and physiology and described athleticperformance measures. I wanted a book that included statistical analysesand models used in various individual and team sports, along with statis-tics adopted by the sports industry. But I found no such book.

I chose to write this book to give athletes, coaches, and managers a betterunderstanding of measurement and analytics as they relate to sport per-formance. To develop accurate measures, we need to know what we wantto measure and why. This book provides new insights into constructs andvariables that have often been neglected in sports to this day. It also reviewsfundamentals of sports anatomy and physiology, sport measurement, andperformance analytics.

This book serves many readers. People involved with sports, includingplayers, coaches, and trainers, will gain an appreciation for performancemeasures and analytics. People involved with analytics will gain new in-sights into sports performance and see what it takes to become a competi-tive athlete. And students eager to learn about sports analytics will have a

Preface vii

practical introduction to the field. Data sets and programs in the book areavailable from the book’s website http://www.ftpress.com/martin/.

Many thanks to Thomas W. Miller, my consulting editor, for making thisbook happen, as it would not have been possible to complete without him.And special thanks go to my editor, Jeanne Glasser Levine, and publisher,Pearson/FT Press, for giving me the opportunity to publish my first book.Of course, any writing issues, errors, or items of unfinished business aremy responsibility alone.

I want to give a special thank you to my brother and professional tennisplayer, Juan J. Martin Jr., who constantly provides me with insightful infor-mation based on his experience in professional sports and exercise physiol-ogy. I would also like to thank the Dallas Cowboys’ Director of Football Re-search, Tom Robinson, for his instrumental remarks and comments. Thanksto Roy Sanford, a lead faculty member in Northwestern University’s Mas-ter’s Program in Predictive Analytics, who provided constructive critiqueson statistical methods. I want to thank my mother, Estela Martin, for beingthere day and night and offering continued support. Tambien, gracias a mipadre, Juan J. Martin Sr., for providing me with a sports-like motivation, im-pelling me to complete this book. In addition, I would like to mention mydogs, which are always there for me and brought a smile to my face whileworking on this book.

Most of all, I want to thank God for making this possible.

Lorena MartinSan Diego, CaliforniaDecember 2015

http://www.ftpress.com/martin/

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Figures

5.1 Three-Cone Agility Drill by Player Position (NFL) 795.2 20-Yard Shuttle by Player Position (NFL) 795.3 Vertical Jump by Player Position (NFL) 805.4 40-Yard Dash by Player Position (NFL) 805.5 Broad Jump by Player Position (NFL) 815.6 Bench Press by Player Position (NFL) 816.1 Lane Agility Drill by Player Position (NBA) 1046.2 Bench Press by Player Position (NBA) 1046.3 Max Vertical Leap by Player Position (NBA) 1056.4 Standing Vertical Leap by Player Position (NBA) 1056.5 Three Quarter Sprint by Player Position (NBA) 1066.6 Shuttle Run by Player Position (NBA) 1066.7 Steals by Player Position (NBA) 1076.8 Defensive Rebounds by Player Position (NBA) 1076.9 Offensive Rebounds by Player Position (NBA) 1086.10 Assists by Player Position (NBA) 1086.11 Shooting Percentage by Player Position (NBA) 1096.12 Player Efficiency Rating by Player Position (NBA) 1097.1 Hits by Player Position (MLB) 1267.2 RBIs by Player Position (MLB) 1267.3 Runs by Player Position (MLB) 1277.4 Home Runs by Player Position (MLB) 1278.1 Number of Assists by Player Position (UEFA) 1498.2 Number of Goals Scored by Player Position (UEFA) 1498.3 Number of Passes Attempted by Player Position (UEFA) 1508.4 Number of Passes Completed by Player Position (UEFA) 1509.1 Professional Tennis Player Earnings by Nationality (ATP, WTA) 1679.2 Professional Tennis Player Earnings by Rank and Sex (ATP, WTA) 168

ix

Tables

1.1 Types of Bones 21.2 Muscles in Sport 41.3 Characteristics of Fiber Types 51.4 Muscle Fiber Types and Sports 61.5 Rate/Capacity of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) 81.6 Primary Energy System Duration and Intensity 101.7 Limiting Factors for Energy Systems 101.8 Athletic Training and Energy Systems 111.9 Physiological Markers of Athletic Performance 122.1 Physical Measures and Fitness Models 162.2 Body Fat Percentage Categories 172.3 Body Mass Index (BMI) Categories 182.4 Body Density Equations Used to Calculate Body Fat Percentage 192.5 Repetition Maximum Coefficients 212.6 Repetition Maximum Values 212.7 Body Muscle Group Testing for Athletes (Part 1) 242.8 Body Muscle Group Testing for Athletes (Part 2) 252.9 Range of Motion of Select Single-Joint Movements in Degrees 272.10 ESPN’s List of Ranking Sports by Coordination 362.11 Sport-Specific Skills 383.1 Sport Psychological Measures and Factors 503.2 Desirable Attributes of Measurements 513.3 A Measurement Model for Sports Performance 524.1 Overview of Statistical Methods 564.2 Review of Statistical Tests and Models 685.1 Football Performance Measures 786.1 Basketball Performance Measures 1037.1 Baseball Performance Measures 125

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xii Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics

8.1 UEFA Champions League Tournament Phase Leading Scorers 1468.2 UEFA Champions League Tournament Phase Leaders in Assists 1478.3 Soccer Performance Measures 1489.1 Tennis Performance Measures 1649.2 Annual Cost for Playing Professional Tennis 1659.3 Annual Expenses for the 100th-Ranked Tennis Player 1659.4 U.S. Minority Group Income and Education 16610.1 Salaries of Top MLB Players 17910.2 Salaries of Top NBA Players 18010.3 Salaries of Top NFL Players 18110.4 Salaries of Top ATP Players 18210.5 Salaries of Top WTA Players 18310.6 Salaries of Top MLS Players 18410.7 Salaries of Top FIFA Players 185

Exhibits

5.1 Analyzing NFL Combine Measures (R) 825.2 Analyzing NFL Game Time Performance Data (R) 926.1 Analyzing NBA Draft Data (R) 1106.2 Analyzing NBA Game Time Performance Data (R) 1147.1 Analyzing MLB Player Performance (R) 1287.2 Analyzing MLB Game Time Batting Performance (R) 1308.1 Analyzing UEFA Assists and Goals Scored (R) 1518.2 Analyzing UEFA Passes Attempted and Completed (R) 1549.1 Analyzing ATP and WTA Player Earnings by Country (R) 1699.2 Analyzing ATP and WTA Player Earnings by Rank and Sex (R) 172

xiii

1Anatomy and Physiology

“A muscle is like a car. If you want it to run well early in the morning, youhave to warm it up.”

—FLORENCE GRIFFITH JOYNER

Understanding the basics of anatomy and physiology is fundamental to ob-taining a more comprehensive knowledge of what it means to be an athlete.Let us start by answering the question, “What is an athlete?” We can thinkof an athlete as a person who is skilled at a sport, trains, and possessesphysical attributes such as muscular strength, power, endurance, speed,and agility, to name a few.

The physical attributes and variables of an athlete will be detailed and ex-plained in chapter 2. This chapter focuses on the fundamental anatomy andphysiology of an athlete. The objective of this chapter is to help the sportsdata analyst, as well as athletes themselves, understand the human bodyand how its machinery functions during athletic events in order to compre-hend how performance is affected by physiology. This chapter will openyour eyes to new ways of thinking about number crunching and sports an-alytics. Knowledge of the main physiological mechanisms will make you amore competitive and insightful sports data scientist.

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2 Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics

Table 1.1. Types of Bones

Type of Bone Example of Bone

Long bones Femur, Humerus, Tibia

Short bones Tarsals of the foot, Carpals of the hand and wristFlat bones Scapula, Sternum, Cranium

Irregular bones Vertebrae, Sacrum, Mandible

Sesamoid bones Knee Cap, there are four sesamoid bones in the hand, there are two sesamoid bones in the foot

Let us review the basic bone structure and anatomical information youshould be aware of. The human body is made up of 206 bones and morethan 430 skeletal muscles. The topic of anatomy alone could take severalbooks to do it justice. We will cover the part of human anatomy and physi-ology most relevant to sports performance.

The study of bones is called osteology. Osteologists dedicate their lives tounderstanding how bones function. Bones are responsible for providingconstant renewal of red and white blood cells, and are vital not only to ourorgans, but to gaining a competitive edge in sports performance. There areseveral types of bones: long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones,and sesamoid bones. Long bones are associated with greater movementdue to the lever length, compared to short bones which have limited mo-bility, but are known to be stronger. Please refer to table 1.1 for examples ofeach type of bone.

The musculoskeletal system is integral to human movement, as it is com-prised of ligaments that connect bone to bone and tendons that connectmuscles to bone. Consequently, when the muscle pulls on the bone, motionoccurs. Depending on the method of classification or grouping, estimatesof the number of muscles in the body range between 430 to over 900. Infact, each skeletal muscle is considered an organ that contains muscle tis-sue, connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels. Much of the debate is amatter of definition in terms of how the muscles are quantified.

