Sport Books Publisher1 Physical Activity & Sport Issues Chapter 19.

1Sport Books Publisher

Physical Activity &

Sport Issues

Chapter 19

Sport Books Publisher 2

Definitions Modern sport is a reflection of our society

– e.g., winning at all costs

Sociology is the study of the functioning of human society in various environments (e.g., workplace, church, school)

Sport sociology is the study of the functioning of society within the modern sport environment


Important Issues in Sport Sociology Specifically, we will discuss:

– Aggression and Violence in Sport

– Cheating in Sport– Gender and Sport– Race and Ethnicity in Sport– Racism in Sport– Other Victims of Discrimination– Future Sporting Trends


Aggression and Violence in Sport


Violence in sports parallels the reality of violence in society as a whole– We see examples of societal violence

watching the evening news– Sports news isn’t much better


Examples of Violence in Sport

Hockey– 2000: Marty McSorley knocks out Donald Brashear by

slashing him in the head with his stick Basketball

– 1995: Vernon Maxwell hits an abusive fan in the stands Baseball

– Roger Clemens throws the jagged piece of a broken bat at Mike Piazza

Examples can be found in almost every sport Can you think of any other examples?


Definitions

Violence = extreme aggression There are three distinct

components of aggressive behaviour:

1. Hostile Aggression

2. Instrumental Aggression

3. Assertive Behaviour


Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression



The intent is to cause harm



The intent is to cause harm The goal is to cause suffering





The intent is to cause harmThe goal is to achieve some external award





Anger is usually involved






No anger is involved







Performed outside the rules of the game




The intent is to cause harmThe goal is to achieve some external reward




Performed within the rules of the game









e.g., fist-fighting in hockey









e.g., fist-fighting in hockey e.g., aggressive checking meant to hurt the opponent


Assertive Behaviour

Often confused with aggression Increased effort and energy

expenditure No intent to harm No anger involved May result in harm, but any resultant

harm is incidental to the game e.g., Assertive checking meant to slow

down the opponent


What Causes Aggressive Behaviour in Sport?

The following causes most likely interact to cause aggressive behaviour


1. Parents and coaches

Through comments, e.g., “Bob can really take care of himself.”

By demonstrating interest in televised sporting event fights

Recommendations:1. Good role models need to convey a

negative reaction to aggression2. Other?


2. Outcome of the contest and league standing

More aggression occurs after losing contest– Frustration

Lower league standing teams demonstrate more aggression

– Frustration and a little to lose

Recommendations:1. Refocus the teams efforts into more productive

channels, e.g., a new game plan2. Others?


3. Point spread

The larger the point spread, the more aggression occurs

– Nothing to lose because game is perceived to be out of reach

Recommendations1. Refocus attention, e.g., try out a new

play

2. Others?


4. Physical contact

Sports with a lot of physical contact result in more aggression

– If player believes that the opponent is trying to hurt him/her there is an increased likelihood that aggression will occur

Recommendations:1. Encouraging athletes to increase effort vs.

aggressive acts2. Victory (vs. harm) = the ultimate way to get back

at an opponent3. Others?


5. Fan Reaction

More aggression occurs when a team plays away from home

– Linked to fan reaction, i.e., unfriendly crowd is likely to anger the visiting team

Recommendations:1. Players must learn to “tune out” this fan

reaction and focus on the game

2. Others?


Cheating in Sport


Cheating = behaviour aimed at getting around the rules or simply breaking them

Why do athletes engage in cheating?1. The win-at-all-costs mentality

2. Cheating results from the sport ethic

Ben Johnson’s world record in the 100-metre dash in the 1988 Summer Olympics before he was stripped of his win for using anabolic steroids.


