Sports in Society: Issues and Controversies · Women UFC fighters disrupt orthodox gender ideology,...
Transcript of Sports in Society: Issues and Controversies · Women UFC fighters disrupt orthodox gender ideology,...
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Sports in Society:Issues and Controversies
Chapter 6Violence in Sports:
Does It Affect Our Lives?
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Statements about violence in sports may be confusing because people fail to define important terms.
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Definition of Violence
Theuseofexcessivephysicalforce,whichcausesorhasobviouspotentialtocauseharmordestruction
***v Violence isnotalwaysillegalordisapproved.
§ Itmaybepraisedasnecessarytoachievegoalsv When violence involveswidespread
rejectionofnorms,itmaysignalanarchy.v When violence involvesextreme
overconformitytonorms,itmaysignalfascism.
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Violenceisprimarilyaboutcontrol.Violenceworks.Itmakespeopledowhatthey otherwisewouldnot.Itgovernsthethinlinebetween lifeanddeath. —AllanG.Johnson,sociologist,2013
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Definition of aggression
Verbalorphysicalactionsgroundedinanintenttodominate,control,or
doharmtoanotherperson***
v Aggression isnotthesameastryinghardorbeingassertiveandachievementoriented.
v Intimidation referstowords,gestures,andactionsthatthreatenviolenceoraggression.
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Violenceinsportsisnotnew,butnotallsportsareviolent.
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Violence in sports history
v Researchshowsthatviolence wasmoresevereinthepast,bothonandoffthefield.
v Ratesofsportsviolence havenotincreasedovertime.
v Violence insportsisanissuetodaypartlybecauseitmayreproducegenderideologythatprivilegesmenoverwomenatthesametimethatitendangersmanymen.
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Serioussporthasnothingtodowithfairplay.
Itisboundupwithhatred,jealousy,boastfulness,disregardofallrulesandsadisticpleasureinwitnessingviolence:
inotherwords,itiswarminustheshooting.
—GeorgeOrwell,1945
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Types of on-the-field violence
1. Brutalbodycontact
2. Borderlineviolence
3. Quasi-criminalviolence
4. Criminalviolence
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Whenviolenceisassociatedwithexcellence,athletesmaylearntoseeitasanormalpartofsports.
PhotobyJayCoakley
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Violence on-the-field as overconformity to the sport ethic (I)
v Coachesmayexpectplayerstouseviolence.v Violence oftenattractsmediaattention.v Playersmaynotlikeviolence,butmost
acceptitaspartofthegame.v Quasi-criminalandcriminalviolence are
routinelyrejectedbyathletesandspectators.
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Violence as overconformity to the sport ethic (II)
v Violence mayberelatedtoinsecuritiesinhigh-performancesports.
v Expressionsofviolence arerelatedtomasculinity,butnotlimitedtomen.
v Physicalityandfacingviolence createsdramaandexcitement,strongemotions,andspecialbondsofmutualsupportamongathletes.
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Commercialization and violence
v Someathletesarepaidtodoviolence.
v Commercializationandmoneyexpandthevisibilityofviolence insportsandencourageapromotionalrhetoricthatusesviolentimages.
v Violence isnotcausedbyTVandmoney—itexistedlongbeforeTVcoverageandbigsalaries.
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Ifwewanttounderstandviolenceinsports,wemustunderstandgenderideologyandissuesofmasculinityinculture.
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Violence & masculinityvViolence is grounded in
general cultural norms.
vViolence in sports is not limited to men.
vPlaying power and performance sports often are ways to prove masculinity.
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Doingviolenceinsportsisnotlimitedtomales.
Women UFC fighters disrupt orthodox gender ideology, but reaffirm an emphasis on domination that works to their disadvantage
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Violence in sports and gender ideology
v Doing violence in sports reproduces the belief that “men are superior to women.”
v Power and performance sports, when they encourage violence, emphasize differences between men and women.
v Sports violence reproduces an ideology of male entitlement.
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Violence is institutionalized in some sports
v Innon-contactsports,violence isusuallylimitedtousingviolentimagesinverbalstatements.
v Maleplayerslearntouseviolence asastrategy.§ Incontactsports,enforcersandgoons
arepaidtodoviolence.
v Femaleplayerslearntouseviolenceasastrategyincontactsports,buttheydon’tuseittoprovefemininity.
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Incertainsports,violenceistaughtasastrategy.