Chapter 1. Anatomy and Physiology 3

Like bones, muscles may be classified by type: smooth muscle is foundin the blood vessels and organs, cardiac muscle is found in the heart, andskeletal muscle is abundant throughout the human body and is responsiblefor our daily movement.

Upper body muscles and muscle groups to become familiar with includethe latissimus dorsi, trapezius, deltoids, rotator cuff, pectorals, biceps, tri-ceps, and brachioradialis. Midsection muscles involved in sports perfor-mance include the rectus abdominus, external and internal obliques, andthe transversus abdominis. Lower body muscles vital for many sports in-clude the quadriceps, hamstrings, gluteus (maximus, minimus, medius),gastrocnemius, and the soleus. Please refer to table 1.2 for the locations ofthese muscles and their function in sports.

Many of you have heard of fast twitch and slow twitch muscle fibers. Mostpeople are only aware of two fiber types, fast and slow, or white and red.However, it is much more accurate to say that there are hybrid fiber typesthat lie within the spectrum of Type I and Type II muscle fibers. More re-cently, the scientific field revealed three distinct categories of muscle fibers.These are Type I, Type IIa, and Type IIx muscle fibers. Type I fibers arecommonly referred to as slow-twitch while both Type IIa and Type IIx arerecognized as fast-twitch muscle fibers.

To facilitate understanding, we will focus on the differences between TypeI and Type II because they are inherently different as they relate to the fol-lowing characteristics: ability to utilize oxygen and glycogen as determinedby aerobic enzyme content, myoglobin content, capillary density, and mi-tochondria size and density.

Typically, slow-twitch muscle fibers tend to be high in all the criteria men-tioned above. In comparison, fast-twitch muscle fibers tend to be low inthese characteristics, while having greater nerve conduction velocity, speedof muscle contractility, anaerobic enzyme content, and power output. Fasttwitch fibers are known to have high glycolytic activity, meaning they uti-lize glycogen (the storage form of glucose, which many call sugar) at highlevels, whereas slow-twitch muscle fibers rely on their oxidative capacity.Please refer to table 1.3 for additional muscle fiber type characteristics.


Table 1.2. Muscles in Sport

Name of Muscle Location of Muscle Function in Sport

Upper Body MusclesLatissimus dorsi located in the posterior part of the body,

largest muscle group in the upper body, also called the back

involved in extension and adduction of the shoulder as well as pulling motions; relevant for all sports

Rhomboids located in the upper back underneath the trapezius and consists of two muscles; rhomboid major and minor

involved in retraction of shoulder blades relevant for all sports

Trapezius located above and superficial to rhomboids extends from shoulders to neck muscles

involved in distributing loads away from the neck and keeping the shoulders stabilized

Deltoids commonly referred to as the shoulders involved in throwing motions used extensively in overhead athletes

Rotator Cuff located in the shoulder area deep under the deltoids, muscles that hold the shoulder in place

involved in throwing motions; quarterbacks, pitchers, and tennis players when serving

Pectorals commonly referred to as the chest includes pectoralis major and minor

involved in chest press strength, and abduction of the shoulder and pushing movements

Biceps located in anterior part of the arm and called biceps because of the two heads of the muscle

involved in swinging motion; tennis players forehand and baseball swings; also involved in bending of the elbow and for picking up motions

Triceps located in posterior part of the arm and called triceps because of the three heads of the muscle

extension of elbow; used to straighten the elbow; used in stiff-arm movement in football players

Brachioradialis and Pronator Teres

forearm muscles utilized in sports using the wrist

Core and Midsection MusclesRectus Abdominus located in the anterior part of the body

under the abdomenutilized for flexion of the spine and core stabilization; relevant for all sports

External Obliques located above and superficial to the internal obliques on each side of the trunk

utilized for sideways bending and rotation of the torso; integral for tennis strokes

Internal Obliques located underneath the external abdominal oblique on each side of the trunk

utilized for flexion of the spine, sideways bending, trunk rotation and compression of the abdomen; relevant for all sports

Transversus Abdominis located in the deepest layer of abdominal muscles that wraps around the torso

utilized for respiration and core stabilization; relevant for all sports

Lower Body MusclesQuadriceps located in anterior part of thigh consisting of four

musclesresponsible for extension of the knee; major source of strength for soccer players; relevant for all sports

Hamstrings located in posterior part of thigh consisting of three muscles

responsible for flexion and bending of the knee; relevant for all sports

Gluteus Maximus, Gluteus Medius, and Gluteus Minimus

located in the area usually called the buttocks utilized in explosive first step movements; integral for lower body strength and power

Gastrocnemius located in the lower leg area and typically referred to as part of the calf muscle

utilized in jumping and tip-toe motions including being on the ball of your feet

Soleus located in the lower leg area and typically referred to as part of the calf muscle

utilized in jumping and tip-toe motions including being on the ball of your feet


Table 1.3. Characteristics of Fiber Types

Characteristics Type I Type IIa Type IIxMotor neuron size Small Large LargeNerve conduction velocity Slow Fast FastContraction speed Slow Fast FastRelaxation speed Slow Fast FastFatigue resistance High Intermediate/Low LowForce production Low Intermediate HighPower output Low Intermediate/High HighEndurance High Intermediate/Low LowAerobic enzyme content High Intermediate/Low LowAnaerobic enzyme content Low High HighCapillary density High Intermediate LowMyoglobin content High Low LowMitochondria size/density High Intermediate LowFiber diameter Small Intermediate LargeColor Red White/Red White

Adapted from Baechle and Earle (2008).


Table 1.4. Muscle Fiber Types and Sports

Sport Type I Contribution Type II Contribution

100 meter sprint Low High800 meter sprint High HighMarathon High LowSoccer High HighAmerican Football Wide Receiver and Linemen Low HighBasketball Low HighBaseball Pitcher Low HighTennis High High


It is evident that anatomy and physiology play a major role in sports perfor-mance. A sprinter may benefit from a greater number of fast twitch musclefibers, whereas a long-distance runner will benefit much more from havinga greater distribution of slow twitch muscle fibers. Refer to table 1.4 forType I and Type II muscle fiber contribution in a variety of sports.

In addition to the controversy over the number of muscle fiber types, therealso remains the question of whether one can train and modify one’s ownfiber type through conditioning. Several animal studies have shown thatenzymes that would otherwise be dormant are activated through physicaltraining, implying that there is a possibility of changing the fiber type to acertain degree.

Now that we have the basics of the skeletal and muscular system, let usconsider the physiology of sports performance. First, we must realize thathuman metabolism includes both anabolic and catabolic processes that areongoing in our bodies. Anabolic processes involve the synthesis of largermolecules from smaller molecules. Conversely, catabolic processes involvethe breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones, and are associatedwith the release of energy. Energy released in a biological reaction is quan-tified by the amount of heat that is generated. The amount of heat requiredto raise one kilogram of water one degree Celsius is called a kilocalorie.This corresponds to the energy found in food that is broken down withinour bodies and stored in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).


In the body, energy systems are responsible for providing the ATP (energy)that is utilized under varying intensities and durations of sport perfor-mance. There are three main energy systems at play during sports perfor-mance. They are the phosphagen (ATP-PCr) system, the glycolytic system,and the oxidative phosphorylation system. All three systems are constantlyat work and interacting with each other, functioning on some level as theyare not “all or nothing” systems. The predominance of one system is largelydetermined by the intensity and duration of the sporting activity, as well asthe substrate (food source) that the athlete has consumed. Substrate uti-lization is a fancy term for the food that is being consumed by the athlete.Correspondingly, these three energy systems are also sometimes referred toas bioenergetics systems.

The athlete’s ability to perform is based on his or her muscles’ capacityto function and depends on the oxygen or glucose (substrate) availability.What does this mean? Well, if an athlete is sprinting, muscles within thebody do not necessarily have the time required to be able to utilize oxygen,as a body at rest does. This causes the body to shift into an anaerobic statein which it can extract energy in the form of ATP, without the use of oxy-gen. However, when the human machine is running at a slower pace, thestandard metabolic processes that utilize oxygen are allowed to occur in themitochondria (the engine of the cell). Some might say that the human bodyis inherently intelligent and can be compared to a computer, in that afterthe program is built and algorithm established, it knows what to do on itsown.

To simplify, the three energy systems will be referred to as the phosphagen,glycolytic, and oxidative systems. These systems produce ATP and replen-ish ATP stores within the human body. The body naturally stores ATP suf-ficient for basic cellular functions, not the amount necessary for sports. Thephosphagen system utilizes an enzyme, creatine kinase, to maintain ATPlevels during intense, explosive movements of short duration, allowing forthe release of one mole of ATP or the equivalent of 0.6 kilocalories. Thephosphagen system is heavily involved in sports that consist of high inten-sity, short-term explosive movements. This system is used in all sports atthe point of initiation of activity—at the shift from sedentary to active.