The Sport Ethic

A cluster of norms that describe what it means to be a successful athlete

Four specific norms make up the sport ethic


1. An athlete makes sacrifices for the game

Athlete must love the game above all else, i.e., give it total priority

This involves:– Meeting the competition

demands without question– Making sacrifices (e.g.,

family)


2. An athlete strives for distinction Constantly seeking

improvement Continuously getting

closer to perfection– “swifter, higher, stronger”

Tatiana Grigorieva


3. An athlete accepts risks and plays through pain Athlete does not give in to pressure,

pain, or fear Success comes with:

– Overcoming the fear and challenge of competition

– Accepting the increased risk of failure and injury


4. An athlete accepts no limit in the pursuit of possibilities Obligation to pursue one’s dream to

succeed without question Anything is possible if a person is

dedicated enough


Cheating occurs when the norms of the sport ethic are accepted without question


The Most Popular Form of

Deviance


Athlete Recruitment

Rules are bent in order to sign promising talent

e.g., “getting around” the rules regarding athletic scholarships

“Ignoring” the required admission average standards

Others?


Academic Cheating

Athletes have their course work written by “academic support” staff

Little evidence that athletes engage in more academic cheating than other students

However, cheating is cheating!– Pressure to maintain a certain GPA has the

potential to cause athletes to consider cheating


Cheating in Games

Modification of equipment– Fencing: rewiring athletes– Baseball: using cork-filled bats, applying Vaseline

on the ball

Modification of play– Basketball: using physical contact to throw-off an

opponent’s jump shot when out of the referee’s sight lines

Others?


Performance-Enhancing Drugs

1. To gain a winning edge2. Just to stay competitive e.g., Ben Johnson tragedy IOC considers certain performance-

enhancing drugs illegal because:1. They give one an unfair advantage2. They have serious health side-effects

Athletes must be counselled to stay drug-free


Drug Physiological Effect Performance Effect

Anabolic steroids

↑ muscle mass ↑ muscle strength and power

Amphetamines ↑ muscle tension, HR, BP

Prepare body for competition

Cocaine Physiological stimulant

Help overcome fear

Rectal Air Injections

↓ body density ↑ swimmer’s buoyancy

Alkalines Neutralize accumulation of acids in the blood

Postpone fatigue

Blood Boosting ↑ oxygen carrying capacity

Postpone fatigue

Beta-adrenergic receptors

Physiological sedative To steady the hands


Gender and Sport


What Prevented Women From Participating in Physical Activity

in the Past?


1. Lack of rights Women were not allowed to vote, get

education, make own decisions, etc. This prevented them from making

decisions with respect to their participation in physical activity

1948 Olympics – 400m relay


2. Emphasis on reproduction

Women were described almost exclusively by their biology as reproducing organisms

Physical exertion was thought to destroy a woman’s potential to have children


3. Societal expectations Women were expected to act “lady-like”

– Female athletes were negatively labelled because they did not act in accordance with these norms

Many sports were discouraged because they prevented women from acting “lady-like”– e.g., bicycling

Female athletes were expected to emphasize their femininity – e.g., by wearing feminine clothes, which impaired

performance


Access to Sport for Women Single most important

change in the world of sport over the past generation was – INCREASED PARTICIPATION OF FEMALES

Women can now freely participate in sports that were not available to them a few decades ago


What Led to the Increased Participation of Females in

Sport?


1. New Opportunities Development of new teams and programs

since the late 1970’s is linked with increased participation– Unfortunately, women still don’t receive an equal

share of opportunities in today’s society - e.g.?

These new opportunities have resulted from political changes


2. Political Pressure and Equal Rights Legislation

In early 1980’s in Canada, pressure from women’s groups led to the investigation of sport opportunities

Findings from 1984 study:– 64% of inter-collegiate athletes were males

Findings from 1987 study:– 64% of inter-collegiate athletes were still males

Today– More females enjoy equal access in university sports– Women’s sports are not usually promoted as mass sports– Male athletes still enjoy greater financial rewards than female

athletes


3. The Global Women’s Rights Movement

Over the past 30 years: Emphasized that females excel as human beings

when they are given the opportunity to develop their physical abilities

Played role in redefining occupational and family roles for women

In 1996, U.N.’s Fourth World Conference on Women called for:

Increased efforts to provide sports opportunities New efforts to promote education, health, and human

rights for females all over the world


4. The Expanding Health and Fitness Movement Since the mid-1970’s health research

highlighted the many benefits of regular participation in physical activity for females

Today, well-toned muscles and CV fitness are no longer seen as desirable only in the male population

Some traditional standards still remain in terms of clothing fashion and marketing strategies– Examples?


5. Increased Media Coverage of Women In Sport

Today, there are increased opportunities for girls and women to follow female athletes in media

This provides them with role models and encourages them to be active athletes themselves

Unfortunately, women’s sports are still not covered as often or with the same detail as men’s sports– Examples?


In Summary

The preceding factors have: – Collectively fostered increased interest in sport

participation for females– Emphasized that gender equity in sports is an

important goal In today’s society,

– Gender equity is far from being achieved• Example?

– But the movement is underway and there is no turning back


Race and Ethnicity in Sport


Definitions Race

– Involves reference to physical traits– BUT is based on meanings that people have given

to those particular physical traits Ethnicity

– Not based on physical traits– Based on characteristics associated with cultural

traditions and background Minority group

– A socially identified group that experiences discrimination and suffers social disadvantages


Racism in Sport


The Black Athlete – View of the Past Only white athletes were

allowed to play on major league baseball teams

Black athletes played in Negro Leagues

Jackie Robinson – first black baseball player to play in the major leagues


The Black Athlete - Progress Progress has been made leading to a significant

increase in black athlete representation

However, the majority of people in power (e.g., team owners) are white, so the possibility of unequal access still exists

Black Athlete Representation Trends in Three Professional Sports

0102030405060708090

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000Year

Per

cent

age

(%)

Baseball

Football

Basketball


Other Victims of Discrimination


Canada’s First Nations Two major concerns of native peoples with

respect to sports:1. Equity concerns

• Natives are at the bottom of the social ladder• They lack financial resources, sports facilities,

coaching, and sporting event opportunities

2. Cultural concerns• Maintenance of cultural values in sports• e.g., maintenance of snow snake or lacrosse• e.g., maintenance of inclusion and sharing (vs.

competition)


Disabilities and Sport Traditionally people with disabilities have been segregated in our

society and sports

Determination shown by Terry Fox, Rick Hansen, and others has led to highlighted attention of achievements of disabled athletes

Changes that allowed disabled individuals to become less segregated members of our society:– Crippled, handicapped, retarded disabled– More sporting events are being offered– Bill C-62– More ramps and accessibility– Others?


Gay Athletes Professional sport is highly

male, heterosexual, and homophobic

“Coming out” in a sporting environment puts individual’s social status, family and fan affection, and even success at risk

Dave Kopay (1976) - First North American athlete to “come out”

Martina Navratilova

Greg Louganis


Gay Games– Formed in 1982– Since then their popularity has

increased tremendously– People of all sexual orientations are

welcomed– Key philosophy: PARTICIPATION,

SUPPORT, INCLUSIVENESS AND ENJOYMENT

– This philosophy is opposite to conventional international competitions, which stress exclusion and ranking


Older Adults in Sport Older adults were discouraged

from participating in sport due to:1. Developmental theory2. Old Medical practice

Today, physical activity is viewed as part of an overall healthy lifestyle in persons of all ages

Organized sports are being established to meet the needs of older adults

– Allow a great deal of social interactions– Do not involve intimidation, use of physical force, or

high-risk activities


Physical Activity and Sport Trends


Heath and Fitness Concerns Will Continue to Increase Greater emphasis on illness prevention vs.

treatment– Physical activity will become an integral part of

illness prevention Wellness movement

– Emphasis on involvement in participation sports vs. performance sports

Educational curricula– Less emphasis on performance sports– More emphasis on physical activities that involve

lifetime skills


Groups Seeking Alternative Sports Rejection of traditional

performance sports for alternative sports

Youths will continue to form own sport in order to avoid the constraints of traditional sports

Alternative sports will embody some aspects of pleasure and participation sports


Spectators and Spectator Sports

More people will choose to watch vs. participate in sports

Increasing variation in the sports to watch– e.g., soccer, alternative sports, fishing channel

Increased exposure to sports from other cultures

Virtual sports

Sport Books Publisher1 Physical Activity & Sport Issues Chapter 19.

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