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Violence is most likely when:
Sports are organized in ways that
vProduce hubris
vSeparate athletes from the communityvEncourage athletes to think that others do
not deserve their respect
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Pain and injury as the price of violence
v Aparadoxintoday’ssports:Peopleacceptviolencewhilebeingconcernedaboutinjuriescausedbyit.
v Disablinginjuriescausedbyviolence areaseriousprobleminsomesports.
v Dominantideasaboutmasculinityarerelatedtohighinjuryratesinmen’ssports.
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90%ofallseriousinjuriesincollegefootballoccuronlegalplays.
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Brutal body contact, head trauma and brain damage
Asresearchshowsthatconcussionsandrepetitivesub-concussiveheadtraumacancausebothtemporaryandpermanentbraindamage,somepeoplearebeginningtoquestiontheexistenceofcollisionsports.p Vestedinterestsinthesesportsaresostrongthatmany
peoplerefusetoheedwhatscienceissayingp Thereisnoformofheadgearthatpreventsthebrainfrom
hittingtheinsideoftheskullduringviolentcollisionsorrapidheadrotation;helmetsprovidetheillusionofsafety.
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Controlling on-the-field violence
v Brutalbodycontactisthemostdifficultformofviolence tocontrol.§ Mostinjuriesoccuron“legalhits.”
v Themosteffectivestrategiesmightinvolve:§ Suspensionsforplayers§ Finesforteamowners
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Ultimatefighting(aka cagefighting)isorganizedaroundbrutalbodycontactandborderlineviolence;rulesexistonlytoremainalegalsportinU.S.states.
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Off-the-field violence control vs carryover
Researchsuggeststhattherelationshipbetweenviolenceon-the-fieldandviolenceoff-the-fielddependson:§ Themeaningsthatathletesgivetotheir
on-the-fieldactions§ Thecontextinwhichathletesseekand
maintainstatusoffthefield
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Learning to control violence through sports
Controlmaybelearnedifsportculturesemphasize:
p Non-violencep Self-controlp Respectforselfandothersp Physicalfitnessp Patience
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Assault&sexualassaultratesbymaleathletes
v AssaultandsexualassaultbymalesareseriousproblemsinUnitedStatesandmanyothersocieties§ Tofocusonlyonathletesdistractsattentionfromthe
largerproblemofviolenceagainstwomen§ Validandreliableresearchonthedynamicsofsuch
violenceperpetratedbyathletesisdifficulttodo§ Sexualassaultandrapearevastlyunderreported
crimesduetop genderrelationsp popularmisconceptionsaboutthemeaningof“no”p policeinvestigationsthatareinsensitivetorapevictims
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Research-based hypotheses about male athletes’ violence against women (I)
Violenceisrelatedto
1. Supportfromfellowathletesforusingphysicalforceasinterpersonalstrategy
2. Perceivedculturalsupportfordominationasabasisforstatusandidentityamongmen
3. Socialbondscreatedbycollectiveover-conformitytothenormsofthesportethic
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Violenceisrelatedto4. Collectivehubris amongathletesandthe
notionthatoutsidersdonotdeservetheirrespect
5. Thebeliefthatwomenare“groupies”insportworlds
6. Institutionalsupportforeliteathletesregardlessoftheiractions
7. Institutionalfailurestoholdathletesaccountablefordeviance
Hypotheses about male athletes’ violence against women (II)
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Violence among spectatorsv Violence isnotusuallyaproblemamongspectators
watchingnon-contactsports
v Violence isoccasionallyaproblemamongspectatorswatchingcollisionsportsbutthecausesofthatviolencevariesbysituation.
v Evidenceindicatesthat§ ratesofspectatorviolencetodayarelower
thanratesinthepast§ Nearlyallsportspectatorviolenceinvolvesmen
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Spectator violence and the context in which events occur
v Spectatorsbringwiththemthehistories,issues,controversies,andideologiesofthecommunitiesinwhichtheylive.
v Whentensionsandconflictsareintenseandwidespread,confrontationsmayoccur.§ Sporteventsmaybeusedassitesforconfrontations.
v Racial,ethnic,andclassdivisionsincreasethelikelihoodofviolence.§ Nearlyallspectatorviolenceinvolvesyoungermen.
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Thelanguageusedbysportspectatorsreferstoviolence,butaretheyareviolentpeople?
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Thereislittleresearchonspectatorviolenceinvenueswherecrowdswatcheventsonlargeoutdoorscreens.