Table 1.5. Rate/ Capacity of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Energy System Rate of ATP production Capacity of ATP production

Phosphagen 1 5Fast Glycolysis 2 4Slow Glycolysis 3 3Oxidation of Carbohydrates 4 2Oxidation of Fats and Proteins 5 1

Note: 1 = fastest/greatest; 5 = slowest/least


The glycolytic system is responsible for controlling glycolysis (breakdownof glycogen) for energy production, as well as the onset of lactate formation.Glycolysis is the term for the processes that break down glycogen storedin the muscles to glucose, ultimately yielding ATP. Remarkably, intensityand duration of the sport also dictates the type of glycolysis that occurs.There are two possible pathways: The shorter path, termed anaerobic (fast)glycolysis, consists of fewer steps that lead to lactate; the other path, aero-bic (slow) glycolysis, has a longer trajectory and yields two to three molesof ATP or the equivalent of 1.2 to 1.8 kilocalories. Aerobic glycolysis is aslower process. It requires sufficient quantities of oxygen to operate, com-pared to anaerobic glycolysis which can function with limited amounts ofoxygen.

Finally, the oxidative system is responsible for breaking down glycogen,fat, and protein. It is also responsible for producing ATP when the body isat rest or during long lasting, low intensity sporting activities. It is a com-monly held belief that when training at low intensity, the body utilizes morefat than other sources (carbohydrates or protein) of energy. This concept isthe result of a simplified interpretation of this third system.

The oxidative system’s primary source of fuel is fat, since it initiates therelease of triglycerides from fat cells. This leads to the roaming of free fattyacids in the blood, which are transported to the muscle fibers for oxidation(burned for energy). The breakdown of fat to glucose is called lipolysis andyields between thirty-six to forty moles of ATP or the equivalent of 21.6 to24 kilocalories.


Additionally, this system is able to oxidize protein, however, protein is notits favored source of fuel. The mechanism of breaking down protein into en-ergy is less than efficient. Proteolysis requires several steps to break downprotein into amino acids, and eventually converts the products to glucosethrough another process called gluconeogenesis. A greater span of time isneeded to synthesize ATP. Therefore, fat and carbohydrate are the preferredfuels for sport, because they yield energy at a much faster rate over longerperiods. Please refer to table 1.5 for the rate and capacity of ATP productionfor each energy system.

The athlete’s predominant energy system differs not only by sport, but alsoby player position or style of play within a particular sport. For instance,when a tennis player sprints to hit a forehand, a basketball player jumpsexplosively to slam dunk, a baseball player sprints to get on base, a quar-terback throws the football, or a striker shoots to score a goal, their bodiesare using the phosphagen system as the primary energy mechanism. If, onthe other hand, a wide receiver is sprinting down the field for more thansix seconds, his body has shifted from using the phosphagen system to ahybrid state consisting of both the phosphagen and glycolytic (anaerobicglycolysis) systems.

A soccer midfielder running non-stop, back and forth at a fast pace for theduration of one to two minutes is in a true state of anaerobic glycolysis.If the soccer player were to continue running for a longer period of time,ranging from two to three minutes, they are likely to be in a hybrid stateof fast glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation. Finally, a long distancerunner who runs for prolonged periods of time at a slower rate is usingthe oxidative system as the primary mechanism for producing ATP. Referto table 1.6 for the ranges of intensity and duration typical of each energysystem.

In summary, the phosphagen energy system primarily supplies ATP forhigh-intensity activities of short duration. The glycolytic system is asso-ciated with moderate- to high-intensity activities of short to medium du-ration. And the oxidative system is the primary system at work duringlow-intensity activities of long duration.


Table 1.6. Primary Energy System Duration and Intensity

Duration Intensity Primary Energy System0-6 seconds Extremely High Phosphagen6-30 seconds Very High Phosphagen and Fast Glycolysis30 seconds to 2 minutes High Fast Glycolysis2-3 minutes Moderate Fast Glycolysis and Oxidative System>3 minutes Low Oxidative System


Table 1.7. Limiting Factors for Energy Systems

ATP and Creatine Muscle Liver

Degree of Exercise Phosphate Glycogen Glycogen Fat Stores Lower pH

Light (Marathon) 1 5 4-5 2-3 1Moderate (1,500 m run) 1-2 3 2 1-2 2-3Heavy (400 m run) 3 3 1 1 4-5Very intense (discus) 2-3 1 1 1 1Very intense and Repetitive Motions 4-5 4-5 1-2 1-2 4-5

Note: 1 = Least Probable Limiting Factor; 5= Most Probable Limiting Factor


Table 1.7 describes the limiting factors of the bioenergetics systems. It showshow athletes, depending on the sport they play, involuntarily utilize bioen-ergetics systems. If we take a look at the discus thrower, it is important fortheir performance to have enough ATP and creatine phosphate in order tothrow the discus in a powerful manner. On the other hand, if we take alook at marathon runners, they are much more limited by the amounts ofglycogen (large amounts of glucose grouped together) stored in the musclesand liver because of its role in glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation.Thereby, if they are limited in muscle or liver glycogen their performancewill be hindered greatly.

Table 1.8 describes the primary system that will be utilized by percent max-imum power and duration of exercise (sport). With this information we canlearn to train our bodies to utilize different systems. For example, if you arean athlete that wants to improve utilization of the phosphagen system, thenyou would train one time (sprint) at 90 percent intensity for five seconds in


Table 1.8. Athletic Training and Energy Systems

Percent Range ofMaximum Primary System Typical Work-to-rest Power Utilized Exercise Time Period Ratios90-100 Phosphagen 5-10 seconds 1:12 to 1:2075-90 Fast Glycolysis 15-30 seconds 1:3 to 1:530-75 Fast Glycolysis and Oxidative 1-3 minutes 1:3 to 1:420-30 Oxidative > 3 minutes 1:1 to 1:3


duration at a work to rest ratio of one to twenty, meaning you would rest(5 × 20) 100 seconds, or a minute forty. If however, you would want to im-prove your cardiorespiratory endurance, you would train at 20–30 percentfor longer duration at a work to rest ratio of one to three at most.

Table 1.9 details physiological markers of performance outcomes. It is welldocumented in the literature that testosterone, growth hormone, and IGF-1are strongly related to muscle mass development and maintenance as wellas bone density. Lactate levels are commonly used to assess whether theathlete is fatigued. Training that requires high level of technique or skillshould not be performed since coordination is significantly decreased andrisk of injury is increased when high amounts of lactate are present in theblood. Additionally, the hormone cortisol is known to be extremely ele-vated when an athlete is overtraining causing inflammation and stress inthe body, which chronically, may lead to injury.

More recently there has been extensive research on delaying aging. Telom-eres are located at the end of our chromosomes within our DNA. You mayask, “Why is this relevant to sport?” Professional athletes are interested inprolonging their athletic careers and since telomeres have been shown to bestrongly related to physical aging, this is a relevant marker of having an ex-tended athletic career. Many studies have already shown that longer telom-eres are associated with healthier and longer lifespans in both animal andhuman models. A newer method of assessing aging is Methylome analysis.It has been shown to have an even stronger correlation to physical agingthan telomere length. It is now recognized as a measure of biological ageand can have major implications for injury prevention and the extension ofathletic careers.


Table 1.9. Physiological Markers of Athletic Performance

Physiological PerformanceOutcomes Markers

Muscle mass development and maintenance

Testosterone, growth hormone, IGF-1

Bone density Testosterone, estrogen

Fatigue Lactate levels

Overtraining Cortisol

Cellular aging Telomere length and Methylome assessment

Heart function Heart rate, stroke volume, heart rate variability, cardiac output, and blood pressure

Aerobic threshold Aerobic enzyme content, VO2 max

Anaerobic threshold Respiratory rate

Heart function is important to athletic performance. The ability of the heartto distribute blood and oxygen to the muscles is fundamental for optimalperformance. Heart rate is commonly used to assess intensity. For instance,many strength and conditioning experts utilize heart rate zones as indica-tors of exercise intensity (training). It is important to assess heart function-ality by not only measuring heart rate, but also stroke volume, heart ratevariability, and cardiac output.

Anaerobic and aerobic thresholds are also important to assess. Based onthe sport, it is recommended that respiratory rate and VO2 max be ex-amined. Respiratory rate assessment is especially relevant for sprinters,whereas VO2 max would be most appropriate for marathoners.

In order to obtain an accurate predictive model of sport performance, it isimportant to include cardiovascular physiological measures, such as heartrate, resting heart rate, heart rate variability, stoke volume, cardiac out-


put, and blood pressure. It is also important to include measures of lactatethreshold, insulin and glucose levels, a vision assessment, and markers ofcellular aging. Physiological variables reflect the internal state of the bodyand yield a picture of the body’s engine and how and why it runs the wayit does.

Now you can begin to see the whole picture and conduct more relevantexploratory analyses. Knowledge of anatomy and physiology will makeyou a more marketable and competitive sports data analyst against thosewho only see the numbers, whether those numbers come from a laboratorysetting, training facility, or wearable technology in the field. Wearable tech-nology provides measurements related to anatomy and physiology, as wellas physical measures discussed in chapter 2.

This chapter drew on various sources in anatomy and physiology, includ-ing Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning (Baechle and Earle 2008)and the Laboratory Manual for Exercise Physiology (Haff and Dumke 2012).Those who want to pursue these subjects further may want to consult Tan-ner, Gore, et al. (2013) and Sherwood (2015) as well.

Index

Aaccessibility, see measurement, accessibilityadenosine triphosphate, see anatomy/physiology,

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)Adidas miCoach, see wearable technology,

Adidas miCoachaerobic capacity, see physical measures, aero-

bic power (aerobic capacity)aerobic power, see physical measures, aerobic

power (aerobic capacity)aggressive baseliner, see tennis, aggressive

baselineraggressiveness, see psychology, aggressivenessagility, see physical measures, agilityall-court player, see tennis, all-court playeranaerobic power, see physical measures, anaer-

obic poweranalysis of covariance, see statistics, analysis of

covariance (ANCOVA)analysis of variance, see statistics, analysis of

variance (ANOVA)anatomy/physiology, 1–13

adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 7–9bioelectrical impedance analysis machine,19body composition, 17–19body density, 18body fat, 17–19body fat percentage, 17, 19body mass index (BMI), 16–18bone density, 19bone types, 2bones, 2fibers, 5, 6glycolysis, 8glycolytic system, 7, 9Methylome analysis, 11muscle types, 3, 6muscles, 2–4

osteology, 2oxidative phosphorylation system, 7–9phosphagen system (ATP-PCr), 7, 9physiological markers, 11, 12skinfold body fat testing, 19underwater weighing (hydrodensitometry),18

ANCOVA, see statistics, analysis of covariance(ANCOVA)

anger, see psychology, angerAnger Rumination Scale, see psychology,

Anger Rumination Scale (ARS)ANOVA, see statistics, analysis of variance

(ANOVA)anxiety, see psychology, anxietyAPQ, see psychology, Autonomic Perception

Questionnaire (APQ)ARS, see psychology, Anger Rumination Scale

(ARS)Association of Tennis Professionals, see tennis,

ATPATP, see anatomy/physiology, adenosine triphos-

phate (ATP), see tennis, ATPATP-PCr, see anatomy/physiology, phospha-

gen system (ATP-PCr)Autonomic Perception Questionnaire, see psy-

chology, Autonomic Perception Ques-tionnaire (APQ)

BBabolat Play, see wearable technology, Babolat

Playback, see football, back (running back)back row, see physical measures, back rowback scratch test, see physical measures, back

scratch testBAI, see psychology, Beck Anxiety Inventory

(BAI)balance, see physical measures, balance

289


Balance Error Scoring System, see physicalmeasures, Balance Error Scoring System(BESS)

baseball“out”, 218“play ball”, 220“safe”, 222All Star Game, 209American League, 209around the horn, 209at bats (AB), 209bailing out, 209ball, 209base, 209base coach, 210base hit, 210base on balls (BB), 209base runner, 210baserunner, 210baserunning error, 210bases loaded, 210batter, 210batter in the hole, 210batter on deck, 210batter’s box, 210battery, 210batting average (BA, AVG), 210batting stance, 210batting team, 210behind in the count, 210bench, 211big leagues, 211bloop single, 211bunt, 211call, 211called game, 211catcher, 123, 211caught looking, 211caught off base, 211caught stealing (CS), 211center fielder, 211Championship Series, 211changeup, 211check swing, 211choking up, 212chop single, 212closed batting stance, 212closer, 212clutch hitter, 212coach, 212command, 212control, 212cover the bases, 212crowd the plate, 212

curveball (curve), 212cut fastball (cutter), 212cut-off position, 212defense, 213defensive indifference, 213designated hitter (DH), 213diamond, 213dig in, 213Division Series, 213double (2B), 213double play, 213double-header, 213double-switch, 213dugout, 213earned run average (ERA), 213expected runs, 213extra-base hit, 213fair ball, 214fair territory, 214fan, 214fantasy baseball, 214fastball, 214fielder, 214fielder’s choice, 214fielding error, 214first base, 214first baseman, 214five-tool player, 214fly ball, 214fly out, 214force out, 214forfeited game, 214foul ball, 214foul territory, 214foul tip, 214frame (a pitch), 215free agent, 215full count, 215game (G), 215grand slam, 215ground ball, 215ground out, 215ground-rule double, 215hit (H), 126, 215hitter, 215hitting for power, 215hitting slump, 215hitting streak, 215holding runner on base, 215home plate, 215home run (HR), 127, 215illegal pitch, 216in the hole, 216infielder, 216

Index 291

inning, 216intentional base on balls, 216interference, 216knuckleball, 216lead-off hitter, 216leave the yard (go yard), 216left fielder (LF), 216left on base (LOB), 216lefty, 216line drive, 216lineup, 216live ball, 216live ball era, 216making the turn, 217manager, 217manufactured run, 217men on base, 217middle infielder, 217middle reliever, 217MLB, 122, 217National League, 217neighborhood play, 217no hitter, 217no-no, 217obstruction, 217offense, 217official scorer, 217on the field (team), 217on-base percentage (OBP), 217open batting stance, 218out, 218outfielder, 123, 218overslide, 218pace of play, 218passed ball, 218PECOTA, 219perfect game, 219pick off assignment, 219pick off play, 219pinch hitter, 219pinch runner, 219pitch, 219pitch count, 219pitcher (P), 122, 123, 219pitcher’s duel, 219pitcher’s park, 219pitcher’s plate, 219pitching depth, 220pitching from the stretch, 220pitching mound, 220pitching rotation, 220pivot foot, 220place hitter, 220plate, 220

plate appearance, 220platooning, 220pop-up, 220position number, 220position player, 220power hitter, 220productive at bat, 220pull hitter, 221pull the string, 221quick pitch, 221reaching for the fences, 221regulation game, 221relief pitcher, 221replay review, 221retouch, 221reverse curve, 221right fielder (RF), 221rounding the bases, 221run, 127, 221run batted in (RBI), 126, 221run down, 221runner, 221Sabermetrics, 119, 175sacrifice bunt, 221sacrifice fly, 222scoring position, 222screwball, 222season, 222second base, 222second baseman, 222secondary lead, 222semi-intentional walk, 222shadow ball, 222shift, 222shine ball, 222shortstop, 123, 222shutout, 222side-arm delivery, 223single (1B), 223slider, 223slugging percentage (SLG), 223small ball, 223spin rate, 223spitball, 223squeeze play, 223starting pitcher, 223steal (stolen base, SB), 223stepping in the bucket, 223strike, 223strike zone, 224strikeout (K), 224suspended game, 224sweep, 224switch hitter, 224


switch pitcher, 224tag out, 224tagging up, 224take a lead (off base), 224take a pitcher deep, 224Texas Leaguer, 224third base, 225third baseman, 225three-bagger, 225throw, 225throwing error, 225tie game, 225tip a pitch, 225total bases (TB), 225triple (3B), 225triple crown, 225triple-play, 225two-bagger, 225umpire, 225umpire-in-chief, 225up the middle, 225up to bat (team), 226VORP, 226walk, 226walk-off balk, 226walk-off hit, 226walk-off home run, 226WAR (WARP), 226WHIP, 226Wild Card Game, 226wild pitch, 226windup position, 226World Series, 226

baseball analytics, 117–137baseliner, see tennis, baselinerbasketball

center, 97, 100FIBA, 95, 97NBA, 96, 97point guard, 97, 98, 100power forward, 97, 99, 100shooting guard, 97, 100small forward, 97, 98, 100tip-off, 97

basketball analytics, 95–117basketball term

air ball, 201alley-oop pass, 201assist, 201assist percentage, 201backcourt, 201backdoor play, 201bank shot, 201baseline (endline), 201

basket, 201bench, 201block, 202block percentage, 202bonus, 202bounce pass, 202box out, 202brick, 202charging, 202coast-to-coast, 202collective bargaining agreement, 202cut, 202dead-ball foul, 202deny the ball, 202double dribble, 202double foul, 202double-team, 202downtown, 202DPOY, 202draft, 203dribble, 203dunk (slam dunk), 203fast break, 203field goal, 203flagrant foul, 203foul, 203foul out, 203foul trouble, 203free agent, 203free throw, 203frontcourt, 203give-and-go, 204goaltending, 204gunner, 204hang time, 204high post, 204hook shot, 204hoop, 204jump ball, 204jump hook, 204jump shot, 204lane, 204loose-ball foul, 204lottery, 204low post, 204man-to-man defense, 204NBA, 204NBPA, 204net, 204open shot, 205outlet pass, 205over the limit (penalty situation), 205overtime, 205pace factor (pace of play), 205

Index 293

pick (set a pick), 205pick-and-roll, 205pivot, 205player control foul, 205point guard, 205possessions, 205power forward, 205press, 205quadruple-double, 205quarter (period), 205rebound, 206rejection, 206sag, 206salary cap, 206screen, 206set-shot, 206shot clock, 206sixth man, 206sky-hook, 206skywalk, 206squaring up, 206SRS, 206steal percentage, 206strength of schedule, 206stutter, 206switch, 206team fouls, 207technical foul, 207three-point field goal percentage, 207three-point field goals, 207three-point shot, 207three-point shot attempts, 207three-second violation, 207three-sixty (360), 207tip-in, 207tip-off, 207trailer, 207transition, 207traveling, 207triple-double, 207turnover, 207two-point attempts, 207two-point field goal attempts, 207two-point field goal percentage, 207veteran free agent, 208weakside, 208wing, 208zone defense, 208

BATAK light board reaction test, see physicalmeasures, BATAK light board reactiontest

Bayesian statistics, see statistics, Bayesianstatistics

BDI, see psychology, Beck Depression Inven-tory (BDI)

BEAST90 protocol, see soccer, BEAST90 proto-col

Beck Anxiety Inventory, see psychology, BeckAnxiety Inventory (BAI)

Beck Depression Inventory, see psychology,Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)

BESS, see physical measures, Balance ErrorScoring System (BESS)

biceps curl, see physical measures, biceps curlbinary variable, see statistics, binary variablebioelectrical impedance analysis machine,

see anatomy/physiology, bioelectricalimpedance analysis machine

BMI, see anatomy/physiology, body mass in-dex (BMI)

body composition, see anatomy/physiology,body composition, see physical mea-sures, body composition

body density, see anatomy/physiology, bodydensity

body fat, see anatomy/physiology, body fatbody fat percentage, see anatomy/physiology,

body fat percentagebody mass index, see anatomy/physiology,

body mass index (BMI)bone density, see anatomy/physiology, bone

densitybone types, see anatomy/physiology, bone

typesbones, see anatomy/physiology, bonesBonferroni correction, see statistics, Bonferroni

correctionbootstrap sampling, see statistics, bootstrap

samplingBosco sixty-second continuous jump test, see

physical measures, Bosco sixty-secondcontinuous jump test

Bosu ball, see physical measures, Bosu ballbroad jump, see physical measures, broad

jump

CCAAS, see psychology, Competitive Aggres-

siveness and Anger Scale (CAAS)cardiorespiratory endurance, see physical mea-

sures, cardiorespiratory endurancecardiorespiratory fitness, see physical mea-

sures, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF)cardiovascular endurance, see physical mea-

sures, cardiovascular enduranceCatapult, see wearable technology, Catapult


catastrophe model, see psychology, catastro-phe model

catcher, see baseball, catchercategorical variable, see measurement, nomi-

nal scale (categorical variable)Cattell Sixteen Personality Factor Question-

naire, see psychology, Sixteen PersonalityFactor Questionnaire

center, see basketball, centercharacteristics, see measurement, characteris-

ticschest press, see physical measures, chest presschi-square distribution, see statistics, chi-

square distributionchi-square test, see statistics, chi-square testclassical statistics, see statistics, classical statis-

ticscognitive ability, see psychology, cognitive

abilityColley rating method, see market value, Colley

rating methodcomma-delimited text, see statistics, comma-

delimited text (csv)Competitive Aggressiveness and Anger Scale,

see psychology, Competitive Aggressive-ness and Anger Scale (CAAS)

Competitive State Anxiety inventory, see psy-chology, Competitive State Anxiety in-ventory (CSAI-2R)

comprehensibility, see measurement, compre-hensibility

compression attire, see wearable technology,compression attire

confidence, see psychology, confidenceconfusion, see psychology, confusionconstraint, see psychology, constraintcontinuous jump test, see physical measures,

continuous jump testcoordination, see physical measures, coordina-

tioncorrelation, see statistics, Pearson product-

moment correlationcountermovement jump test, see physical mea-

sures, countermovement jump testcounterpuncher, see tennis, counterpunchercreativity, see psychology, flowCRF, see physical measures, cardiorespiratory

fitness (CRF)cross-sectional data, see statistics, cross-sectional

datacross-validation, see statistics, cross-validationCSAI-2R, see psychology, Competitive State

Anxiety inventory (CSAI-2R)csv, see statistics, comma-delimited text (csv)

Ddata visualization, see statistics, data visualiza-

tiondefensive tackle, see football, defensive tackledependent variable, see statistics, dependent

variabledepression, see psychology, depressiondescriptive statistics, see statistics, descriptive

statisticsDot-Probe Task, see psychology, Dot-Probe

Task (DPT)DPT, see psychology, Dot-Probe Task (DPT)drive theory, see psychology, drive theorydynamic flexibility, see physical measures, dy-

namic flexibilitydynamic strength, see physical measures, dy-

namic strength

EEA Sports Player Performance Index, see mar-

ket value, EA Sports Player PerformanceIndex

Elo Ratings, see market value, Elo RatingsESE, see psychology, Exercise Self-Efficacy

(ESE)Exercise Self-Efficacy, see psychology, Exercise

Self-Efficacy (ESE)experimental research, see statistics, experi-

mental researchexplanatory model, see statistics, explanatory

modelexplanatory variable, see statistics, explanatory

variableexplosive strength, see physical measures, ex-

plosive strengthextent flexibility, see physical measures, extent

flexibilityextraversion/intraversion, see psychology, ex-

traversion/intraversionextrinsic motivation, see psychology, extrinsic

motivation

FF distribution, see statistics, F distributionF-test, see statistics, F-testFederation Internationale de Football Associa-

tion, see soccer, FIFAfatigue, see psychology, fatigueFIBA, see soccer, FIBAfibers, see anatomy/physiology, fibersflexibility, see physical measures, flexibilityflow, see psychology, flow

Index 295

Flow Questionnaire, see psychology, FlowQuestionnaire (FQ)

Flow State Scale, see psychology, Flow StateScale (FSS)

footballAstroTurf, 193audible, 193back (running back), 193backfield, 193ball carrier, 193beat, 193blackout, 193blitz, 193blocking, 193call a play, 193clipping, 193complete pass, 193conference, 193controlling the game clock, 193coverage, 194cut back, 194defense (defensive team), 194defensive players, 75, 194defensive tackle, 75division, 194double coverage, 194down, 73, 194down the field, 194draft choice, 194drive, 194drop back, 194drop kick, 194eligible receiver, 194encroachment, 194end line, 194end zone, 194extra point, 195fair catch, 195fair catch free kick, 195field, 195field goal, 73, 195field position, 195first down, 195forward pass, 195forward progress, 195foul, 195franchise, 195free agent, 195free kick, 195fumble, 74, 195goal line, 195goal post, 196going for it, 196hand-off, 196

hang time, 196holding, 196huddle, 196in bounds, 196incomplete pass, 196intentional grounding, 196interception, 74, 196kickoff, 196lateral, 196line of scrimmage, 196live ball, 196loose ball, 196loss of possession on downs, 197midfield, 197moving the ball, 197necessary line, 197neutral zone, 197NFL (National Football League), 69, 70, 72,197NFL Championship, 197NFL Combine, 77, 79–81, 101offending team, 197offense (offensive team), 197offensive guard, 77offensive players, 77, 197offside, 197open receiver, 197out of bounds, 197pass, 197pass defender, 198pass protection, 198pass route, 198pass rush, 198personal foul, 198picked off, 198pitch-out, 198place kick, 198play, 198play clock, 198play-action pass, 198players, 198playoffs, 198pocket, 198point-after-touchdown (PAT), 73, 198possession, 198previous spot, 198punt, 73, 198quarterback, 73–75, 198reading the defense, 198receiver, 199recovery, 199red zone, 199return, 199roll out, 199


rookie, 199run, 199rush, 199sacks, 199safety, 199scoring, 199scrambling, 199series, 199sideline, 199single-elimation, 199snap, 199special teams, 199spike, 199spiral, 199spot, 200stiff arm (straight arm), 200Super Bowl, 200tackle, 200tackling, 200territory, 200third-and-long, 200tied game, 200touchback, 200touchdown (TD), 73, 200turnover, 200two-point conversion, 200Wild Card, 200winning percentage, 200

football analytics, 69–94FQ, see psychology, Flow Questionnaire (FQ)FSS, see psychology, Flow State Scale (FSS)functional reach test, see physical measures,

functional reach test

GGames-Howell test, see statistics, Games-

Howell testgender equality, see market value, gender

equalitygeneralized linear model, see statistics, gener-

alized linear modelglycolysis, see anatomy/physiology, glycolysisglycolytic system, see anatomy/physiology,

glycolytic systemgoalie, see soccer, goalieGolden Slam, see tennis, Golden Slamgoniometer, see physical measures, goniome-

terGPQ, see psychology, Group Environment

Questionnaire (GPQ)Grand Slam, see tennis, Grand Slamgross body coordination, see physical mea-

sures, gross body coordination

Group Environment Questionnaire, see psy-chology, Group Environment Question-naire (GPQ)

HHochbaum rating method, see market value,

Hochbaum rating methodhome run, see baseball, home runhomogeneity of slopes, see statistics, homo-

geneity of slopeshomogeneity of variance, see statistics, homo-

geneity of variancehomogeneity of variances, see statistics, homo-

geneity of varianceshomoscedasticity, see statistics, homoscedas-

ticityhydrodensitometry, see anatomy/physiology,

underwater weighing (hydrodensitome-try)

IIAT, see psychology, Implicit Association Test

(IAT)Iceberg Profile, see psychology, Iceberg ProfileImplicit Association Test, see psychology, Im-

plicit Association Test (IAT)income disparity, see market value, income

disparityindependent observations, see statistics, inde-

pendent observationsindependent variable, see statistics, indepen-

dent variableindividual zones of optimal functioning, see

psychology, individual zones of optimalfunctioning (IZOF)

inferential statistics, see statistics, inferentialstatistics

infielder, see baseball, infielderinjury, see physical measures, injuryinstrumental aggression, see psychology, in-

strumental aggressionintelligence, see psychology, intelligenceInternational Tennis Federation, see tennis, ITFinterval scale, see measurement, interval scaleintrinsic motivation, see psychology, intrinsic

motivationinverted-U hypothesis, see psychology, inverted-

U hypothesisITF, see tennis, ITFIZOF, see psychology, individual zones of opti-

mal functioning (IZOF)

Index 297

KKeener rating method, see market value,

Keener rating methodKendall’s tau, see statistics, Kendall’s tauKolmogorov-Smirnov test, see statistics,

Kolmogorov-Smirnov testKruskal-Wallis test, see statistics, Kruskal-

Wallis test

Llane agility drill, see physical measures, lane

agility drilllat pull-down, see physical measures, lat pull-

downleg curl, see physical measures, leg curlleg extension, see physical measures, leg exten-

sionleg press, see physical measures, leg presslevel of measurement, see measurement, scale

(level of measurement)levels of measurement, see statistics, levels of

measurementLevene test, see statistics, Levene testLevene’s test, see statistics, Levene’s testlight board reaction timer, see physical mea-

sures, light board reaction timerlinear mixed effects model, see statistics, linear

mixed effects modellinear regression, see statistics, linear regres-

sionlogistic regression, see statistics, logistic regres-

sionlongitudinal data, see statistics, longitudinal

data

Mmachine learning, see statistics, machine learn-

ingMajor League Baseball, see baseball, MLBMANCOVA, see statistics, multivariate analy-

sis of covariance (MANCOVA)MANOVA, see statistics, multivariate analysis

of variance (MANOVA)market value, 173–186

Colley rating method, 175EA Sports Player Performance Index, 175Elo Ratings, 176gender equality, 178Hochbaum rating method, 176income disparity, 177, 178Keener rating method, 177Markov model, 176Massey rating method, 175

Park-Newman rating method, 176performance ranking, 173–175performance rating, 173–175socioeconomic status, 163, 165, 166tennis player earnings, 167, 168

Markov model, see market value, Markovmodel, see statistics, Markov model

Massey rating method, see market value,Massey rating method

maximal oxygen consumption, see physicalmeasures, maximal oxygen consump-tion (VO2 max)

maximal vertical reach, see physical measures,maximal vertical reach

maximum vertical leap, see physical measures,maximum vertical leap

measurement, 49–52accessibility, 51comprehensibility, 51interval scale, 54nominal scale (categorical variable), 54, 55ordinal scale, 54, 55ratio scale, 54, 55reliability, 51scale (level of measurement), 54standardization, 51tractability, 51transparency, 51validity, 51

measurement theory, see psychology, measure-ment theory

Methylome analysis, see anatomy/physiology,Methylome analysis

midfielder, see soccer, midfielderMinnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory,

see psychology, Minnesota MultiphasicPersonality Inventory (MMPI)

MLB, see baseball, MLBMMPI, see psychology, Minnesota Multiphasic

Personality Inventory (MMPI)model, see statistics, modelMonte Carlo simulation, see statistics, Monte

Carlo simulationmotivation, see psychology, motivationMotus Sleeve, see wearable technology, Motus

Sleevemulti-level categorical variable, see statistics,

multi-level categorical variablemulticollinearity, see statistics, multicollinear-

itymultidimensional anxiety theory, see psychol-

ogy, multidimensional anxiety theorymultiple imputation, see statistics, multiple

imputation


multiple limb coordination, see physical mea-sures, multiple limb coordination

multivariate analysis of covariance, see statis-tics, multivariate analysis of covariance(MANCOVA)

multivariate analysis of variance, see statis-tics, multivariate analysis of variance(MANOVA)

muscle types, see anatomy/physiology, mus-cle types

muscles, see anatomy/physiology, musclesmuscular endurance, see physical measures,

muscular endurancemuscular power, see physical measures, mus-

cular powermuscular strength, see physical measures,

muscular strengthMyontec Mbody Pro, see wearable technology,

Myontec Mbody Pro

Nnarcissism, see psychology, narcissismNarcissistic Personality Inventory, see psychol-

ogy, Narcissistic Personality Inventory(NPI)

National Basketball Association, see basket-ball, NBA

National Basketball Players Association, seebasketball, NBPA

National Football League, see football, NFLNBA, see basketball, NBANBPA, see basketball, NBPAneuroticism, see psychology, neuroticismNFL, see football, NFLNFL Combine, see football, NFL Combinenominal scale, see measurement, nominal scale

(categorical variable)nonlinear mixed model, see statistics, nonlin-

ear mixed modelnonparametric, see statistics, nonparametricnormality, see statistics, normalitynormality of distribution, see statistics, nor-

mality of distributionNPI, see psychology, Narcissistic Personality

Inventory (NPI)

Oobservational research, see statistics, observa-

tional researchoffensive guard, see football, offensive guardon-base percentage plus slugging (OPS), 218OptimEye S5, see wearable technology, Optim-

Eye S5

ordinal scale, see measurement, ordinal scaleosteology, see anatomy/physiology, osteologyoutfielder, see baseball, outfielderoutlier, see statistics, outlieroxidative phosphorylation system, see anatomy

/physiology, oxidative phosphorylationsystem

Pparameter, see statistics, parameterparametric, see statistics, parametricPark-Newman rating method, see market

value, Park-Newman rating methodPearson product-moment correlation, see statis-

tics, Pearson product-moment correla-tion

performance ranking, see market value, perfor-mance ranking

performance rating, see market value, perfor-mance rating

phosphagen system, see anatomy/physiology,phosphagen system (ATP-PCr)

physical measures, 15–40aerobic power, 31aerobic power (aerobic capacity), 31, 32,159, 161agility, 16, 34, 77, 79, 99, 104, 122, 162anaerobic power, 29–31, 34, 80, 81, 105, 106,141, 142, 159back row, 24back scratch test, 23balance, 16, 26, 28, 29, 160Balance Error Scoring System (BESS), 28BATAK light board reaction test, 34biceps curl, 25body composition, 16Bosco sixty-second continuous jump test, 30Bosu ball, 33broad jump, 81cardiorespiratory endurance, 16, 141cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), 31, 32cardiovascular endurance, 31, 32chest press, 24continuous jump test, 30coordination, 16, 35, 36, 160countermovement jump test, 30countermovement vertical jump test, 142dynamic flexibility, 16dynamic strength, 16explosive strength, 16extent flexibility, 16, 23, 26flexibility, 16, 23, 26functional reach test, 26goniometer, 26

Index 299

gross body coordination, 16injury, 26lane agility drill, 34lat pull-down, 25leg curl, 24leg extension, 24leg press, 24light board reaction timer, 33lower strength, 20maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max),31, 32maximal vertical reach, 99maximum vertical leap, 34, 105, 161multiple limb coordination, 16muscular endurance, 16, 22, 81, 99, 104, 122,123, 160muscular power, 22, 30, 99, 122, 123, 160muscular strength, 16, 20, 81, 99, 160power, 30Proprio reactive balance test, 26, 29reaction time, 33–35, 76reaction time ruler test, 33recovery from injury, 26repeated-sprint ability (RSA), 140running speed, 16SAFTE, 39shoulder press, 25shoulder flexibility, 23shuttle run, 34, 79single leg stand, 26, 28SPARQ rating system, 33speed, 35, 79, 80, 106, 122sport-specific skills, 35, 38sprints, 29, 79, 80, 106squats, 25standing vertical leap, 34, 105Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT), 28static squat jump, 30, 141static strength, 16strength, 16, 20strength testing repetitions, 20, 21SVT reaction test, 34three-quarter-court sprint, 34triceps dips, 25upper body strength, 20, 77vertical jump test, 30, 80, 99, 105, 106Wingate anaerobic cycle test, 31

physiological markers, see anatomy/physiology,physiological markers

pitcher, see baseball, pitcherplayer expenses, see tennis, player expensesPlaySight, see wearable technology, PlaySightpoint guard, see basketball, point guard

Poisson distribution, see statistics, Poisson dis-tribution

Poisson regression, see statistics, Poisson re-gression

population, see statistics, populationpopulation distribution, see statistics, popula-

tion distributionpost hoc analyses, see statistics, post hoc anal-

ysesposterior distribution, see statistics, posterior

distributionpower, see physical measures, powerpower forward, see basketball, power forwardpredictive model, see statistics, predictive

modelprior distribution, see statistics, prior distribu-

tionprobability, see statistics, probabilityproportion, see statistics, proportionProprio reactive balance test, see physical mea-

sures, Proprio reactive balance testProZone image recognition system, see soccer,

ProZone image recognition systempsychographics, see statistics, psychographicspsychological toughness, see psychology, psy-

chological toughnesspsychology, 41–52

aggressiveness, 47, 50anger, 46, 50Anger Rumination Scale (ARS), 47, 50anxiety, 44, 45, 50, 99Autonomic Perception Questionnaire (APQ),50Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), 45, 50Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), 50, 98catastrophe model, 45Cattell’s Sixteen Personality Factor Ques-tionnaire, 75, 98, 99cognitive ability, 50Competitive Aggressiveness and AngerScale (CAAS), 47, 50, 75, 76, 99, 162Competitive State Anxiety inventory (CSAI-2R), 50, 75, 76, 98, 99, 123, 161, 162confidence, 42, 50, 99confusion, 46, 50constraint, 50depression, 46, 50, 141Dot-Probe Task (DPT), 50drive theory, 45Exercise Self-Efficacy (ESE), 50extraversion/intraversion, 50extrinsic motivation, 42fatigue, 46, 50flow, 46


Flow Questionnaire (FQ), 50Flow State Scale (FSS), 46, 50Group Environment Questionnaire (GPQ),50, 98Iceberg Profile, 46, 50Implicit Association Task (IAT), 75, 76, 98,123, 163Implicit Association Test (IAT), 49, 50individual zones of optimal functioning(IZOF), 45instrumental aggression, 47intelligence, 48, 50intrinsic motivation, 42inverted-U hypothesis, 45Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inven-tory (MMPI), 43, 50motivation, 42, 50, 52multidimensional anxiety theory, 45narcissism, 43, 50Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), 43,50neuroticism, 50psychological toughness, 44psychoticism, 50reactive aggression, 47Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), 48, 50,52self-efficacy, 42, 50self-esteem, 50, 52situation-specific motivation , 42, 50Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS), 42, 50Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire,47, 50, 52Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT), 45,50, 99Sport Motivation Scale (SMS), 42, 50, 99Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ), 43,50, 98, 123, 161Sports Anxiety Scale (SAS), 50state confidence, 50State Sport Confidence Inventory (SSCI),43, 50State Trait Anxiety Index (STAI), 44, 45, 50tension, 46, 50, 141Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 43, 50,99Trait Sport Confidence Inventory (TSCI), 43,50vigor, 46, 50Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III (WAIS-III), 50Wonderlic Cognitive Ability Test, 50, 74, 75,163

psychoticism, see psychology, psychoticism

Qquarterback, see football, quarterback

RR, see statistics, Rratio scale, see measurement, ratio scalereaction time, see physical measures, reaction

timereaction time ruler test, see physical measures,

reaction time ruler testreactive aggression, see psychology, reactive

aggressionReadiband, see wearable technology, Read-

ibandreceiver, see football, receiverrecovery from injury, see physical measures,

recovery from injuryregression, see statistics, regressionreliability, see measurement, reliabilityrepeated-sprint ability, see physical measures,

repeated-sprint ability (RSA)resampling, see statistics, resamplingRosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, see psychology,

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES)RSA, see physical measures, repeated-sprint

ability (RSA)RSES, see psychology, Rosenberg Self-Esteem

Scale (RSES)running back, see football, back (running back)running speed, see physical measures, running

speed

SSabermetrics, see baseball, SabermetricsSAFTE, see physical measures, SAFTEsampling, see statistics, samplingsampling distribution, see statistics, sampling

distributionSAS, see psychology, Sports Anxiety Scale

(SAS)scale, see measurement, scale (level of mea-

surement)SCAT, see psychology, Sport Competition Anx-

iety Test (SCAT)scatter plot, see statistics, scatter plotSEBT, see physical measures, Star Excursion

Balance Test (SEBT)self-efficacy, see psychology, self-efficacyself-esteem, see psychology, self-esteemSelf-Esteem Scale , see psychology, Rosenberg

Self-Esteem Scale (RSES)serve and volleyer, see tennis, serve and

volleyer

Index 301

Shapiro-Wilk test, see statistics, Shapiro-Wilktest

shooting guard, see basketball, shooting guardShotTracker, see wearable technology, Shot-

Trackershoulder press, see physical measures, shoul-

der pressshoulder flexibility, see physical measures,

shoulder flexibilityshuttle run, see physical measures, shuttle runSIMS, see psychology, Situational Motivation

Scale (SIMS)simulation, see statistics, simulationsingle leg stand, see physical measures, single

leg standsituation-specific motivation, see psychology,

situation-specific motivationSituational Motivation Scale, see psychology,

Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS)Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, see

psychology, Sixteen Personality FactorQuestionnaire

skinfold body fat testing, see anatomy/physiology,skinfold body fat testing

slam dunk, see basketball, slam dunksmall forward, see basketball, small forwardSMS, see psychology, Sport Motivation Scale

(SMS)soccer

added time, 227advantage rule, 227against the run of play, 227aggregate score, 227anchorman, 227angle of the pass, 227angle of the run, 227angling, 227arc (penalty arch), 227area chica, 227assist, 149, 150, 228assistant referee, 228attacker, 228attacking half, 228attacking midfielder, 228attacking team, 228auto goal, 228away, 228away goal, 228away goals rule, 228AYSO, 228B team, 228back, 228back and face, 228back four, 228

back header, 228back heel, 228back pass (pass back), 228back pass rule, 228back tackle, 228ball watching, 229banana kick, 229BEAST90 protocol, 140, 141bench, 229bend, 229booking, 229box, 229box-to-box midfielder, 229break, 229breakaway, 229burn, 229captain, 229cards, 229center, 229center back (central defender), 229center circle, 229center forward, 140, 229center half (center back), 140, 229center line, 229center midfielder, 140, 229challenge, 229channels, 229charge, 230chest (chest trap), 230chilena, 230chip, 230chip pass, 230clear, 230cleats, 230closing down, 230club, 230combination play, 230commit, 230conditioned play, 230Confederations Cup, 230control, 230control (the ball), 230corner, 230corner arc, 230corner ball, 231corner flag, 231corner kick, 231corridor of uncertainty, 231counterattack, 231cover, 230cross, 230crossbar, 231cul-de-sac, 231cup-tied, 231


danger zone, 231decoy run, 231defend deep, 231defender (defenseman), 142, 231defensive half, 231defensive midfielder, 231deflection, 231diamond, 231direct free kick, 231disallow, 231dive, 232diving header, 232draw (D), 232dribble, 232dribbling, 232drop back, 232dummy, 232early ball, 232eighteen-yard line, 232El Clasico, 232end line, 232equalizer, 232European Champions League, 232expulsion, 232extra time, 232FA, 232fair charging, 232fair play, 233fake (feint), 233fakeover, 233FC, 233FIFA, 142, 233FIFA Ballon d’Or, 233FIFA World Cup, 233final whistle, 233first half, 233first team, 233first touch, 233fist (boxing), 233fixture, 233flat four, 233flick pass, 233footwork, 233formation, 233forward, 234forward line, 234foul, 234free agent, 234free kick, 234front block tackle, 234front header, 234front tackle, 234full back, 234full time, 234

Futebol, 234Galacticos, 234give and go (one-two pass, wall pass), 234goal, 149, 234goal area (penalty box, 234goal average, 234goal kick, 234goal line, 234goal posts, 234goal side, 235goalaso, 235goalie (goalkeeper, keeper), 235golden goal, 235ground ball, 235hacking, 235half, 235half volley, 235half-time (interval, break), 235halfback, 235halfway line, 235hand ball, 235hat-trick, 235head, 235head coach, 235high press, 235hits the post, 235holding midfielder, 236holding the line, 235horseshoe formation, 236indirect kick, 236injury time, 236intercept, 236jockeying, 236kick-off, 236last defender, 236Laws of the Game, 236league, 236League Cup, 236left back, 236left winger, 236line of recovery, 236linesman, 236lineup, 236lofted pass, 236long ball, 237long shot, 237man short, 237man-on, 237manager, 237mark (marking), 237match, 237match officials, 237measured ball, 237metodo system, 237

Index 303

midfield, 237midfield anchor, 237midfielder, 142, 237mistimed tackle, 237multiball system, 237Mundial, 237narrowing the angle, 237netting, 237obstruction, 238off the ball, 238off-season, 238offensive player, 238official caution, 238offside, 238olympic goal, 238on offense, 238one-touch, 238one-touch pass, 238one-touch soccer, 238one-two, 238open space, 238out of bounds (out of play), 238overtime, 238pace, 238pass, 238pass and move, 238pass back (back pass), 239penalty area, 239penalty kick, 239penetration, 239peripheral vision, 239play maker, 239plyometrics, 239pressure training, 239ProZone image recognition system, 140receiving, 239running with the ball, 239save, 239shadow play, 239shielding, 239show, 239sliding tackle, 239soccer ball, 239support play, 239sweeper, 142, 239switching play, 239tackle, 239tackling, 239taking a player on, 240target man, 240through pass, 240throw-in, 240trials, 240turning an opponent, 240

volley, 240world rankings, 175

soccer analytics, 137–157socioeconomic status, see market value, socioe-

conomic statusSOQ, see psychology, Sport Orientation Ques-

tionnaire (SOQ)SPARQ rating system, see physical measures,

SPARQ rating systemspatial data, see statistics, spatial dataSpearman rank-order correlation, see statistics,

Spearman rank-order correlationSpearman’s rho, see statistics, Spearman’s rhospeed, see physical measures, speedSport Competition Anxiety Test, see psychol-

ogy, Sport Competition Anxiety Test(SCAT)

Sport Motivation Scale, see psychology, SportMotivation Scale (SMS)

Sport Orientation Questionnaire, see psychol-ogy, Sport Orientation Questionnaire(SOQ)

sport-specific skills, see physical measures,sport-specific skills

Sports Anxiety Scale, see psychology, SportsAnxiety Scale (SAS)

SportsVU, see wearable technology, SportsVUsprints, see physical measures, sprintssquats, see physical measures, squatsSSCI, see psychology, State Sport Confidence

Inventory (SSCI)STAI, see psychology, State Trait Anxiety Index

(STAI)standardization, see measurement, standard-

izationstanding vertical leap, see physical measures,

standing vertical leapStar Excursion Balance Test, see physical mea-

sures, Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT)state confidence, see psychology, state confi-

denceState Sport Confidence Inventory, see psychol-

ogy, State Sport Confidence Inventory(SSCI)

State Trait Anxiety Index, see psychology, StateTrait Anxiety Index (STAI)

static squat jump, see physical measures, staticsquat jump

static strength, see physical measures, staticstrength

statistics, 53–67analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), 187analysis of variance (ANOVA), 60, 61, 64,187


Bayesian statistics, 67, 187binary variable, 187Bonferroni correction, 64bootstrap sampling, 187chi-square distribution, 187chi-square test, 64, 187classical statistics, 67, 187comma-delimited text (csv), 187cross-sectional data, 187cross-validation, 188data visualization, 188dependent variable, 66descriptive statistics, 188experimental research, 188explanatory model, 188explanatory variable, 188F distribution, 188F-test, 188Games-Howell test, 61generalized linear model, 188homogeneity of slopes, 188homogeneity of variance, 57, 61homogeneity of variances, 189homoscedasticity, 65, 66independent observations, 60, 65independent variable, 66inferential statistics, 189Kendall’s tau, 57, 58Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, 59Kruskal-Wallis test, 61levels of measurement, 189Levene’s test, 59, 61, 189linear mixed effects model, 67, 189linear regression, 189logistic regression, 66, 189longitudinal data, 189machine learning, 67Markov model, 189model, 189Monte Carlo simulation, 189multi-level categorical variable, 189multicollinearity, 63, 66multiple imputation, 189multivariate analysis of covariance (MAN-COVA), 190multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA),64, 66, 190nonlinear mixed model, 190nonparametric, 61, 67normality, 57, 61, 65normality of distribution, 190observational research, 190outlier, 60, 66, 190parameter, 190

parametric, 67Pearson product-moment correlation, 55,57, 190Poisson distribution, 190Poisson regression, 190population, 190population distribution, 190posterior distribution, 190predictive model, 191prior distribution, 191probability, 191proportion, 191psychographics, 191R, 77, 82, 92, 101, 102, 110, 114, 124, 128, 130,145, 151, 154, 166, 169, 172, 191regression, 64–66, 191resampling, 191sampling, 191sampling distribution, 191scatter plot, 191Shapiro-Wilk test, 59simulation, 192spatial data, 192Spearman rank-order correlation, 192Spearman’s rho, 57, 58t distribution, 192t-test, 58–60, 192time series, 192traditional statistics, 192Tukey test, 61

strength, see physical measures, strengthstrength testing repetitions, see physical mea-

sures, strength testing repetitionsSuper Bowl, see football, Super BowlSuper Slam, see tennis, Super SlamSVT reaction test, see physical measures, SVT

reaction test

Tt distribution, see statistics, t distributiont-test, see statistics, t-testtackle, see football, tackleTAT, see psychology, Thematic Apperception

Test (TAT)tennis

ace, 241ad court, 241advantage, 241aggressive baseliner, 160, 162all, 241all-court player, 160, 162, 241alley, 241alternate, 241angles, 241

Index 305

approach shot, 241ATP, 166–168, 241Australian Formation, 241backhand, 241, 242backswing, 241bagel, 242ball toss, 242ballperson, 242baseline, 242baseliner, 160, 162, 242break, 242breakpoint, 242bye, 242call, 242center line, 242challenge, 242Challenger Tour, 242change-over, 242chip and charge, 242clip the line, 242code violation, 242counterpuncher, 160–162, 242court, 242crosscourt, 243Davis Cup, 243deep, 243deuce, 243double bagel, 243double fault, 243doubles, 243down the line, 243drop shot, 243Entry System, 243fault, 243Fed Cup, 243flat, 243follow-through, 243foot fault, 243forced error, 243forehand, 243Futures, 243game, 243Golden Slam, 158, 244Grand Slam, 158, 244groundstroke, 244Hawk-Eye, 244hold, 244I-Formation, 244inside out, 244International Tennis Federation, 160ITF, 244let, 244linesmen (line judge), 244lob, 244

love, 244Match Point, 244miss-hit, 244mixed doubles, 244natural gut, 244net, 245no man’s land, 245NTRP Rating, 245out, 245overhead (smash), 245overrule, 245passing shot, 245player expenses, 163, 165racquet, 245racquet head, 245rally, 245receiver, 245referee, 245return, 245second serve, 245serve, 245serve and volleyer, 160, 161set, 245set point, 245singles, 245slice, 245spin, 246split step, 246stance, 246stroke, 246Super Slam, 158T, 246tennis ball, 246Tennis Hall of Fame, 246tiebreaker, 246topspin, 246umpire (official), 246underspin, 246unforced error, 246volley, 246Wildcard, 246winner, 246WTA, 166–168, 246

tennis analytics, 157–173tennis player earnings, see market value, ten-

nis player earningstension, see psychology, tensionThematic Apperception Test, see psychology,

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)three-quarter-court sprint, see physical mea-

sures, three-quarter-court sprinttime series, see statistics, time seriestouchdown, see football, touchdowntractability, see measurement, tractability


traditional statistics, see statistics, traditionalstatistics

Trait Sport Confidence Inventory, see psychol-ogy, Trait Sport Confidence Inventory(TSCI)

transparency, see measurement, transparencytriceps dips, see physical measures, triceps

dipsTSCI, see psychology, Trait Sport Confidence

Inventory (TSCI)Tukey test, see statistics, Tukey test

UU, see psychology, inverted-U hypothesisunderwater weighing, see anatomy/physiology,

underwater weighing (hydrodensitome-try)

upper body strength, see physical measures,upper body strength

Vvalidity, see measurement, validityvalue, see market valueVert, see wearable technology, Vertvertical jump test, see physical measures, ver-

tical jump testvigor, see psychology, vigorVO2 max, see anatomy/physiology, VO2 max,

see physical measures, maximal oxygenconsumption (VO2 max)

WWAIS-III, see psychology, Wechsler Adult In-

telligence Scale-III (WAIS-III)wearable technology

Adidas miCoach, 37Babolat Play, 37, 39Catapult, 37compression attire, 39Motus Sleeve, 39Myontec Mbody Pro, 39OptimEye S5, 39PlaySight, 37, 39Readiband, 39ShotTracker, 39SportsVU, 37Vert, 37Zebra, 37

wearable technology (wearables), 37–40Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III, see psy-

chology, Wechsler Adult IntelligenceScale-III (WAIS-III)

Wingate anaerobic cycle test, see physical mea-sures, Wingate anaerobic cycle test

Women’s Tennis Association, see tennis, WTAWonderlic Cognitive Ability Test, see psychol-

ogy, Wonderlic Cognitive Ability TestWorld Series, see baseball, World SeriesWTA, see tennis, WTA

ZZebra, see wearable technology, Zebra

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