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Researchisneededoncelebratoryviolenceassociatedwithcertainsports.Thisviolenceisdifficulttocontrol
whenitoccursindiverselocationsawayfromthestadium.
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Spectator violence worldwidep Violence is always related to the context in
which it occurs; it is most likely when n Male spectators are unemployed an alienated from
society generallyn Groups of male spectators see violent confrontations
with police or opposing fans as a means of creating excitement and gaining status
n Male spectators use the stadium as a site for expressing nationalism, racism, extreme positions on social issues, political opposition to local or national officials perceived as autocratic and corrupt.
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Spectator panicsp Morespectatorshavebeenkilledinmasspanics
andaccidentsatsporteventsthanfromanyintentionalviolence
p Panicsarelinkedwithmanyfactors,buttheyarefueledbyemotionalcontagion, ortherapidformationofsocialnormsthatlargenumbersofpeoplefollowsimultaneously
p Themostcommonfactorindeadlypanicsisalackofescaperoutes.n Whenthousandsofpeoplefleeinfearandhita
blockedexit,peoplearecrushedandtrampled.
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Post-event violencep Celebratoryriots
n Thesewereoftendefinedasoverexuberant fansexpressingteamloyalty—untilsomeonehadtopayforthedestructiontheycaused.
n Somepoliceforces(inmanycollegecampustowns,forexample)havelearnedtoanticipatetheseriotsandhowtodisbursecrowdswithoutcreatingconfrontations
p Frustrationriotsn Thesearerare;theyusuallyoccurinresponsetoaperceived
injusticethatdeterminestheoutcomeinthefinalminutesofagame;violencebetweenplayersoftenisaprecipitatingincident
p Bothoftheseformsofriotsarelinkedwiththeextenttowhichateamisasourceofspectators’identities
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Crowd dynamics and situational factors related to spectator violence
ü Crowd sizeü Composition of crowdü Meaning and importance
of eventü History of relationship
between teamsü Crowd control strategies
at event
ü Alcohol consumption by spectators
ü Location of eventü Motivations for attending
the eventü Importance of teams as
sources of identity for spectators
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Controlling crowd violence
Be aware of the following factors:1. Perceived violence on the field is
positively related to crowd violence2. Crowd dynamics and conditions3. Historical, social, economic, and political
issues underlying spectator orientations
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v Employvisiblecoachesandathletestogiveanti-violencemessages
vUseonfieldritualstohighlightconnectionsbetweenopponents
vMakespectatorsawareofanti-violencenorms;promotecivilitytowardsotherfans
v Regulatealcoholconsumption
(continued)
Controlling violenceby creating anti-violence norms (I)
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v Limittheuseofsocialcontrolmethodsthatdehumanizespectatorsorlimitattendance
v Lawenforcementofficialsmustbewelltrained
v Longtermcontrol dependsontheextenttowhichanti-violencenormsareestablishedandmaintainedinstadiumsandbypeopleinattendanceatevents
Controlling violenceby creating anti-violence norms (II)
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Terrorism at sport eventsv Terrorism isaspecialformofviolencedesignedto
intimidateatargetpopulationofpeopleforthepurposeofachievingpoliticalorsocialgoals§ Terrorismoccursmostfrequentlyindividedsocietiesorwhen
oppressedpopulationshaveanoppositionalpoliticalagenda§ Althoughsporteventsappeartobelikelytargetsforterrorism
duetotheirvisibilityandmediacoverage,fewdeadlyattackshaveoccurredinrecenthistory—acknowledgingp BostonMarathonattackin2013p Domesticterrorismatthe1996OlympicGamesinAtlantap PalestinianattackonIsraeliteamsmembersatthe1972OlympicgamesinMunich,Germany
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Terrorism as spectator violence
v Terrorism hasoccurredatsportseventsinthepast(e.g.,1972Olympics).
v Currentthreatsofterrorism haveincreasedsecurityatsportvenues.
vUnderstandingterrorism requiresawarenessofglobalissues.v Sportsdonotexistinsocialvacuums.v Globalproblemsandhostilitiesmaybe
expressedinsportcrowds.
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Thethreatofterrorismhasledtobillionsofdollarsofsecurityexpensesatmajorsporteventsworldwide.
Thisisoneofthefactorsthathasincreasedtheexpensesforhostcitiesandnations.
Herearetwoofthethousandsofpolice,military,andprivatesecuritypersonnelondutyforeveryminuteoftheOlympicGamesinLondon.
PhotobyLaraKillick
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Thecostofterrorism: